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Chapter 3 The Human Brain presented by Isaac Brundage & Charles Small The Brain Gym Overview of the Brain • The brain is a complex organ that is organized and functions on several levels that can be broken down into both a micro and macroscopic regions. • At the microscopic level we have the basic nerve cell, the neuron, which is interconnected into a network of neurons that transects, crisscrosses, and connects every cell and sensory organs to the brain. • At the macroscopic level these nerve fibers form clusters in the brain creating distinct regions which after years of empirical study have been assigned different functions by scientists over the years. The Neuron • • • • The Neuron is a specialized cell that is designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle or gland cells and it is the basic working unit of the brain. The brain exists because of the structural and functional properties of these interconnected neurons. The brain contains between 1 billion and 100 billion neurons depending on the species of animal in question. The neuron consists of a cell body that contains the nucleus and cytoplasm, dendrites, and an axon. The dendrite of one nerve cell connects with the axon of another. These contact points are call synapses and information is transmitted along these nerve cells as electrical impulses. Axons are covered with a layer of myelin sheath which also functions to speed the transmission of electrical impulses along the axon. Neurotransmitters • Neurotransmitters, for example, serotonin and dopamine functions as chemical messengers/ regulators that allow the electrical energy that travels along the nerve cells to cross the different synapses they encounter. • Interruptions or deficiencies in these neurotransmitters often lead to some diseases in humans. • For example, the degeneration of neutrons that produce dopamine leads to Parkinson disease while an excess of dopamine is associated with the hallucinations that occur with Schizophrenia (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 1997). Building a Brain • By the third week of gestation, the embryo folds in on itself to form a trough and then fuses over to form a tube. The head of the tube becomes the brain and 50% of the tail becomes the spinal cord. • Neutrons are disseminated throughout the embryo and form connections with the different cells and organs. And electrical activity is usually detectable by the third month. • Normal brain development can be hindered by several factors including malnutrition, physical injury, and the ingestion of harmful substances by the mother including alcohol (Gredler, 2009). Building a Brain • Following birth the brain undergoes lengthy periods of development and by age 20 the average weight of the human brain has increased from 350gms at birth to 1350grams (Blinkov & Gleser, 1968). • Growth in reference to the brain is the lengthening and branching of nerve fibers and these occur exuberantly in the early months and years of life. This is usually followed by periods of loss and reduction in the number of synapses to adult levels. • These growth spurts varies across the cortical regions, for example, in the visual cortex it begins at age 1 and is completed by age 10. Macroscopic Organization • At the macroscopic level the brain is divided into subcortical and cortical. • The subcortical refers to the region below the cortex and consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and the cerebellum. • Each of these regions are divided into twin halves—the left and right hemispheres of the brain with the exception of the cerebellum which is attached to the brain stem. • These structures are responsible for low level tasks including processing sensory information, monitoring internal states, equilibrium and rerouting information to name a few. Structure Function Thalamus Collections of nuclei that each process a particular type of sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory, tactile). One set of nuclei integrates this information and communicates with the prefrontal cortex. Hypothalamus Collections of nuclei that each monitor an internal state(e.g., food intake, liquid intake, body temperature). One set of nuclei regulates hormone release from the pituitary gland. Amygdala The key entry point for emotional learning; provides rapid, precognitive, affective assessment of a situation in the context of survival value (Goldberg, 2001, p.13). Cerebellum Responsible for muscle coordination, fine motor movements, and equilibrium. Research also indicates that it contributes to complex planning (e.g., Grafman et al., 1992). Macroscopic Organization • The learning of new information begins in the Hippocampus. Hormonal processes influence the health and death of neurons in the brain. • Stress and the aging process results in increased amounts of cortisol which in turns accelerates cell death in the hippocampus. This is often manifest itself as Alzheimer’s disease in the elderly. Macroscopic Organization • The neocortex covers the subcortical regions in the brain and consists of four major lobes that process the different types of information received from other parts of the brain. • Visual information received from the thalamus is processed in the occipital lobes, auditory information is processed in the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe, while the parietal lobes process information about tactile sensations. • The frontal lobes consist of the primary motor cortex which controls voluntary motor movements and the prefrontal lobes. Cognitive and Educational Issues • Linking brain structures and Functions – 3 organizations of the brain that researchers have linked to functions….. – Brain centers – Areas of specialization – Brain systems Brain Centers and Areas of Specialization • The concept of Brain Centers is the belief that there are separate brain centers that are responsible for separate function. • Areas of Specialization is the belief that the brain is divided into different areas (like hemispheres) and each area has a different function (ex. left brain – analytical; right brain – creativity) Brain Systems • Interconnected unites of the brain each contribute to systems that are responsible for separable functions…. – Meaning, no single part of the brain is responsible for vision, language, social behavior, or other complex capabilities. – Or “integrated brain functions” Misapplications of Some Brain Research • Rationale of policymakers for providing enriched environments for children prior to age of 3 • The idea that brain development is critical between ages 3 and 5 – Text states – not supported by neurobiological data – “Let your children play and have fun”…Isaac Brundage Current Research Methods • Development of neuroimaging – Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) • Potential of brain research – Understanding of cognition and learning – Life long learning – Principles of information processing Administration • How do I make the connection as a school level administrator, as a district level administrator, as a policy maker, as a designer of curriculum, as a staff or team leader…..? Class Activities • Divide into 4 groups – each group will respond to the following questions: – Based on the articles on Angel and the information in the chapter, list ways brain research can assist when implementing staff development. Give examples of the types of activities or tasks. – Based on the articles on Angel and the information in the chapter, what types of activities would be included when developing student curriculum? Reference • Blinkov, S.M., & Gleser, I.I. (1968). The human brain in figures and tables: A quantitative handbook. New York: Plenum Press. • Goldberg, E. (2001.) The executive brain: Frontal lobes and the civilized mind. New York: Oxford University Press. • Grafman, G. J., Litvan, I., Massaquoi, S., Stewart, M., Sirigu, A., Hallett, M. (1992). Cognitive planning deficit in patients with cerebrellar atrophy. Neurology, 42(8), 1493-1496. • Gredler, Margaret. (2009). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice. New Jersey: Pearson • Hockenbury, D.H., & Hockenbury, S.E., (1997) Psychology. New York: Worth.