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Option M Rome: The fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources for the fall of the Republic 78 – 31 BC, students learn about significant developments, forces and relevant historiographical issues that shaped the historical period. Students learn about: 1 Political developments in the late Republic – legacy of Sulla – Pompey: significance of military and political career – significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC – role and significance of Cicero – First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus – activities and breakdown of the First Triumvirate – political crises: role of the Senate; use of the army for political purposes; urban violence – role of optimates, populares – Caesar and Pompey: political competition and responsibility for outbreak of the Civil War 49–45 BC – significance of Caesar’s dictatorship 2 Wars and expansion – Pompey’s extraordinary commands and the Eastern Settlement – Caesar’s military activities in Gaul, Germany and Britain – significance of the Mithridatic and Parthian wars 3 Fall of the Republic – impact of Caesar’s assassination – formation, activities and breakdown of the Second Triumvirate – rivalry and Civil War between Mark Antony and Octavian: role of Cleopatra VII; Battle of Actium 1 1. Political Developments in the Late Republic Legacy of Sulla ● In 88, first civil war in Rome was fought between Marius and Sulla; ended in 82 with defeat of Marius. – Sulla now introduced proscriptions. – Sulla had the Tribal Assembly vote to give him powers of a dictator (82) for purpose of restoring the Republic. He achieved this through military force and violence. – Use of client professional armies wa s one way of guaranteeing political dominance. – Sulla tried to revive Republican constitution and increase authority of Senate. – Rome continued to face foreign threats, which meant generals with armies had to be found. Many of these generals gained prominenc e in future (e.g. Pompey/Caesar). Pompey: significance of military and political career ● Pompey was a general who often switched allegiances , supporting whoever would give him political power. Generals in Rome were able to ignore the cursus honorum, as, in extraordinary circumstances, they could be appointed special powers without ever holding office. They army gave Pompey the political power he sought. ● Military/political career of Pompey was exceptional and extraordinary. He was given proconsular and pro praetorian commands without holding the qualifying office; he was consul in 70, seven years before the legal age. ● His extraordinary commands (e.g. lex Gabinia) gave him sweeping powers/authority which was unequalled at the time. Height of Pompey’s political power came in sole consulship of 52: – Sole consul with immense wealth/power. – Proconsular imperium as controller of grain supply. – Loyal soldiers/clients throughout the empire. – Proconsular command of Libya and two Spains. Significance of the consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC ● Although both Pompey/Crassus had been lieutenants of Sulla, once consuls they sought to destroy what was left of his 2 ● ● ● ● constitution. Prior to election, Pompey stated his support for returning legislative power to tribunes. Was popular with people; Sulla had deprived tribunes of their legislative power and debarred them from office c Pompey saw opportunity to restore these powers, and effect it would have for his career. Pompey/Crassus wished to use tribunes for their own gain. Pompey/Crassus also won power by promising reform of senatorial juries , which had proved to be extremely corrupt; they took sole power of juries away from Senate, instead sharing the power over them between Senate, equites and tribuni aerarii. Important pieces of legislation passed during joint consulship (known as Licino/Pompeian laws): – Restoration of tribunate to legislative powers and right of veto. – Revival of censorship. Censors immediately revised senatorial list, removed 64 senators and enrolled new senators. – Legislation concerning composition of law courts c at time was exclusively made up of senators. Was proposed that in future courts would have equal numbers of senators, equites and tribuni aerarii (group just below equites in wealth). Tribuni aer arii/equites had similar interests c would work together to keep senators in check. Significance ‹ dismantled remainder of Sulla’s constitution. Many of these measures won Pompey/Crassus great popularity. Significance of Cicero ● Cicero was a great orator and literary figure, and also trained as lawyer. Wrote many legal/political speeche s, but is his letter which are most useful historically; they tell events during 1 st century BC not only from year to year, but day to day. ● Significance of Cicero’s career: – Was keen supporter of Pompey until his death; spoke in favour of lex Manilia and looked after Pompey’s interests while he was in the east. Supported Pompey up to and during Civil War, but reconciled with Caesar after. – Attacked Caesar’s ‘illegal acts’ during his consulship in 59. – Refused to join FT, although asked multiple times by Caesa r. – Was exiled for putting Catalinarian conspirators to death without 3 trial, but was recalled by Pompey. – Made various speeches against Antony after death of Caesar (Philippics), which Antony sought revenge for by proscribing him (murder). ● Cicero was staunch supporter of Republic; in the end, his efforts to restore it cost him his life when he was murdered in 43 on orders of Antony. First Triumvirate: aims, roles and responsibilities of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus ● Scullard: “lts formation was a turning point in the history of the Free State, and it was … the ultimate origin of the Civil War of 49 BC.” ● Cicero regarded FT as infamous/disgraceful alliance “an uniformly odious to all sorts of classes and ages of men.” ● First Triumvirate (FT) was unofficial, informal and non-legal alliance between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus . All three men had aims the Senate would not allow them to achieve. ● Caesar saw opportunity (FT) presented; first had to reconcile Pompey/Crassus. ● FT was seen by Crassus/Pompey as solution to s hort-term problems. All three triumvirs had problems which FT could solve: – Pompey: needed land for veterans after eastern settlement; needed eastern settlement to be ratified ‘en bloc’. – Crassus: needed rebate he had promised to equestrian tax farmers. – Caesar: needed consulship of 59; province for 58 to give ‘scope’ for his military ability. ● Caesar gained consulship of 59 with support of Pompey/Crassus . Was able to solve majority of short-term problems from three triumvirs: – Pompey: agrarian bill for his vete rans ‹ however, was achieved through threat of force from Pompey, as neither Senate/tribunes would pass the bill. – Crassus: one-third rebate for equestrian tax farmers. – Caesar: provinces of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and Transalpine Gaul for five years. – Caesar also passed lex Campania ‹ harsher land bill which divided last public land in Italy into 20,000 allotments for urban 4 poor. Strongly opposed by Senate/conservatives. ● After consulship of 59 Caesar went to his provinces; proceeded to wage Gallic campaigns from 58-50. During this time, FT came under pressure; Caesar appointed Clodius as tribune, who used gang warfare to discredit Pompey; Pompey used Milo to retaliate against Clodius. Also, tensions rose between Pompey/Crassus; short-term goals had been achieved, regarded each other with contempt. ● Caesar called Conference of Luca in 56 c renewal of triumvirate. Was in best interests of each triumvir to maintain coalition. Led to 2 nd joint consulship of Pompey/Crassus in 55. Gains for triumvirs: – Pompey: provinces in Spain. – Crassus: province of Syria; military campaign in 55/53. – Caesar: extension of command in Gaul for further five years . ● Pompey/Crassus gained consulship through bribery/violence. Breakdown of the FT ● Death of Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s da ughter) meant that Pompey was no longer bound to Caesar; Caesar attempted to maintain coalition (e.g. through offering great-niece Octavia to Pompey); Pompey rebuffed his efforts and began shifting his position to optimates, although still maintained coalition with Caesar for time being. ● In middle of 53, news reached Rome that Romans had been defeated by Parthians and Crassus had been killed. Crassus’ death made split of coalition more likely. ● Pompey became sole consul in 52 and passed variety of laws whic h worried Caesar: – Law against public violence. – Law stipulating a five-year interval between urban magistracies and provincial commands. – Law demanding all candidates must appear in person at election c made Caesar suspicious of Pompey’s motives. Caesar plan ned to stand in absentia to avoid prosecution; changed by Pompey. ● In 52 Pompey remained halfway between Caesar/optimates, although he was moving more towards optimates. Caesar’s enemies wished to bring him to Rome and prosecute him; Pompey would have to pi ck a side, and when war came in 49 he sided with Senate. Some historians indicate that Caesar was actually offered a compromise 5 but he senate to ratify (legalise) his laws before his departure from Rome in 58. - Pompey and Crassus, was a man of EGO: self-promotion and glorification were not only craved but were essential to their power. Believed that Caesar wanted complete power therefore he wanted the civil war. Political Crises: role of the Senate; use of the army for political purposes; urban violence Role of the Senate ● Senate was the body which advised magistrates. Different roles: – Dealt with foreign relations. – Prepared legislation. – Administered finances. – Supervised state religion. ● By 1st century BC, Senate was virtual govt. of Rome: – Had influence/control over assemblies and magistrates. – Could not make laws but issued decrees (senatus consulta). ● Senate gave special commands to generals; however, could not stop a general using the army to further his ambitions . Once military situation was settled, Senate was powerless to stop generals demanding more power and using their armies as a threat. ● This inability to control generals/armies allowed circumstances to develop which helped bring about fall of the Republic. ● Problems of Senate (in general): – Did not provide strong leadership. – Was corrupt/inefficient – Only interested in its own power/prestige – Unable to cope with strong generals – Breakdown of law/order on streets – Foreign policy was weak. Use of the army for political purposes ● During 1st century BC Rome, was interdependence between army and political power. Generals such as Pompey, Caesar, Antony and Octavian showed that political power came from control of successful armies. ● Successful generals used threat of their armies to achieve greater 6 political power. ● Veterans became important (e.g. in terms of their loyalty) in passing legislation through Assembly. ● Senate was threatened/intimidated by armies, and did not refuse demands of generals. ● Generals were able to amass great wealth from their foreign wars, and garnered themselves great prestige and popularity, and a large client base from their victories. Urban violence ● General characteristic of this time period was urban violence in form of riots/civil unrest. Problem was so bad that elections could not b e held in 53-52. Law/order was breaking down, and Senate could not stop it. ● Example: – Tribune Clodius arranged gangs to terrorise enemies of triumvirs of FT. – Pompey arranged his own rival gang, led by tribune Milo. Milo’s gang murdered Clodius. – Widespread rioting in Rome in this period. – Problem was so bad that Senate passed Senatus consultum ultimum, giving Pompey sole consulship of 52 to deal with disorder. Role of optimates, populares Optimates ● Were conservative group in Senate. ● It was optimate Cato who blocked Pompey’s attempts to ratify his eastern settlement and Crassus’ rebate for the tax farmers. Also opposed Caesar’s election to consulship. ● Optimates drove these men into forming FT by blocking their attempts to pass laws. Later, the optimates convin ced Pompey to side with them, which effectively forced Caesar into civil war. Populares ● Populares was politician/political faction which relied on support of the people. Populares were opposed to optimates, and used assemblies to achieve their political p owers. ● Caesar was a populares, and Pompey sided with populares in order to gain his extraordinary commands. 