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Chapter 5 Short-Term and Working Memory Some Questions to Consider • Why can we remember a telephone number long enough to place a call, but then we forget it almost immediately? • How is memory involved in processes such as doing a math problem? • Do we use the same memory system to remember things we have seen and things we have heard? What Is Memory? • Memory: processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present • Active any time some past experience has an impact on how you think or behave now or in the future Modal Model of Memory • Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) • Three different types of memory: 1. Sensory Memory – Initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second 2. Short-term Memory – Holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds. 3. Long-term Memory – Can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades Modal Model of Memory Modal Model of Memory • Control processes: active processes that can be controlled by the person – Rehearsal – Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable – Strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory • Sensory Memory: The retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation. – Information decays very quickly • Persistence of vision: retention of the perception of light – Sparkler’s trail of light – Frames in film Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory • Holds large amount of information for a short period of time – Collects information – Holds information for initial processing – Fills in the blank Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory • Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory (Sperling, 1960) – Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen – Participants asked to report as many as possible • Whole report method: participants asked to report as many as could be seen – Average of 4.5 out of 12 letters (37.5%) Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory • Partial report method: participants heard tone that told them which row of letters to report – Average of 3.3 out of 4 letters (82%) – Participants could report any of the rows • Delayed partial report method: presentation of tone delayed for a fraction of a second after the letters were extinguished – Performance decreases rapidly Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory • Iconic memory: Brief sensory memory of the things that we see – Responsible for persistence of vision • Echoic memory: Brief sensory memory of the things that we hear – Responsible for persistence of sound Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Stores small amounts of information for a brief duration • Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long-term memory Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Measuring the duration of short-term memory – Read three letters, then a number – Begin counting backwards by threes – After a set time, recall three letters Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • After three seconds of counting, participants performed at 80% • After 18 seconds of counting, participants performed at 10% • This reduction in performance is explained by the existence of decay, which is the vanishing of a memory trace due to the passage of time and exposure to competing stimuli Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is about 15-20 seconds Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Proactive interference: occurs when information learned previously interferes with learning new information – Example: Your native language may make it more difficult to learn and remember a new foreign language • Retroactive interference: occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning – Example: After you get a new telephone number and use it for a while, you may have difficulty remembering your old phone number Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Capacity of short-term memory – Digit span: how many digits a person can remember • Typical result: 5-8 items • But what is an item? • Change detection Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Chunking: small units can be combined into larger meaningful units – Chunk is a collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Ericsson et al. (1980) – Trained a college student with average memory ability to use chunking • S.F. had an initial digit span of 7 – After 230 one-hour training sessions, S.F. could remember up to 79 digits • Chunking them into meaningful units Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory • Alvarez and Cavanaugh (2004) – Used colored squares as well as complex objects – Used the change detection procedure Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory Working Memory • Similar concept to short-term memory • Baddeley and Hitch (1974) • Working memory: limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning Working Memory • Working memory differs from STM – STM holds information for a brief period of time – WM is concerned with the processing and manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition Working Memory Phonological Loop • Phonological similarity effect – Letters or words that sound similar are confused • Word-length effect – Memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words – Takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall Phonological Loop • Articulatory suppression – Prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered • Reduces memory span • Eliminates word-length effect • Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words Visuospatial Sketch Pad • Visual imagery: The creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus – Shepard and Metzler (1971) – Mental rotation task – Tasks that called for greater rotations took longer Working Memory • WM is set up to process different types of information simultaneously • WM has trouble when similar types of information are presented at the same time Working Memory The Central Executive • Attention controller – Focus, divide, switch attention • Controls suppression of irrelevant information • Perseveration: repeatedly performing the same action or thought even if it is not achieving the desired goal WM and the Brain: Individual Differences • Vogel et al. (2005) • Determined participants’ WM – High-capacity WM group – Low-capacity WM group • Shown either simple or complex stimuli • Measured ERP responses WM and the Brain: Individual Differences • Vogel et al. (2005) • Results – High-capacity participants were more efficient at ignoring the distractors Episodic Buffer • Backup store that communicates with LTM and WM components • Hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad Episodic Buffer Working Memory and the Brain • Prefrontal cortex responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information – Monkeys without a prefrontal cortex have difficulty holding information in working memory Working Memory and the Brain • Funahashi et al. (1989) – Single cell recordings from monkey’s prefrontal cortex during a delay-response task Working Memory and the Brain Working Memory and the Brain • Neurons responded when stimulus was flashed in a particular location and during delay • Information remains available via these neurons for as long as they continue firing