Download Microbiology 221 Study Outline Exam 1

Microbiology 221
Study Outline
Exam 1
Chapters 1 and 10.
1.
Know the background, and pertinent contributions that each of the following individuals have made to
microbiology.
Robert Hooke, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, Philip Semmelweis, Francesco Redi, Rudolf Virchow,
Louis Pasteur, Edward Jenner, Paul Ehrlich, Alexander Fleming, Robert Koch, Joseph Lister.
2.
Compare the theories of Spontaneous Generation and Biogenesis. Explain how Biogenesis was proven over
the theory of Spontaneous Generation.
3.
Koch’s Postulates: What are they used for, describe them, and under what circumstances may they be
inadequate?
4.
Describe the various aspects of the Scientific Method.
5.
What are the 5 kingdoms of life. Describe the characteristics of each of the kingdoms. Given a description
of an unknown organism be able to place it into its correct kingdom. Also, Name the seven taxonomic
categories in order of the most specific to the most inclusive.
6.
Describe the three kingdom classification scheme. Given a description of an unknown organism be able to
place it into its correct kingdom.
7.
What is the binomial system of nomenclature?
8.
Describe in some detail the three techniques discussed in class which are commonly used to identify and
classify unknown microorganisms. What is each technique testing for?
9.
Define the following terms:
species
strain
enterotube
chemotherapy
antibodies
methanogens
halophiles
thermoacidophile
conjugation
taxonomy
Chapter 3
1.
What is a simple microscope? A compound microscope?
2.
Describe the pathway in which light passes through a microscope to your eye.
3.
When looking through a microscope, how do you calculate the total magnification?
4.
Describe, and identify the use for the following microscopes:
a.
Bright field microscope
b.
Dark field microscope
c.
Phase contrast microscope
d.
Fluorescence microscope
e.
Transmission electron microscope
f.
Scanning electron microscope.
5.
What is the difference between simple stains, differential stains and special stains? What are the advantages
of each of these?
6.
List the steps in preparing a Gram stain, describe the appearance of gram-positive and gram-negative cells
after each step.
7.
Describe an Acid Fast stain including what dyes are used and how they react with the cell. What two
important pathogens does this procedure detect?
8.
What type of stain is a negative stain? Why would you do a negative stain? What type of dyes are used in a
negative stain?
9.
Are the following dyes basic or acidic?
Eosin, crystal violet, safrin, methyl blue, nigrosin, india ink.
10.
Define, resolution, refraction, reflection, mordant, basic dye, acidic dye, counterstain, and Mycolic acid.
Chapter 4
1.
List the distinguishing characteristics of procaryotes from eucaryotes.
2.
Identify and name the three basic shapes of bacteria in their various arrangements.
3.
Be able to identify the four basic types of flagellar arrangements.
4.
What is the function of each of the following prokaryotic cell structures: Axial filaments, fimbriae, pili,
glycocalyx, cell wall and cell membrane.
5.
Discuss the various methods by which material is passed across the plasma membrane. Which are energy
(ATP) dependant? Which are energy (ATP) independent?
6.
Why is an endospore called a resting structure? Of what advantage is an endospore to a bacterial cell?
7.
Diagram and label the various structures of both gram+ and gram - bacterial cell walls.
8.
Which sugar is the peptide cross bridge linked to? Which sugar is the tetrapeptide linked to?
9.
What is the function of teichoic acid in Gram + cell walls.
10. Discuss why the lipopolysaccharide layer is clinically important?
11. Describe the various functions that the outer membrane of a gram-bacteria serve.
12. What is the function of the periplasmic space?
13. Name the various types of proteins in the bacteria cell wall. What is the function of each?
14. How does the flagella of eucaryotes differ from the flagella of procaryotes?
15. What is the function of the following eucaryotic organelles: Endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, golgi complex,
mitochondria, lysosomes, cilia, and vacuoles.
16. Discuss the evidence that supports the endosymbiotic hypothesis of eucaryotic evolution.
17. Define the following terms: chemotaxis, run and tumble, capsule, pilin, hypotonic, hypertonic, lysozyme,
and, active transport.
Exam 2
1.
Chapter 5
Define the following terms: Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism, aerobic respiration, and fermentation.
2.
What is meant by oxidation-reduction. Explain how ATP is generated by oxidation-reduction reactions in the
electron transport. What is the ultimate electron acceptor in aerobic respiration.
3.
Know figure 5.16 and table 5.3. ( be sure to know the beginning reactant entering each pathway as well as the
final end product leaving it).
4.
To break down a glucose molecule completely, how many passes through the krebs cycle are required?
5.
Describe the location where each of the following events occur in eukaryotic organisms. Glycolysis, Krebs
cycle, electron transport, and build up of H+ ions.
6.
Where do each of the events listed in question 5 occur in prokaryotic organisms?
7.
In fermentation, NADH is oxidized to NAD+ without the production of ATP. How do organisms which
ferment carbohydrates generate ATP ?