7 Caesar and Pompey: political competition and responsibility for the outbreak of Civil War, 49-45 BC ● Senate hoped that powerful generals could be c ontrolled by political competition, believing each would be willing to act for Senate if it advanced them politically. This political competition between Pompey/Caesar as well as breakdown of FT and actions of Senate led to civil war. ● Caesar was concerned about his command in Gaul; he wanted consulship for 48 and then be given five -year command. ● In 52, law (by Pompey in his sole consulship) said that five years had to elapse between magistracy and provincial commands, and that all candidates must appear in person at elections. This affected Caesar ‹ he wanted to be immediately re-elected without returning to Rome; otherwise, would be prosecuted for illegal actions during consulship of 59. ● Caesar attempted to compromise with Senate in December 50, offering to give up Transalpine Gaul and lay down his command if Pompey did. The consuls rejected his offer and declared him a public enemy. ● In January 49, Caesar crossed Rubicon and started Civil War. Caesar ● Caesar was legally responsible, as crossing the Rubicon was treasonable act. ● In 59 ‹ had committed illegal acts. Demand for an extension of his proconsulship was an effort to evade impeachment for these acts; if he stood trial, would be condemned. ● Caesar’s agent Clodius brought about unrest through urban violence and attacked Pompey. ● Caesar felt Civil War was not of his making; forced to choose between self-defence and political extinction. ● Caesar believed he was defending his dignitas and rights of tribunes. Also felt he was liberating Rome from a faction. Pompey ● Pompey had held many irregular or unconstitutional positions in the past but now blocked Caesar’s similar demands; was acting hypocritically. ● Compromising with Caesar would have meant accepting him as an 8 equal; Pompey may not have been prepared to do this. ● Allowed himself to be turned against Caesar by Senate, who persuaded him not to reconcile with Caesar. ● Pompey felt he was essential to Roman Republic, and that his dignitas was enhanced by being called to save the state. Senate Optimates were determined to destroy Caesar for his actions in 59. Caesar was forced into the position he was in during 50 -49 by optimate senators; however, senators misjudged his strength/support. ● Senate persuaded Pompey to reject Caesar’s attempts at reconciliation. ● Senate feared Caesar and tried to limit his power by stopping him becoming consul and not extending his command in Gaul. ● Significance of Caesar’s dictatorship ● Caesar held dictatorship four times: 1. 49 ‹ for 11 days, when he ended debt problem in Rome. 2. 48 ‹ for one year. Pacified the eas t, relieved the rent crisis in Rome and pardoned his captured enemies. 3. 46 ‹ for 10 years. During this time he enacted number of reforms. 4. 44 ‹ made dictator for life (perpetual dictatorship). ● Most significant result of Caesar’s dictatorship ‹ many Romans f eared he would turn his perpetual dictatorship into a monarchy, which many Romans did not want. As a result, a conspiracy was formed; Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44. 2. Wars and Expansion Pompey’s Extraordinary Commands and the Eastern Settl ement Pompey's rise to power/breakdown of Sullan constitution ● 83 c Pompey raised an army to support Sulla against Marius. Was granted propraetorian imperium for the command of army; was not only far below required age for extraordinary command but had als o never served in public office. First violation of Sulla’s constitution of many. 9 Pompey held this command for further 2 years while he fought Marian supporters in Sicily/Africa. Once he returned, demanded triumph; Sulla refused as was in violation of his own restatement of lex Villia Annalis (law which set minimum age for cursus honorum). However Sulla eventually gave in; undermined his own constitution by granting Pompey’s triumph. Sulla died in 78. Revolt of Lepidus ● Lepidus raised army in revolt in 77, w hen he was proconsul of Gaul. Senate passed consultum ultimum, which declared Lepidus public enemy. Pompey sided with Senate who reluctantly granted him propraetorian imperium to help Catulus quash Lepidus’ revolt. ● Once Lepidus was defeated, many of his su pporters fled to Sardinia to join Sertorius, a rebel Roman leader. Pompey again delayed disbanding his army in the hope the Senate would send him to Spain to help Metellus defeat Sertorius. The Senate c no choice, granted Sulla proconsular imperium c bigger bestowment of power than before. Campaign against Sertorius, Spain, 77 -72 ● Sertorius was populares who had fought against Sulla with Marius; was sent to Spain during civil war. Once Marius was defeated, Sulla sent various generals to depose him; however, Sertorius achieved victory time and again. Pompey arrived in 76 but lost two major battles to Sertorius. ● Pompey was running short of supplies and warned Senate war could spread to Italy if did not receive additional help; Pompey received two additional legions, allowed him to maintain pressure on Sertorius. ● Many of Romans who joined Sertorius became jealous of his power c Perpena, an associate. Sertorius was murdered in 72 at a banquet; conspiracy was organised by Perpena. Perpena took power but was defeated and executed in 71 by Pompey. ● Pompey c credit for defeat of rebel forces; however, without murder of Sertorius, is doubtful this would have happened. Pompey also gained reputation for being diplomatic/humane c treatment of Spanish once they had been defeated. Slave uprising led by Spartacus, 73 -71 ● 73 c slave uprising led by gladiators/slaves, led by Thracian gladiator Spartacus. Pompey was in Spain at time c did not ● 10 encounter Spartacus until end of uprising. ● Crassus, praetor of 73, sent to deal with Spar tacus c given either propraetorian or proconsular command. ● Pompey arrived back in 71 c officially associated with extraordinary commands assigned to Crassus. Crassus had done bulk of campaigning, yet Pompey received credit c Pompey awarded 2nd triumph while Crassus only received ovation. ● Crassus/Pompey agreed to work together for consulship of 70; both men waited with their armies outside Rome to gain consulship. Decree passed in Senate which exempt Pompey from age restrictions, as was still 7 years too young. Piracy and lex Gabinia Piracy was big problem in Eastern Mediterranean c pirates captured cities, sacked/plundered religious sanctuaries and caused general mayhem on Italian coastline. ● At first, Roman govt. turned blind eye to pirates’ activities; weal thy landowners were making large profit from slave trade used by pirates. However, pirates eventually became significant problem c govt. forced to do something. ● Aulus Gabinius (hence lex Gabinia) proposed extraordinary command to get rid of pirates; Gabinius was friend of Pompey. Gabinius proposed man of consular rank be given 3 -year imperium to campaign anywhere in Mediterranean, and in all Roman provinces up to 50 miles inland. Commander would be able to utilise as much money as needed from treasury, and have ability to recruit soldiers/sailors. ● In Senate, only Caesar spoke in favour of bill; however it was Assembly who decided. Voted for lex Gabinia, but also granted greater powers than proposed; Pompey was given command of 500 ships, 120,000 troops and 5000 cavalry. ● Within 40 days, Pompey had cleared whole Western half of Mediterranean of pirates. Many others fled or surrendered, and campaign against pirates was over in less than 3 months. Mithridates and lex Manilia (proposed by tribune Manilius) ● Mithridates used distraction of Sertorius, Spartacus and pirates to rebuild his power/resources. Formed alliance with son -in-law Tigranes and attacked Roman province of Bithynia. ● Lucullus waged lengthy campaign against Mithridates; by 68 had ● 11 driven the pair into Armenia and defeated their combined forces. However, was criticised for prolonging Mithridatic war for what was seen as his own benefit. ● Pompey was obvious choice for replacement of Lucullus; success against pirates had benefited Roman commerce and was likely to be little resistance from Senate. ● Caesar/Cicero spoke in favour of appointing Pompey c bill was passed. Pompey's Eastern Settlement ● Pompey’s subsequent military successes against Mithridates/Tigranes largely based on hard campaigning of Lucu llus before him; resources of Mithridates/Tigranes was severely depleted by Lucullus and so posed no real threat. 