Download Chapter 21: Toward Empire, 1867-1902

CHAPTER 21: TOWARD EMPIRE, 1867-1902
-
many respected people believed that nations needed to fight every now and then to prove their power
and test the national spirit
o Theodore Roosevelt – nations needed to fight in order to survive
 wanted war with Spain for three reasons:
 1. freeing Cubs and expelling Spain from the hemisphere
 2. benefit done to people by giving them something to think of which wasn’t
material gain
 3. the army and navy needed the practice
- 1898 – officers supplied their own uniforms
o Roosevelt, wanting to be stylish contacted Brooks Brothers and chose to enlist his own
regiment
- First United States Cavalry – an intriguing mixture of Ivy League athletes and western frontiersman
o the Rough Riders
 went through training camp at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas
 was intended to toughen the men in the heat among cactus, mesquite, and rattlesnakes
 were prepared for battle and rock hard by the end
 trained hard, played harder, and rarely passed up a chance for an intellectual discussion
 discipline was lax, and enlisted men got on easily with the officers
o joined the invasion of Cuba
 the troopship that picked them up had room for the men, but not their horses
 in the fighting they would be on foot like any infantry unit – only a few officers had
horses
America Looks Outward
- expansion of the 1890s was different
o sought to gain island possessions
o new territories were intended less for settlement than they were for use as naval bases, trading
outposts, or commercial centers on major trade routes
 were viewed as colonies, not as states-in-the-making
- “the great aberration” – a time when a country adopted expansionist policies that did not fit with prior
experience
- Catching the Spirit of Empire
o Americans enjoyed “free security” without fully appreciating it
 were sheltered by two oceans and the British navy
o could pronounce bold policies like the Monroe Doctrine – which instructed European nations to
stay out of the affairs of the Western Hemisphere, while remaining virtually impregnable to
foreign attack
 because of this sense of security some people urged abolition of the foreign service
o Americans began to take an increasing interest in events abroad
 growing sense of internationalism
o continued to be interested in expansion of the country’s borders – relatively few were
interested in imperialism
 imperialism – meant the imposition of control over other peoples through annexation,
military conquest, or economic domination
o end of the frontier – announced officially in the census report of 1890 – sparked fears about
diminishing opportunities at home
 further growth they believed must take place abroad
o both farmers and industrialists looked for new overseas markets – growing volume of exports –
including more and more manufactured goods – changed the nature of American trade
relations with the world
o James G. Blaine – argued for the vital importance of foreign markets to continued economic
growth
 aggressively sought wider markets – Latin America, Asia, and Africa – using tariff
reciprocity agreements and other measures
 he pushed for the creation of an international, Western Hemisphere
organization intended to promote trade, peace, and commerce among the sister
American republics
 1889 – formation of the Pan-American Union what is now called the
Organization of American States
o caught in a worldwide scramble for empire
 idea of imperialistic expansion was in the air – great powers measured their greatness
by the colonies they acquired
o intellectual currents that supported expansion drew on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
 applied to human and social development – Social Darwinism
 triumph of the fit and strong and ordain the elimination of the weak and
backwards
o “biogenetic law” – formulated by German biologist Ernst Haeckel – suggested that the
development of the race paralleled the development of the individual
 primitive peoples were in the arrested stages of childhood or adolescence – needed
supervision and protection
o John Fiske – Anglo-Saxon racial superiority, a result of the process of natural selection and
would spread to bring the advances of commerce and democratic institutions worldwide
o John W. Burgess – people of English origin were destined to impose their political institutions
on the world
o Josiah Strong – suggested the strength of the developing ideas and was a champion of overseas
missionary work
 Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis – called on foreign missions to
civilize the world under the Anglo-Saxon races
 made the author a national celebrity
 argued for expanding American trade and dominion
 by exporting both trade and religion, Americans could civilize and Christianize “inferior”
races around the world
-
o developments in social, political, and economic thought prepared Americans for a larger role in
the world
 change was gradual and there was never a day when people awoke with a sudden
realization of their interests overseas