Chapter 6
1.
Define growth as pertaining to microorganisms.
2.
What are three important physical requirements for bacterial growth?
3.
Name the three temperature classes that bacteria are grouped into. What is the optimal temperature for each
class?
4.
5.
Contrast the difference between the terms obligative and faculatitive.
At what pH does most bacteria grow?
6.
Name the three pH classes that bacteria are grouped into.
7.
Define plasmolysis, halophiles, aerobes, anaerobes microaerophile, Facultative anaerobes and aerotolerant.
8.
What nutritional chemicals are needed for bacterial growth? Describe the purpose for each one.
9.
What are trace elements, and what are they used for?
10.
What are organic growth factors?
11.
What is Agar? Identify the characteristics that are important for its use in laboratory media.
12.
Compare and contrast each of the following types of media: Chemically defined media, Complex media,
Anaerobic growth media, selective media, deferential media and enrichment broth.
Chapter 7
1.
When heating a substance to eliminate microbes, how would you describe their pattern of death?
2.
Understand how the American official Analytical Chemist’s dilution test works. What microorganisms are
used in the test as a standard?
3.
What is the difference between a bactericidal and a bacteriostatic solution?
4.
How effective is pasteurization as a means of killing bacteria?
5.
Under what circumstances would you use membrane filtration instead of an autoclave?
6.
What disinfecting agent does Bleach use to kill microbes?
7.
At what concentration is ethyl alcohol most effective at killing bacteria?
8.
What is the mechanism by which alcohol kills microbes?
9.
Why is selenium used is some shampoos?
10.
What is the decimal reduction time?
11.
How do phenolics exert there action of microbial control?
12.
Define the following terms: disinfectant, antiseptic, TDT, tincture, Iodophor, sterilization.
Chapter 8
1.
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
2.
3.
Describe a DNA molecule, particularly the nucleotides and how the nucleotides fit together. Which bases pair
with each other? What groups make up the railing of the staircase, which make up the steps?
DNA and Histone subunits are called what?
4.
Define a gene.
5.
Understand DNA replication. What do the DNA strands serve as during DNA synthesis?
6.
In what direction does DNA polymerase join nucleotides?
7.
Describe the direction in which replication proceeds around a bacterial chromosome.
8.
Name and describe the enzymes that are involved in DNA replication.
9.
What are the different types of RNA and what is each of their functions in protein synthesis?
10.
Define transcription in a single sentence.
11.
Describe the process of transcription.
12.
Understand how the sequence of codons gives rise to specific proteins.
13.
What is a gene mutation? Describe the various mechanisms that were discussed in class that cause these
mutations.
14.
Explain the regulation of gene expression in bacteria by induction, repression, and catabolic repression.
Understand the lack operon and how it is controlled.
15.
Contrast the difference between bacterial conjugation and transduction.
Exam 3
Chapter 16
Nonspecific Defenses of the host
Define the following terms:
ciliary escalator
Sebum
Phagocyte
leukocyte
Stratum corneum
M cells
vasodilation
acetylsalicylic
cytolysis
Transferrins
Chemotaxis
edema
margination
opsonization
kinins (Bradykinnin)
inflammation
Prostaglandin
diapedesis
Pyrogen
Describe the three main lines of defense of the human body. Which are specific and which are non-specific
responses?
Which parts of the body make up the outside barrier? Describe the characteristics each of these have that inhibit
infection
What is the cause of inflammation?
What is the role if histamine and prostaglandins in the inflammatory response? What cells are primarily responsible
for the production of histamine?
What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation and what are their causes?
What are the 2 primary types of phagocytes involved in the inflammatory response? How do they migrate into
inflamed tissue?
Describe the processes of phagocytosis.
What causes fever? What are the benefits of fever? Describe how aspirin works to control fever.
Of the 2 types of complement pathways, which is specific and which is nonspecific?
Which molecules form a complex to activate C3 in the classical pathway? What is needed to form a C3 activation
complex in the alternative pathway?
Describe the various defensive mechanisms associated with each of the following molecules:
C3a, C3b, and C5a.
Which complement molecules make up the membrane attack complex?
What is the main function of interferons and how do they work?
What are the three types of interferon, and what type of cells produce these interferon?
Chapter 17
Specific Defense of the Host
1.
What are the two main branches of the specific immune response? What cells are involved with each branch?
What type of antigens or cells do each branch target. Which branch is MHC restricted?
2.
What part of the body are the cells of the immune system derived from.
3.
Outline the events which lead to the maturation of T-cells (both Tc and Th)
4.
Describe the mechanisms in place which work to keep your immune system from attacking your healthy body
cells. Why do organ transplants fail.
5.
Describe what changes take place in a T-cell when its TCR binds to a target.
6.
Describe the primary and co-stimulatory signals that activate a Th cell.
7.
What is the main function of T-helper cells.
8.
By what mechanism do T-cells remove pathogens.