63 c Mithridates died. ● Results of Eastern Settlement: 1. Added western Pontus to Bithynia; annexed territory of the Seleucids and added parts of Judaea to form province of Syria; enlarged existing province of Cilicia. 2. United area under Roman control by fostering growth of cities of Hellenistic type. 3. In order to protect Roman provinces from future threats from powerful kingdom of Parthia, Pompey or ganised large number of client-states; were independent but maintained friendly relations with Rome. Tigranes c left in possession of Armenia and also received Western Mesopotamia. ▪ Pharnaces (son of Mithridates) c permitted to keep European possessions. ▪ Other states included Cappadocia, Armenia Minor, etc. ▪ The Benefits of Pompey’s Eastern Settlement For Rome For the provincials For Pompey ● Pompey ● Added to and ● East received increased his consolidated Rome’s peace/security overseas empire and sphere of for the future. client base, influence. ● Pompey which he ● Added 480 million became a would need sesterces in war spoils patron for the ● Pompey’s Eastern settlement once again showed Pompey’s for support in to the war treasury. provincials in outstanding ability as organiser, administrator and diplomat . case of civil their dealings ● Raised Rome’s annual Pompey's Return to Rome war. with Rome. revenue from tribute by 70%. 12 ● Optimates were deeply concerned about return of Pompey; some were in fear he would march on Rome. However, Pompey disbanded his army peacefully; they would only be called back to celebrate his 2 nd triumph. ● Pompey’s triumph was on huge scale c went for two days. Triumph was celebration usually granted to great general after long career and many successes; Pompey was in early-40s and was granted two. Caesar’s Military Activities in Gaul, Germany and Britain Caesar's Gallic Campaigns 58 -50 BC Year Events 58 - Caesar provoked a war with the BC Helvetti (Swiss) by manipulating them; he prevented them from migrating in their usual route and instead forced them to pass through the countryside of the Aeudi tribe (allies of Rome). Caesar used this as an excuse to attack the Helvetti; they were defeated and returned to their 57 -original Caesar’shomeland. troops are now involved - Caesar his attention in some then otherturned skirmishes; Caesar to the German tribe led inbynorth King attacked rebellious allies Ariovistus; this tribe begunthe to of Gaul, attacked andhad defeated make alliances with other Nervii (Normandy), defeatedGallic the tribes (Seubi Belgian Gauls. and Sequari). Caesar especially claimed - Caesar again usedthe the Germans excuse were that he was acting to defend threatening provinces Rome’s alliesRoman (the Remi tribe). when 56 -they Caesartook comes to hostages Luca for and a - Caesar thenAeudi left to visit his other conference with other Triumvirs. demanded province. more land. When returned,the he put down Caesar hedefeated Germans, rebellions in Aquitania and Ariovistus was killed. and the lands of the Veneti and Venelli. - By end of 56, Caesar was patron of much of Gaul and praetor of the Gallic people. 13 Gaul was being set up for annexation by Rome, or to be a client state. In addition, large amounts of money were going Sources - Plutarch, Life of Caesar says Caesar led the charge against the Helvetti. - Caesar’s Gallic Campaigns wrote about his campaign against Ariovistus. He motivated his troops to fight the Germans even though they were scared – told them of previous 10th legion who -had Caesar,just Commentaries, won against boasts about how his Helvetti. troops so well a - Caesar were also records trained; said they “could famous speech by Ariovistus suggest what before to thethemselves battle about the ought to be done” and he right of conquest “… blotted out theby (propaganda forforever Caesar); name of thethis, Nerviis”. recording Caesarclear is bodies.” This shows -justifying Plutarch’s Lives that of ownadds campaign. bias from his Plutarch. - Plutarch: Life of Pompey 60,000 Nervii only 500 records large body of survived and “the lakes and senators went to Luca for rivers filled up with dead conference. - Plutarch/Caesar both describe Caesar’s ‘heroic’ victory against the Venetti in dreadful winter conditions. 55 54 5352 Germanic tribes tried again to cross the Rhine into Gallic territory, were again defeated by Caesar. - Caesar acted ruthlessly; arrested German envoys prior to the battle and later killed all the - Caesar invaded Britain a second women/children from the time; little was achieved, no longGermanic tribe they had fought. term benefits (later opened way - Caesar built a spectacular bridge for trade routes). (280m by 12m) across the Rhine; - Caesar then received the had his troops march across it and submission of the British back, then destroyed it. king/southern tribes. - Caesar now invaded Britain. - Just when Caesar believed whole of Gaul was under control, Belgian tribe (Eburones) led by Ambiorix organised one of most successful attacks ever against the occurred; Romans, - In 52 BC further revolts annihilating 1½ serious legions yet and for 2 was the most commanders. against but53-52, each revolt was Caesar. Caesar, Between individual successfully put down. - Eburones: King Ambiorix -Gallic However, tribes Vercingetorix began to rise (of up Arveni 52 managedGallic to unite all of Gaul. (Belgium) tribe: King tribe) in Vercingetorix managed to persuade Dumnorix Gauls to burn their homelands, all the city of Avaricum, whoofrefused; - Sabinius: commander legion except forthem the besieged and massacred its Caesar inhabitants. defeated by Eburones. -- Caesar faced a second (52) Most decisive battleserious was at Alesia, where Vercingetorix had revolt in 54 to. against theencircled Gallic tribe town of large force Caesar the moved a with rows of trenches, some facing led by Dumnorix. town other and facing outwards. He created Alesia, Caesar quelled this revolt too but it pits filled caused a delay in Caesar’s plans to peacefully annex this territory and return to Rome. - 14 Plutarch/Caesar also describe Caesar’s ‘heroic’ defeat of the Germans; Plutarch states that 400 men were cut to pieces. Caesar/Plutarch regard this as a heroic victory. - Caesar unusually blames Sabinius in Commentaries for losing the battle and for the defeat. Caesar also describes the defiant speech of the Gallic chieftain Dumnorix imploring his people to support him in a bid for freedom. - Caesar also had Dumnorix - Plutarch’s Lives and say emotional Caesar’sanotherCommentaries speech inin detail Commentaries, describes the double describe the encounter with trenches, his motivational talking about how he rows of and Caesar his troops his flying was red Vercingetorix. speech to leading them intosubject battle. of a free and was the cloak - (52) Caesar writes in free state; this was actually that Vercingetorix wasa Commentaries serving with Roman legions speech Caesar’s originally quickly expressing roused with his but the Gauls policies, against Caesar. populares which passion refers toallVercingetorix as a Caesar was read to aenergy” hostile Senate “boundless and man of terrorised any Gauls how he in 53. mentions wavering in their loyalty. - Caesar in Commentaries describes how the trenches also were - with sharp implements to reduce designed. possibility of anyone escaping out of Alesia or reinforcements entering. - Romans camped between these two groups of trenches and fought in both directions for days. Eventually, Vercingetorix and his forces capitulated. - Trench defences: ● Trenches were 20ft wide ● Siege machines 650 yards behind trench ● Before siege machines was a double row of 15ft deep trenches filled with 51 - In the SW of Gaul, Caesar’s troops - Caesar’s Commentaries water were engaged in their last battle – describes battle at ● Siege machines had against the Gauls at Uxellodunum. Uxellodunum. palisaded ramparts 12ft - Once again, siege works were - Suetonius in Caesar high, and towers every constructed and Caesar cut off the summarises significance of 130 yards encircled the town’s water supply, forcing them Gallic campaign for Caesar: trenches to surrender. “He reduced to the form of a ● Inside inner trenches - Minor revolts all now quelled; province the whole of Gaul … were sharp stakes upon Caesar’s conquest of Gaulthese was about 640,000 miles and 50 - Caesar which now people used were complete by end of 51 BC. victories/money his exacted an annual tribute of impaled. toAs further well, there 400,000 gold pieces. He was power: were deep pits with sharp first to build a bridge across ● Built a new hidden Forum by loose sticks the Rhine and caused the ● Held lavish dirt. Gauls heavy losses. He also gladiatorial front were 8 Significance●of At the very Mithridatic and Parthian WarsBritain.” invaded contest/banquet rows 3ft apart, which Mithridatic War - Suetonius also talks about ● Increased military pay had blocks 1ft long fitted ● Mithridates VI was king of Pontus, regionhow on southern he coast usedof Black the (doubled), gave Gallic with iron hooks. Sea. Was Rome’s greatest threat between 88 -63 BC, during which money/publicity to build up slaves to associates. Rome fought three wars against him. his own political following in ● Mithridates aimed to take advantage of power Rome.vacuum in Asia Minor and build himself an empire in the region. ● Full-scale war broke out when Mithridates invaded Bithynia, which had been willed to Rome in 75 by Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia. 15 Rome sent proconsul Lucullus to the area in 74. During the period 74 -68, Lucullus defeated Mithridates, invaded Armenia and took its capital. ● However, Lucullus’ soldiers mutinied, and was attacked in Rome by equestrians, who disapproved of his reorganisation of finances of cities in Asia. Some believed he was prolonging the war. ● Lex Manilia in 66 gave Pompey the Mithridatic command. This gave Pompey the right to make war/peace on whomsoever he chose. ● Significance of Mithridatic war c Pompey’s eastern settlement. This settlement demonstrated Pompe y’s skills as organiser, administrator and diplomat. Brought benefits for Rome c added 480 million sesterces to Roman treasury, which raised Rome’s tribune by 70%. Brought peace to the east. Increase in Pompey’s support/prestige. Parthian War Crassus’ Parthian War ● Crassus was interested in war against Parthia because it would prove he was a military leader like Pompey/Caesar. – 54 c Crassus invaded Parthia with 35,000 men. – 53 c invaded again but was defeated and killed at Carrhae. Of 40,000 Romans, only 10,000 survived. ● This Parthian war was significant as it precipitated breakdown of FT. Caesar/Antony’s Parthian War ● Caesar was about to go to war against Parthia when he was assassinated. However, Parthian problems continued: – In 41 and 40 BC, Antony faced inv asion by Parthia. – 39 cAntony attacked the Parthians in Armenia. – During 39-38, Parthians were cleared from Syria. – 37 c Antony invaded Parthia but was forced to retreat after losing 17,000 men. ● After this defeat, Antony needed cash/reinforcements for his Parthian campaigns. He had two offers; one from his wife, Octavia (sister of Octavian) as well as Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Antony accepted Cleopatra’s help, but not Octavia’s. 16 ● When Antony had minor success in Parthia in 34, celebrated splendid triumph; however, was in Alexandria, not Rome. This, combined with refusal of Octavia’s help, was an insult to Rome, and resulted in propaganda campaign against Antony. ● Octavian made sure these activities were received badly c support for Antony weakened. 3. Fall of the Republic Impact of Caesar’s Assassination ● Death of Caesar in 44 did not end turmoil in Rome; the people were angry at the assassination, which did not have the desired effect of returning Rome to a republic. – Antony was placed in position of immense power as consul. – Caesar’s will was read, which named Octavian as his heir. In addition, each Roman received three gold pieces and Caesar’s gardens were made into a public park. – Public funeral was approved by Senate; Anto ny’s presentation of Caesar’s blood-soaked toga and will enraged the people, who turned against Senate with aid of Caesarian soldiers. – Brutus/Cassius fled Rome. – Antony controlled the disorder/rioting, imposing his authority over the city. ● Conspirators believed that, with death of Caesar, senatorial govt. would automatically resume. In reality, republic was dead c more civil wars occurred, as well was formation of Second Triumvirate. Formation, Activities and Breakdown of the Second Triumvirate Background Information Gaius Octavius (Octavian), Caesar's Heir ● Octavian was born in 63. His mother, Atia, was niece of Caesar. ● When he was 11, was granted honour of giving speech at funeral of his grandmother, Julia. Caesar was impressed and had him elected to col lege of pontiffs. ● Caesar was again impressed when Octavian attempted to join him on 17 his campaign in Spain in 46; soon after, Caesar wrote Octavian into his will, giving him ¾ of his estate. Caesar sent him to Macedonia to complete his education/receive military training. Octavian's attempts to secure his inheritance ● Did not learn he was Caesar’s adopted son until he returned to Italy. He decided to accept the inheritance; changed name to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, although more commonly known as Octav ian from this point. ● Octavian now had two aims: – To carry out his sacred duty to avenge his ‘father’s’ death. – To prove himself worthy of such a father and if possible surpass his achievements. ● Cicero did not trust Octavian, saying “… there are too many [allies] around [Octavian]. They threaten death to our friends and call the present state of affairs intolerable.” ● Octavian did not expect the cold reception he received from Antony, who blocked Octavian’s attempts to make his adoption legally valid and ref used to hand over Caesar’s money. Octavian reacted by borrowing money to fulfil Caesar’s will (pay 75 denarii to each man) and also held public games. This won Octavian great popularity with the people. ● Antony’s behaviour towards Octavian most likely expl ained by his jealousy/irritation at Caesar’s will, but was not worried by Octavian himself to a great extent. If this view is true, then Antony grossly underestimated Octavian. Octavian's temporary collaboration with the republicans ● Political situation in Rome at this time was unstable: – republicans: ▪ Brutus/Cassius: left for the east (Syria/Macedonia) to raise troops/naval forces ▪ Cicero: returned to Rome; gave series of speeches (Philippics) attacking Antony. – Caesarians: ▪ Antony: deprived D. Brutus of his Ga IIic province, but Brutus refused to Ieave CisaIpine GauI. Antony Iaid siege to Brutus as Mutina. ▪ Octavian: appeaIed to Caesar’s veterans in Campania 18 and converted two of Antony’s Iegions; were now under his command. ● Antony at this time was threat to safet y of state by attacking D. Brutus at Mutina; however, republicans had no troops in Italy, whereas Octavian had himself raised a considerable army from Caesar’s veterans. ● Cicero did not trust Octavian, but decided the young man could be used for the republican cause. Octavian’s actions were wholly illegal, but Cicero overlooked this in interests of safety of the republic. ● Cicero was naïve if he believed the Senate could use Octavian then put him aside once threat of Antony subsided. Senate ordered Antony to leave Cisalpine Gaul; when he refused, consuls of 43/Octavian marched against him. Antony was defeated, and conveniently for Octavian, two consuls were killed; left Octavian in sole command. Octavian's First Consulship ● Senate/Cicero now made serious mista ke c assumed they were free from immediate threat of Antony and attempted to discard Octavian. ● Antony’s position was strengthened by addition of Lepidus, but Octavian realised if Antony was defeated, the party who supported his father’s assassins would gain control of Rome. Realising his best interests lay with Antony, Octavian refused to co-operate with D. Brutus against Antony. ● Octavian wanted the consulship; was only 20, and was an outrageous request, which was vehemently denied. While Octavian refused t o move against Antony, republican cause in Gaul collapsed. D. Brutus was deserted by his legions and killed while trying to escape to Macedonia. ● Cicero/Senate continued to reject Octavian’s demands; Octavian marched on Rome and was ‘elected’ consul with co usin Quintus Pedius for 43. During consulship, revoked outlaw of Antony, legalised his adoption and set up a court to try Caesar’s assassins, who were condemned in their absence. Second Triumvirate (ST) ● Came into existence in 43 by means of a tribune’s la w, proposed by P. Titius and passed in the tribal assembly on 27 November. This differed to FT; had originally been a secret agreement between Caesar, Pompey 19 and Crassus which was not official and three men were never recognised as triumvirs; ST was legally passed and Octavian, Antony and Lepidus had official title of being triumvir. Comparison of FT and ST ● Differences: – FT was unofficial secret agreement between Caesar, Crassus and Pompey; ST, however, was legal institution passed in the Senate. – Was relatively good relationship between Caesar/Pompey at formation of FT; while they went to war in 49, were initially friends. In ST, Antony/Octavian held much animosity towards each other; however, needed ST to gain power against Senate. ● Similarities: – Both triumvirates consisted of two many players (FT – Caesar/Pompey, ST – Antony/Octavian), and had a minor member (FT – Crassus, ST – Lepidus). – Both triumvirates were used by the key players to support each other; through this support, key members were able to gain power to do what they wanted, which would not have been possible without triumvirate. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Members: Antony, Lepidus and Octavian Official title: Triumviri Republicae Constituendae Length of appointment: 5 years Purpose of alliance: to set the state in order an d attack republican armies of Brutus/Cassius in the east. Powers of triumvirs: – Absolute: powers of a dictator without the name. – Right to nominate all magistrates in advance. Territory controlled: – Antony: Transalpine/Cisalpine Gaul c important: Antony had most powerful territorial position/power. – Lepidus: Narbonese Gaul/Spain c reflected Lepidus’ position in ST; Narbonese Gaul/Spain were far away and not powerful. – Octavian: Africa/Sicily/Sardinia. First task undertaken: savage campaign of proscription (poli tical assassinations) similar to those carried out by Sulla. 