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Midterm Review Project Module 31: Memory- learning that has persisted over time; it has been acquired, stored, and can be retrieved In order to remember something it must be: ● Encoded- perceived by the brain ● Stored- retained in the brain for a long period of time ● Retrieved- come back out of storage and into conscious thought Parallel Processing- the ability for multiple pieces of information to be processed and remembered by the brain at the same time Types of Memory: ● Sensory Memory- short fleeting memories that include everything that the brain perceives ● Short-term/Working Memory- The first place where memory is encoded, information here is being rehearsed so it can be stored in long-term memory ● Long-term Memory- a nearly infinite space where all fully processed memories go for later retrieval Rehearsal- the practicing of information in short-term memory so it may be stored in long-term memory Module 32: Implicit Memory- memories that cannot be recalled; they are stored in the subconscious, but still affect behavior Ex: ● Time of events happening ● Frequency of things throughout the day Explicit Memory- memories formed consciously, and can be recalled Ex: ● Facts/Information ● Witnessed events Memories are stored in: ● Hippocampus- long-term, explicit memories ● Cerebellum- subconscious, implicit memories ● Amygdala- stores particularly emotional memories Recall- the retrieval of previously learned information Recognition- the identification of previously learned information Factors that Affect Recall/Recognition: ● Priming- the activation of a particular association(s) in memory ● Serial Positioning Effect- the tendency to recall the first and last items in a list ● Mood-Congruent Memory- the tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s current mood Module 33: Two types of amnesia: ● Anterograde Amnesia- the inability to form new memories ● Retrograde amnesia- the inability to recall old memories Memory Decay- the fading of memory time due to a lack of use of the skill/information over Memory decay occurs at the rate shown on this chart, known as the forgetting curve Proactive Interference- the disruption by an old memory on the formation of new memories Retroactive Interference- the disruption by a new memory on the recall of old memories Repression- the defense mechanism that removes unpleasant memories from conscious thought Motivated Forgetting- the intentional repression of a memory Module 34: ● Cognition: Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information ● Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, and people ● Prototypes: Mental images or best example of a category ● Divergent Thinking: Expands Number of possible solutions (used in creative thinking) ● Convergent Thinking: Narrows available problem solutions into the one best solution 5 Uses of Creativity 1. Expertise: Well-developed base knowledge 2. Imaginative thinking skills: Ability to see things in a novel way 3. Venturesome personality: Seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risks, and preservers 4. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by interest, satisfaction, and challenge, rather that external pressures 5. Creative Environment: Supports and refines creative behavior 2 Types of Concepts: ● Natural Concepts: Imprecise mental classification that develop out of everyday experiences ● Artificial Concepts: Defined by a set of rules and characteristics, such as a dictionary definition or math equation ● Schema: General framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations ● Script: Schemas about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in a particular order Module 35: Problem Solving Techniques: ● Algorithms: Methodical, logical rule, that uses steps to guarantee an answer ● Heuristic: Simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgements ● Insight: Sudden realization of probable solution ● Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for answers that support preconceptions and ignore new evidence ● Fixation: Inability to see a probable solution from a fresh perspective ● Intuition: Fast, automatic, unreasoned thoughts ● Representativeness Heuristics: Saying likelihood in terms of how much they match the prototype ● Availability Heuristics: Likelihood of events based on availability in memory ● Overconfidence: Tendency to be more confident than correct ● Framing: Way an issue or question is posed and can affect bias 3 Types of Problems: 1. Introducing Structure: Requires you to determine the relationship between elements 2. Arrangement: Requires you to arrange different elements to fulfill a particular criteria 3. Transformation: Requires you to make a series of changes to fulfill a particular criteria Module 36: ● Language: Spoken, written, or signed words used for communication ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Phonemes: Smallest, distinctive unit that in language Morpheme: Smallest unit that carries meaning Grammar: System of rules that enables us to communicate with other Receptive Language: Baby’s ability to understand what is said to and about the, Productive Language: Ability to produce words; matures after receptive language Babbling stage: Around 4 months, babies utter sounds at first unrelated to household language Universal Grammar: All human languages have nouns, verbs, etc Critical period: Time in childhood where it is easier to master parts of language Aphasia: Impairment of language, usually by damage to frontal lobe or Broca’s (language expression) or Wernicke’s area (language comprehension and expression) Linguistic Determinism: Language determines the way we think