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Critically evaluate the impact behaviourism has had on psychology
For hundreds of years philosophers speculated about "the mind" and in around the 1880's
the popular method of psychology dealt only with the conscious mind. The experiments
carried out at this time were criticised for their lack of objectivity and by the 1920's a new
brand of psychology emerged in the form of behaviourism.
Psychology became a recognised discipline in around 1897 when Wilhelm Wundt started
the first psychology lab in Germany. Wundt, along with others, attempted to investigate
the mind through introspection, and observed their own conscious mental processes.
While analysing their thoughts, images and feelings, they recorded and measured their
results under controlled conditions and aimed to sort conscious thought into its basic
elements as a chemist would with a chemical compound. This theory was known as
structuralism.
A particular critic of this method, in the early 1920's was John Broadus Watson (18781958), who felt that introspection was subjective and therefore erroneous. He also felt the
only way forward was by using methods that could be observed by more that just one
person and this could be achieved by studying behaviour. He wrote that "Behaviourism
claims that 'consciousness' is neither a definable nor a usable concept; that it is merely
another word for the 'soul' of more ancient times." (Watson 1924)
Behaviourist theories of learning are often called "stimulus-response" (S-R), and though
only classical conditioning fits the S-R model, the other major form, operant
conditioning, is often included under the same heading, though it is significantly
different. Classical conditioning is triggered involuntarily by a particular environmental
stimulus. This means that a stimulus that does not normally produce a particular response
can be paired with another stimulus that does, eventually resulting in both stimuli
inducing the same effect, even when used separately.
A good example of this was shown in the first experiments by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849-1936) in the early 20th Century. During other research work he noticed that dogs
often salivated before they were given any food, and even when they looked at food. This
sometimes went as far as the dog salivating when he heard the approaching footsteps of
the laboratory assistant bringing the food. Pavlovs observations used food as an
unconditional stimulus and the salivating was an unconditioned response, an automatic
reflex response. During the experiment a bell was paired with the food and referred to as
a conditioned stimulus. It was neutral to begin with and got no response from the dog
except for a passing interest. After the bell and food had been paired for some time the
dog began to salivate at the sound of the bell and before the food was shown. The
salivation was then a conditioned response as it was produced by the bell (conditioned
stimulus).
In 1920 Watson took this work further when he attempted a similar study on an 11month
old boy called Albert. He used a rat as the original stimulus, and Albert showed no fear of
it. He paired the rat with an unconditioned stimulus, which in this case was a hammer
hitting a four foot steel bar close to Alberts head, which frightened the child and made
him cry. After about 50 pairings Albert was afraid of the rat which had by this time
become the conditioned stimulus. The conditioned response (fear) spontaneously
transferred to other items which included a white rabbit, a sealskin coat, cotton wool,
Watsons hair and a Santa mask. Though it was less severe, the conditioning persisted
even after a month and Albert's mother removed him from the hospital.
The basic procedures used by Pavlov in classical conditioning
STAGE 1 (before learning)
FOOD
(unconditioned stimulus)
SALIVATION
(unconditioned response)
SALIVATION
(conditioned response)
BELL
(conditioned stimulus)
BELL
(conditioned stimulus)
FOOD
(unconditioned stimulus)
SALIVATION
(unconditioned response)
STAGE 2 (during learning)
STAGE 3 (after learning)
Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning is not induced by a specific stimulus;
it is more a voluntary action.
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) first became aware of this and constructed a puzzle
box designed for cats. The task for the cat was to operate a latch which released them
from the cage and allowed them to get to a piece of fish on the outside. Each time, after
eating the fish, they were immediately placed back inside the box and another piece of
fish made visible outside. The first escapes from the box seemed to be accidental with the
first escape taking five minutes. After 20 trials the cat could escape in 5 seconds.
Thorndikes puzzle box.
Thorndike accounted for this by stating that the escapes were random or trial and error.
There was no sudden insight into how escape was made but more a gradual reduction in
errors made so, therefore, a shorter escape time. He said there was "a connection between
the situation and a certain impulse to act", namely between the stimulus and the response.
He further stated that the stimulus - response connection is "stamped in when pleasure
results from the act, and stamped out when it doesn't". (1898) This is known as
Thorndikes famous law of effect. The law of effect was a crucial way of distinguishing
between classical and operant conditioning as Skinner was to do 40 years later.
Thorndike pointed out that what happens because of behaviour will influence future
behaviour, unlike classical conditioning where, what happens before behaviour
determines future behaviour.
Burrhus Fredric Skinner (1904-1990) adapted this experiment to make his own puzzle
box, now known as a "skinner box". It was designed for a rat or pigeon and contained a
lever that, when pressed, issued food into the box. This positive reinforcer strengthened
the behaviour so the animals continued to press the lever for food. Skinner said
"Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences", which was his interpretation
of Thorndikes law of effect.
Behaviourism has many strengths and has exerted a strong influence on psychology, and
has triggered scientific experiments and the use of statistical procedures and data. Since
learning is a form of behaviour change, the behaviour modification procedures developed
by behaviourists have proven useful to many teachers and has turned the attention of
psychologists to solving behaviour-related problems. Despite some of the experiments
being quite "low-level" learning, focusing largely on reflexes, the behaviouristic theories
have been generalised to many higher level functions as well. Emotional problems are
considered the result of faulty acquired behaviour patterns or the failure to learn effective
responses. The aim of behaviour therapy, also known as behaviour modification, is to
change behaviour patterns. Aversion therapy is a good example of this and is used mainly
for addictions and unwanted behaviour, and this could be used as a treatment for
alcoholism.
The patient would be given warm saline solution containing emetic and immediately
before they begin to vomit they are given a large glass of spirit alcohol e.g. Whiskey.
They would be asked to smell the whiskey and swill it around their mouth before
swallowing it. If vomiting does not occur another straight whiskey is given and, to
prolong the nausea, the patient is given a glass of beer containing emetic. More
treatments involve large doses of injected emetic, increases in the length of treatment or a
larger range of alcohol.
(UCS)
Emetic drug
(CS) + (UCS)
Alcohol + Emetic drug
(UCR)
Nausea + Vomiting
(UCR)
Nausea + Vomiting
(CS)
(CR)
Alcohol
Nausea + Vomiting
It has been found that about half the alcoholic patients that are treated in this way abstain
for at least a year.
Critics say that behaviourism over simplifies human behaviour and that it sees the human
as a robot instead of a creature with free will and purpose. It shows no clear boundaries
for what is behaviour and what is merely the body functioning in the way it should and
does not explain or even acknowledge the internal processes that cause our reactions to
different stimuli. The behaviourist approach also dictates what knowledge the "student"
will learn, in what order they will learn it and how they will learn it, and ensures that the
"student" concentrates on key points rather than information as a whole. It also deals only
with the problem and fails to search out the root cause, which often means the problem,
without continuous treatment, can reoccur. Behaviourism has also been seen as a form of
"brain washing" and makes no allowances for differences in intelligence.
Though behaviourism has its critics it undoubtedly changed the direction of psychology,
away from philosophy and towards science. J B Watson can been seen as the father of
behaviourism and perhaps even of modern day psychology, and those that came after him
built on sturdy foundations. The fact that the "skinner box" is still used today after being
adopted by pharmaceutical research companies for observing how drugs may modify
animal behaviour, is a testament to the roots of psychology.
Keywords:
critically evaluate impact behaviourism psychology hundreds years philosophers
speculated about mind around popular method psychology dealt only with conscious
mind experiments carried this time were criticised their lack objectivity brand psychology
emerged form behaviourism became recognised discipline around when wilhelm wundt
started first germany wundt along with others attempted investigate mind through
introspection observed their conscious mental processes while analysing their thoughts
images feelings they recorded measured results under controlled conditions aimed sort
conscious thought into basic elements chemist would with chemical compound this
theory known structuralism particular critic this method early john broadus watson felt
that introspection subjective therefore erroneous also felt only forward using methods
that could observed more that just person could achieved studying behaviour wrote
behaviourism claims consciousness neither definable usable concept merely another word
soul more ancient times watson behaviourist theories learning often called stimulus
response though only classical conditioning fits model other major form operant
conditioning often included under same heading though significantly different classical
conditioning triggered involuntarily particular environmental stimulus means stimulus
does normally produce particular response paired another does eventually resulting both
stimuli inducing same effect even when used separately good example shown first
experiments ivan petrovich pavlov early century during other research work noticed dogs
often salivated before they were given food even when they looked food sometimes went
salivating heard approaching footsteps laboratory assistant bringing food pavlovs
observations used unconditional salivating unconditioned response automatic reflex
during experiment bell paired referred conditioned neutral begin from except passing
interest after bell been paired some time began salivate sound bell before shown
salivation then conditioned produced conditioned watson took work further attempted
similar study month called albert used original albert showed fear unconditioned which
case hammer hitting four foot steel close alberts head which frightened child made after
about pairings albert afraid which time become fear spontaneously transferred other items
included white rabbit sealskin coat cotton wool watsons hair santa mask though less
severe persisted even after month mother removed from hospital basic procedures pavlov
classical stage before learning unconditioned salivation salivation stage during learning
stage unlike operant induced specific more voluntary action edward thorndike first
became aware constructed puzzle designed cats task operate latch released them from
cage allowed them piece fish outside each eating fish were immediately placed back
inside another piece fish made visible outside escapes seemed accidental escape taking
five minutes trials could escape seconds thorndikes puzzle thorndike accounted stating
escapes random trial error there sudden insight into escape made gradual reduction errors
therefore shorter said there connection between situation certain impulse namely between
further stated connection stamped pleasure results stamped doesn known thorndikes
famous effect effect crucial distinguishing between operant skinner years later thorndike
pointed what happens because behaviour will influence future behaviour unlike where
what happens determines future burrhus fredric skinner adapted experiment make puzzle
known skinner designed pigeon contained lever pressed issued into positive reinforcer
strengthened animals continued press lever said shaped maintained consequences
interpretation thorndikes many strengths exerted strong influence triggered scientific
experiments statistical procedures data since form change modification procedures
developed behaviourists have proven useful many teachers turned attention psychologists
solving related problems despite some being quite level focusing largely reflexes
behaviouristic theories have been generalised many higher level functions well emotional
problems considered result faulty acquired patterns failure learn effective responses
therapy also modification change patterns aversion therapy good example mainly
addictions unwanted treatment alcoholism patient would given warm saline solution
containing emetic immediately begin vomit given large glass spirit alcohol whiskey
would asked smell whiskey swill around mouth swallowing vomiting does occur straight
whiskey prolong nausea patient glass beer containing emetic treatments involve large
doses injected emetic increases length treatment larger range alcohol drug nausea
vomiting alcohol drug nausea vomiting been found about half alcoholic patients treated
abstain least year critics over simplifies human sees human robot instead creature free
will purpose shows clear boundaries what merely body functioning should explain
acknowledge internal processes cause reactions different stimuli behaviourist approach
also dictates knowledge student will learn order learn ensures student concentrates points
rather than information whole deals problem fails search root cause means problem
without continuous treatment reoccur seen brain washing makes allowances differences
intelligence critics undoubtedly changed direction away philosophy towards science seen
father perhaps modern those came built sturdy foundations fact still today being adopted
pharmaceutical research companies observing drugs modify animal testament roots
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