20 Purpose of proscriptions: – Destroy the enemies of triumvirs; Caesar had shown clemency ‘did not pay’. – To confiscate estates in order to have money/land for troops. ● Results of proscriptions: – Death of 300 senators (including Cicero) and 2000 equites. – Escaped republicans joined Sextus Pompeius. ● Further activities: – Caesar officially deified. – Lepidus appointed consul for 42. – Preparations made for Antony/Octavian to face M. Brutus/Cassius in Macedonia. ● The Proscription of Cicero ● In light of his speeches (Philippics) made against Antony, is not surprising that Cicero’s name was included among those proscribed by the triumvirs. His attempts to restore the republic cost him his life. ● When he was caught by triumvirs’ agents attempting to escape from his country estate, his throat was cut. On Antony’s orders, head/hands were cut off and taken to Rome for public display; used as warning to other Romans. The Battle of Philippi, 42 Brutus/Cassius marched west with their 19 legions and took up position at Philippi in Macedonia to face Antony/Octavian’s 28 legions. In two engagements about three weeks apart the republicans were defeated; both Cassius/Brutus committed suicide. ● Results of republican defeat: 1. Defeat marked an effective end republican movement as most of the leaders died fighting. 2. Octavian finally avenged murder of Caesar. 3. Triumvirs divided empire between them: ▪ Antony: control of all Gaul except Cisalpine Gaul, which became part of Italy. ▪ Octavian: received Spain/Sardinia/Africa. ▪ Lepidus: ignored for time being; later given Africa. ● 21 Activities of the Triumvirs after Philippi Philippi † The empire was divided, 42 Octavian in the west Lepidus in Africa Antony in the east ● Octavian returned to ● Lepidus did not ● Antony extracted Italy to settle veterans occupy his money from – he hoped to increase province until provincials of Asia his prestige and build 41. Minor/Syria. up huge body of ● Established rulers clients. according to their ● Land shortage forced loyalty to Rome. him to confiscate land ● Met with Cleopatra of 18 towns; huge at Tarsus and outcry resulted. accepted an ● Rome/Italy were invitation to winter threatened with in Alexandria; famine as Sextus Antony wanted Pompeius, based in some of wealth of Sicily, prevented Ptolemies, while grain ships from Cleopatra needed Treaty of Brundisium, 40 reaching Italy. Antony’s help to gain control of Egypt. †● Antony’s brother/wife (Fulvia) were hostile ● Antony was The triumvirs were to reconciled; Antony was to marry Octavia probably unaware Octavian sister; and raised sixhad died), an d a further division (Octavian's Fulvia of the empire legions him, of war between was carriedagainst out. ● Octavian retained ● Octavian Antony controlled and his but he laid siege to● Lepidus controlled all the provinces them atall the Perusia, Africa. brother/wife until provinces west of were● Italy was shared. from where they it eastwards was over. Illyricum except into Macedonia starved ● Antony decidedand to Africa. Cyrenaica. submission in A conference at41-40. Tarentum, 37 return to Italy in 40, ● but Italywas was shared. Italy was shared. legates in prevented †● Antony’s Gaul went over to from Antony for his war fromagainst landing Octavian wanted ships Sextusat Octavian,Antony who wanted now 20,000 soldiers from Octavian Brundisium by Pompeius; for his war commanded most An of agreement was made, but Octavian’s troops. against the Parthians. Octavian did not west except Civil war appeared fulfthe il his part. Africa/Sicily. imminent. Lepidus was persuaded to help Octavian. The triumvirate was renewed for a further five years. 22 ● ● ● ● ● In Sicily Octavian (with Agrippa/Lepidus) attacked Pompeius, who was finally defeated in naval battle by Agrippa and fled east, where he was killed by one of Antony’s officers. Octavian took over Lepidus’ troops and also those of Pompeius. Octavian dealt with Lepidus, sent one of his men to occupy Africa, demobilised 20,000 veterans out of 40 legions he now commanded and returned to Rome after settling Sicily. At start of the people to against him by war clearing Pompeius,westhadof the ‘pirate’a Sextus adopted new Pompeius (pirate c name: Imperator restriction grain Caesar diviof filius supplies), (Commander safeguarding the Caesar, the son of north and, through the god). friends such to as On his return Agrippa, Rome wasproviding granted Roman people with number of regular food supply honours, among and (with building which was of aqueducts) good sacrosanctity of a ● ● ● Lepidus tried to take over Sicily, but his men mutinied. He was deposed from ST but permitted to remain as pontifex maximus. Lived under guard in an Italian town. ● ● ● ● ● ● 23 ● Antony sent Octavia to Rome and went to Syria to organise his Parthian campaign. Summoned Cleopatra to Antioch; whether he married her then is unknown but recognised his children by her and gave her (and them) Cyrenaica, Cyprus, parts of Crete, parts of Syria and Jericho, plus some other smaller areas together representing almost all the old Ptolemaic kingdom at its greatest extent. Then left for his Parthian campaign. Antony marched into Armenia with Alexandria’. 60,000 troops but Antony’s behaviour failed in his in east between attempt against 36-34 Parthia,can perhaps losing be explained by 22,000 men. him Two falling years under later spell of Cleopatra, (34) he invaded whose main and aim Armenia was to restore the annexed it. old Returned Ptolemaic to kingdom. Alexandria in 34 and celebrated a triumph there, at The end of the triumvirate, 33 † Triumvirate was due to officially end in Dec. 33. Removal of Lepidus had weakened it, but was Antony's treatment of Octavia (in recognising Cleopatra as his wife) which severed the alliance. Octavian ● In gave warup titleofof triumvir at end of 33; Antony ● Consuls kept it as forthough 32 stillpropaganda in office. which were Antony’s War followed, betweenOctavian the two was inevitable. friends, and had upper hand made a speech since he was in in his favour in Rome and had Senate. close contact with ● When Octavian Italian pop’n. entered Senate ● Inhabitants of with armed guard, Italian towns/cities consuls/proWhen contents of Antony's will became known, war was declared on swore an oath of Antony senators Cleopatra. allegiance to fled to join Apart from the recognition of Ptolemy Caesar as son of Julius Caesar Octavian to Antony. and extravagant legacies to Antony/Cleopatra's ●children, support him Antonythe aspect sent that most horrified the Romans was his instruction to send his body to against his private notification of his Alexandria enemies,to be buried, and should he die in Rome. formal divorce to Rivalry and Civil War between Mark Antony and Octavian: role of provincials of Sicily, Octavia. Cleopatra Sardinia,VII; Battle Africa,of Actium ● Spain Octavianand used Gaul oath oh loyalty sworn by Roman Senators, Italian municipalities followed suit. and western provinces as basis for his authority/power in following years. ● During 33-32, both sides prepared for war, using most extreme propaganda against each other. The Battle of Actium, 31 ● Antony had gathered his forces at Ephesus; included one of greatest fleets ever assembled. Plutarch says it numbered over 500 ships, of whi chCleopatra contributed 60. She is also supposed