9.
Why are there different classes of MHC molecules.
10.
Describe the signals required to activate B-cells and cause them to differentiate and proliferate. What type of
cells do B-cells differentiate into.
11.
Describe the six protective mechanisms that antibodies provide when they bind to antigen.
12.
Describe the structure of a typical antibody (Light chain, heave chain, variable and constant regions, hinge
region, Fc and Fab_
13.
Name and describe each of the functions for the various types of antibodies.
14.
Describe
Chapter 18
Immunization
1.
Define the following terms:
Active immunity
Passive immunity
vaccine
Herd immunity
Conjugated vaccine
Toxoid
Attenuated
DTP
Booster
Nucleic-acid vaccine
OPV
MMR
HBV
Anamnestic
2.
Explain why vaccines work.
3.
Contrast the difference between active and passive immunity. Give examples of both.
4.
What are the two major groups of vaccines
5.
Discuss the benefits as well as the risk of attenuated vaccines over other types of vaccines
6.
What are inactivated vaccines and how are they inactivated. What advantage do inactivated vaccines have over
attenuated vaccines.
7.
What are the safest types of vaccines.
8.
What is the advantage of conjugated vaccines.
9.
What are the advantages of Nucleic-acid vaccines.
Chapter 19
1. Define the following terms. Hypersensitivity, autoimmunity, Rh, HLA, Privileged sites.
2. Name the four types of hypersensitivity. With each of these 4 types describe the time that
elapses between first contact and when the first clinical signs appear.
3. What type of substances cause type I anaphylactic reaction?
4. Describe how an anaphylactic reaction occurs. Include the main type of cell involved, the type
and chemical mediators.
5. Describe the physiological mechanisms involved that would cause someone with an
go into shock. Why would they have trouble breathing?
of proteins,
anaphylactic reaction to
6. What is the difference between systemic anaphylaxis and localized anaphylaxis? Is there a
move of transmission between them?
difference in the
7. How do allergy shots work to desensitize one to an allergy?
8. What components of the immune system mediate Type II cytotoxic reaction?
9. What are two examples of the Type II response which we discussed in class?
10. What would the results of the following blood transfusions be?
Donor
Recipient
O
AB
AB
O
A
AB
OO+
A+
A11. When is the Rh factor important in pregnancy?
12. Name the components of the immune system that mediate a Type III hypersensitivity reaction. Describe how
these components work together to cause disease.
13. Describe how a delayed type hypersensitivity reaction occurs.
14. How does self tolerance occur? How can self tolerance break down?
15. How do animals tolerate pregnancy without rejecting the fetus?
16. What type of hypersensitivity reactions are responsible for the following autoimmune diseases? Graves disease,
Myasthenia gravis, Systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis.
Exam 4
Chapter 13
Define the following terms:
Lysogeny
Primary cell line
Capsid
Eclipse period
Plaque
Embryonic cell lines
Capsomere
Burst time
Continuous cell line
Host range
Plague forming units (PFU)
Endocytosis
Are viruses living entities? What is the evidence to support that they are not?
How are viruses different from bacteria?
Describe the different morphological types of capsids.
What are the spikes used for on enveloped viruses?
Contrast between specialized and general transduction.
What are the various methods used to culture viruses? How is culturing bacteria different?
Know the basic stages of infection that both bacteriophages as well as animal viruses use to infect a cell. What is
going on in each of these stages?
How can Lysogeny effect the host cell?
What criteria is used to group viruses into classifications?
Know in detail the steps for multiplication of DNA, RNA+ and reteroviridae viruses.
Chapter 14
Define the following terms:
Pathology
Etiology
vectors
Zoonoses
vehicle transmission
nosocomial infection
infection
normal flora
chronic infection
contact transmission
Fomites
host
bacteriocins
Reservoirs
prodromal period
epidemiology
disease
microbial antagonism
vectors
Compromised host
Know the following concepts
1.
Compare and contrast normal, transient and opportunistic microbes
2.
What is a symbiotic relationship. Describe the 3 different types.
3.
Are antibacterial soaps always good? Explain
4.
What type of conditions would lead to a compromised immune system?
5.
What type of infection is the most common nosocomial infection? What type of bacteria are responsible for most
nosocomial infections?
6.
What are the three main reservoirs for infection?
7.
What are the three main ways to transmit a diseas?
8.
What is the difference between direct contact, indirect contact, and Droplet transmission?
9.
What is the difference between Mechanical and Biological vectors
10. List the five stages of disease in the order they occur. What ate the most imortant features of each period?
Carefully describe when each period occurs and ends. During which period is a patient most contagious.
During which period is a person most likely to spread the disease.
Disease Handout
Disease name:
Etiology:
Virulence factors:
Attachment:
Portal of entry:
Evade the immune system:
Distruction:
Mode of Transmission:
Reservoir:
Signs and Symptoms:
Prophylaxis:
Secondary infections
History: