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Scientific Method Scientific Method- 1.) Make an observation 2.) Ask a question 3.) Make a hypothesis 4.) Test your hypothesis 5.) Analyze your data 6.) Form a conclusion 7.) Publish your information Experimental Design Controlled Experiment-only one variable is changed at a time Independent Variable-variable that changes throughout experiment Dependent Variable-the part of the experiment being measured Control Group-will not get tested Experimental Group-will be tested Nature of Life Organism-a living thing Nutrition-process of taking in food and necessary nutrients Transport-movement of materials within the body Respiration-process of making energy Reproduction-creating more of the same Regulation-maintaining homeostasis Excretion-removal of wastes Growth-development or an increase in size Synthesis-to make, combining simple parts to make complex products Homeostasis-a stable state maintained by the body Metabolism-all the chemical processes occurring in the body Classification Classification-grouping organisms based on similar traits Binomial Nomenclature-2 word naming system Dichotomous Key-a series of statements about characteristics used to identify species Biochemistry Acid-pH of less than 7 Base-pH of greater than 7, also called alkaline pH-measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance, scale ranges from 1-14 Element-make up life, can’t be broken down; ex.) Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) Proton-make up elements, contains a positive charge Electron-make up elements, contains a negative charge Neutron-make up elements, has no charge Compound-2 elements chemically bonded Enzyme-speeds up chemical reaction Organic Compound-contains C, H and O Inorganic Compound-does not contain C, H and O Carbohydrate-provide quick energy, ex: starch, sugars Protein-longer-lasting energy, made of amino acids, ex: meat Amino Acid-building block of proteins DNA-deoxyribonucleic acid, genetic information, passed from one generation to the next, “blueprint” RNA-ribonucleic acid, helps in creation of proteins Lipid-fat ex: waxes, oils Cells Organelle-parts of the cell Eukaryote-has a nucleus Prokaryote-doesn’t have a nucleus Nucleus-control center of cell, holds DNA Cytoplasm-jelly-like substance that fills cell Cell Membrane-surrounds outside of animal cell, just inside cell wall of plant cell, controls what enters and exits cell Cell Wall-provides support and structure to the outside of plant cells Golgi Apparatus-cellular “post office”, packages and ships proteins throughout cell Mitochondria-“powerhouse” of cell, site of cellular respiration Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough)-cellular transportation system Ribosome-site of protein synthesis, found “free” floating in cytoplasm or attached to rough ER Chloroplast-site of photosynthesis, found only in plants Chlorophyll-pigment responsible for plant’s green color, traps sunlight energy for photosynthesis, found in the chloroplasts Lysosome-contains enzymes to breakdown wastes Vacuole-storage, mostly of water Stomate-opening in a leaf where exchange of gases takes place Guard Cell-controls the opening and closing of the stomate Cell Processes-Photosynthesis, Respiration, Diffusion, Osmosis, Active Transport Diffusion-movement of substances across a membrane from areas of high concentration to low concentration Osmosis-movement of WATER across a membrane from areas of high concentration to low concentration Active Transport-movement of substances across a membrane from areas of LOW concentration to HIGH concentration, takes ATP Selective Permeability-the ability to let some substances through a membrane while keeping others out Photosynthesis-how plants make food, H2O+CO2 light Respiration-the process of making energy, C6H12O6+O2 Glucose-sugar, C6H12O6, energy ATP-energy C6H12O6+O2 H2O+CO2+ATP Ecology Food Chain-series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten Species-group of the same organisms that can breed and create fertile offspring Ecosystem-a collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with the physical environment Biome-group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities Limiting Factor-something that causes the growth of a population to decrease Biotic- living Abiotic-nonliving Biodiversity-biological diversity, having many different species in an area Cell Division Mitosis-cell division ProphaseMetaphaseAnaphaseTelophaseCytokinesisInterphaseDiploid-2 sets of chromosomes, double chromosomes Haploid-1 set of chromosomes Cancer-uncontrolled cell growth Gamete-sex cell; male=sperm, female=egg Meiosis-cell division to reduce number of chromosomes, done in gametes Crossing Over-when chromosomes exchange genetic material, causing greater variation Genetics Trait-a specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another Hybrid-offspring of parents with different traits Ex.) green pea plant crossed with yellow pea plant Gene-chemical factors that determine traits, found on chromosomes Allele-different forms of genes (blue, green, brown eyes) Gamete-sex cells, male=sperm, female=egg Punnett square-shows the gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross Heterozygous-2 different alleles for the same trait Homozygous-2 identical alleles for the same trait Phenotype-physical characteristics Genotype-genetic makeup Dominant-Stronger allele, shown by using capital letter Recessive-weaker allele, shown by using lower-case letter Incomplete Dominance-when one allele is not completely dominant over another, ex.) white and red flower crosses create pink flowers Codominance-both alleles contribute to the phenotype, ex.) chickens with black and white feathers Polygenic traits-multiple genes controlling one trait, producing wider variations, ex.) skin color Homologous-having a corresponding partner, ex.) chromosome from father and homologous chromosome containing same genes from mother DNA and RNA Nucleotide-unit that makes up DNA, each contains a sugar, phosphate and a nitrogenous base Adenine (A)-nitrogenous DNA and RNA base, purine, pairs with Thymine (T) in DNA, Uracil (U) in RNA Thymine (T)-nitrogenous DNA base only, pyrimidine, pairs with Adenine (A) Uracil (U)-nitrogenous RNA base only, pairs with Adenine (A) Cytosine (C)-nitrogenous DNA and RNA base, pyrimidine, pairs with Guanine (G) Guanine (G)-nitrogenous DNA and RNA base, purine, pairs with Cytosine (C) DNA Replication-the process DNA used to copy itself to prepare for cell division DNA Polymerase-enzyme needed for DNA replication mRNA-messenger RNA, template for proteins rRNA-ribosomal RNA, moves from nucleus to ribosome for protein synthesis tRNA-transfer RNA, brings amino acids to mRNA template to build protein Transcription-creation of mRNA, first step in protein synthesis Codon-3 consecutive nucleotides that specify a certain amino acid Translation-decoding mRNA to create a protein Mutation-change in genetic material Human Physiology Reproductive System-different in males and females Immune System-protects the body from foreign substances Innate Immunity-occurs naturally, does not involve any vaccinations or exposure to disease Acquired Immunity-occurs after exposure to pathogen, can be active (ex-from vaccines) or passive (ex-from mother) Pathogen-anything that causes a disease Ex.) virus, bacteria Vaccine-used to create immunity to a specific disease, uses a weak version of the disease Antibody-bind to antigens, protect us Antigen-cause immune reaction, cause production of antibodies HIV/AIDS-Human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, our own body attacks itself Antibiotics-kill bacteria, used to treat diseases Endocrine System-controls metabolism, hormones Gland-a cell (or group of cells) that make secretions Ex.) thyroid Circulatory System-controls movement of blood, transport of nutrients to cells, exchange of gases Respiratory System-breathing, taking in 02, releasing CO2 Nervous System-controls impulses Digestive System-responsible for breaking down food and releasing nutrients Excretory System-responsible for removal of wastes Skeletal, Muscular and Integumentary Systems-responsible for coordinated movement Evolution Evolution-change over time Adaptation-changing to better fit into your environment Evidence of Evolution- 1.) fossil record 2.) geographic distribution of related species 3.) Embryo similarities 4.) Homologous structures of species Fitness-ability of an organism to survive in its environment Artificial Selection-breeding organisms for specific characteristics, selective breeding Natural Selection-survival of the fittest, adapt or die Selective Pressure-a factor that affects evolution, ex.) lack of food/water, competition Genetic Drift-change in allele frequency that occurs with evolution Speciation-creating new species, usually by some type of isolation Phylogenetic (evolutionary) Tree-used to show the evolutionary relationships between organisms Plant and Animal Kingdoms Vascular Tissue-transports water and nutrients through plant Xylem-carries water from roots up into plants Phloem-carries nutrients from photosynthesis throughout plant Gymnosperms-have seeds directly on the surface of cones Angiosperms-flowering plants, have seeds within a layer of protective tissue Conifer-plant that contains cones ex.) pine trees Pollination-transfer of pollen from male to female reproductive structures Seed-plant embryo Monocot-plants with 1 seed leaf (cotyledon) in the embryo ex.) corn Dicot-plants with 2 seed leaves (cotyledons) in the embryo ex.) carrot Cotyledon-first leaf (or leaves) produced by an embryo Stamen-male reproductive flower parts, made up of anther and filament Pistil-female reproductive flower parts, made up of ovary, style and stigma Invertebrate-animal lacking a backbone Vertebrate-animal that has a backbone Chordate-animal that has a central nerve cord