to have contributed 20,000 talents and vast supplies of grain. ● Cleopatra persuaded Antony to let her accompany the fleet; he moved his forces to western Greece, occupying the promontory of Actium. ● Octavian crossed the Adriatic with smaller force and occupied area just 24 north of Actium, from where his troops could prevent access by Antony to best routes to east. Agrippa not only blockaded Antony’s fleet in Bay of Actium but also cut off Antony’s supplies/comm unication by securing various strategic ports in Greece. ● Antony’s troops were weakened by hunger/malaria and many leading Romans/citizen-kings deserted Antony, particularly angered by influence Cleopatra had on him. ● Cleopatra had plan to risk everything o n naval battle and attempt to break out with as many ships/legionaries as possible. Apparently, however, plan was not communicated to bulk of fleet/army. The battle was no real contest; Cleopatra/Antony escaped and sailed to Alexandria; the remainder of Antony’s fleet/troops were captured or surrendered to Octavian. ● Results of Actium: 1. Octavian was hailed as imperator for 6 th time. 2. Agrippa was sent to Italy to demobilise/settle veterans of 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. both Octavian/Antony’s armies. Octavian reassured restless troops they would be paid shortly. In 30, Octavian invaded Egypt. Antony believed Cleopatra to already be dead and committed suicide. Cleopatra, realising Octavian would not allow her to rule Egypt independently, also committed suicide. Cleopatra’s death ended 300-year-old Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. Octavian treated most of Antony’s Roman supporters leniently, although he had Ptolemy Caesar and Antony’s eldest son by Fulvia killed. Rest of Cleopatra’s children Octavian was merciful to, whom Octavia brought up as her own. Egypt was annexed to Rome. Vast treasure of Ptolemies was used by Octavian to pay expenses of his various campaigns, to enhance his triumph and to provide for adornment of Rome. Before returning to Rome, Octavian spent some time establishing his auth ority over eastern provinces/client kingdoms. Apart from the Donations (Antony giving land to Cleopatra/Cleopatra’s children), which were cancelled, most of Antony’s arrangements were allowed to remain. 25 Sources on ST Ancient ● Cicero: – About Octavian - “He should be lauded, applauded and then dropped.” Is expressing how he believed Senate should act towards Octavian. – 2nd Philippic (about Antony): “He is a sex-ridden, drunk-sodden wretch.” Plutarch in Life of Cicero: on Antony’s orders, Cicero’s hands and he ad were cut off and “fastened up over the ships’ rams on the public platform in the Forum. It was a sight to make the Romans shudder.” ● Suetonius: – The Twelve Caesars. “The underlying motive of every campaign [of Antony] was that he felt it his duty to aven ge Caesar, and keep his decrees in time.” – “The victors divided between them the responsibilities of government. ” (ST) – Eventually, Augustus [Octavian] broke his friendship with Antony which had always been a tenuous one, and in continuous need of patching, and proved that his rival had failed to conduct himself as befitted a Roman citizen by ordering *Caesar’s+ will to be opened and read publicly.” Modern ● A. H. M. Jones: says Lepidus allowed himself to be ordered around; states that he had all attributes/mat erial possessions of a great noble, but “under them there was only a lay figure. He lacked the ruthless qualities needed for success, or indeed survival, in these [troubled] times.” ● Video of gallic war - Caesar killed many - Juluis caesar’s greatest battle - Conquer of Gaul (France) without it, the roman empire would look different - Mark cobi (former professional soldier and historian) - Neil forkner (historian) - They both mock Caesar and Vercingtorex 26 - Whatever is necessary for Caesar is nessary for the roman e mpire Caesars wrote out his battle 6 years in Gaul… his emporium was for 5 yrs… he got another extension from the triumvirate Roman suffered a acute and long perod of fear Ranpaging through Gaul. cutting his way through and killing during his way late 53 BC, declared Gaul was completely pacified. But its not pacified. Killed There were general uprising, planned to kill Caesar Csaer’s detail is skeptic Had personal dealing with others (Caesar and vercingetorex ) It was just the being Moving with great control. Force marches taking over many towns , always moving Moving in great speed… great master blitzkrieg(moving in great speed) Attacked places less expected Punished some towns. Ver moves and destroyed everything in Caesar;s way Destroy parts of his army, everything that was in use of his army … eg.. cutting off food supply Ppl og avaticum would not burn their town… hoping for successful defence Gaul knew how to build their city wall was proof from fire All needed was time and patience and Caesar was short of these March his men for an surprise attack. VIDEO 2. - Caesar believe that the support of the army is better than other therefore he didn’t care about the others opinions of offerieng land - He became increasing powerful - The Gaul… powerful and popular , brillant at craft work and very good at sword work. - Caesar wanted to conqor it - Incidental.. aim is to becomet he most power politic in Rome - Once in Gaul no imtention to leaving 27 - Relationship with the seate Sudden attack Rome may have lose their general and army. He has a great input but his skill is poor 56BC defeated the marin tribes Caesar became the first general to rule England… rome Is impress Vetgrtric burned caesar’s food supply Caesar got outnumbered What ever the sarcife is Caesar wanted to rule Gaul and therefore Rome He worked in SPEED Using natural sources… river as a barrier,. Caesar took charged over 7000 soldier.. is believed to have poor skills in managing the soldiers. Caesar;s army was good coz they were skilled and fascinated. The solider is good enough that they can make deciscion in the group, they don’t need Caesar to make decisions Greek asset of roman asrm is that they can get back to their feet quick after being defeated… never giving up. Caesat built defencive wall. One face inward towards the Vetingtric and one faceing outwards facing the rest of the gallic coumminty. He believe to have been a grest tatic Caesar’s success was to his ;ersonal leadership… lo ved his soliders personally He was in front line in some fight.. setting examples to his soldier. His an inspiration Finally Caesar won… gallic communities lose Every movement is motivated by potilical forces. After the war, he conqured Gaul… still no t happy his ambition is to take over rome. Later on he moved with his to Italy and had civil war with pompey. 28