o Americans now felt the need for a foreign “policy”
Foreign Policy Approaches, 1867-1900
o Europe promoted trade and tried to avoid diplomatic entanglements
o North and South America used the Monroe Doctrine, a recurrent dream of annexing Canada or
Mexico, a hope for extensive trade, and Pan-American unity against the nations of the Old
World
o Pacific – coveted Hawaii and other outposts on the sea-lanes to China
o Secretary of State William Henry Seward – developed a vision of an American empire stretching
south into Latin America and west to the shores of Asia
 vision included Canada and Mexico
 islands in the Caribbean as strategic bases to protect a canal across the isthmus
 Hawaii and other islands as stepping-stones to Asia
 tried unsuccessfully to negotiate a commercial treaty with Hawaii in 1867
 annexed the Midway Islands
o treaty with Russia for the purchase of Alaska – “Seward’s Folly
 Seward believed that as the American empire spread that Mexico City would become its
capital
o Secretary of State Hamilton Fish – signed the Treaty of Washington providing for arbitration of
the Alabama issue and other nettlesome controversies
 promoted the independence of Cuba, restive under Spanish rule, while holding off the
annexation desired by the more eager Grant
o Grant tried to annex Santo Domingo
o James G. Blaine – laid extensive plans to establish closer commercial relations with Latin
America
o Frederick T. Frelinghuysen – wanted to find Caribbean markets for American goods and
negotiated separate reciprocity treaties with Mexico, Cuba and Puerto Rico, the British West
Indies, Santo Domingo, and Colombia
 hoped not only to obtain markets for American goods, but to also bind these countries
to American interests
 moved again to expand markets in Latin America
 hemispheric system of peaceful relations, arbitration of disputes, and expanded trade
 wanted to annex Hawaii
o Harrison and Blaine – focused on Pan-Americanism and tariff reciprocity
 International Bureau of the American Republics – renamed the Pan-American Union for
the exchange of general information, including political, scientific, and cultural
knowledge
 led to later meetings promoting trade and other agreements
o hoped to divert Latin American trade from Europe to the United States

-
lobbied for a reciprocity provision in the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 – reciprocity
treaties with most Latin American nations
 failed to foster the hoped-for trade because of the depression
 greater American exports of flour, grain, meat, iron, and machinery
o Grover Cleveland – brought the US precariously close to war with Great Britain over a boundary
dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana
 urged arbitration of the dispute
 Britain failed to act, Olney drafted a stiff diplomatic note affirming the Monroe
Doctrine and denying European nations the right to meddle in Western
Hemisphere affairs
 Lord Salisbury – rejected Olney’s arguments and send two letters – the first bluntly
repudiated the Monroe Doctrine as international law
 second letter – rejected Olney’s arguments for the Venezuelan boundary
 preoccupied with larger diplomatic problems in Africa and Europe, Britain
changed its position and signed a treaty of arbitration
 Great Britain and Venezuela divided the disputed territory
 Cleveland – rarely consulted Venezuela in the negotiations
o demonstrated a growing determination to exert American power in the Western Hemisphere
o Monroe Doctrine – assumed new importance
 in averting war, an era of Anglo-American friendship was begun
The Lure of Hawaii and Samoa
o islands of Hawaii offered a tempting way station to Asian markets
 “Crossroads of the Pacific”
o reciprocity treaty of 1875 – allowed Hawaiian sugar to enter the United States free of duty and
bound the Hawaiian monarchy to make no territorial or economic concessions to other powers
 effectively made Hawaii an American protectorate
o 1887 – a new treaty granted the United States exclusive use of Pearl Harbor
o McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 – ended the special status given Hawaiian sugar and at the same
time awarded American producers a bounty of two cents a pound
o Queen Liliuokalani – was resentful of a white minority rule and decreed a new constitution that
gave greater power to native Hawaiians
o American residents – revolted in early 1893 and called on the United States for help
 John L. Stevens – sent 150 marines ashore from the cruiser Boston, within three days,
the bloodless revolution was over
o Harrison’s secretary of state – John W. Foster – and delegates of the new government signed a
treaty annexing Hawaii to the United States
 Senate refused to ratify the agreement
 Cleveland withdrew the treaty and wanted to investigate the rebellion
 Americans’ role in it had been improper and Cleveland decided to restore the
queen to her throne
o the provisional government in Hawaii politely refused and instead
established the Republic of Hawaii which Cleveland recognized
-
o people in favor of annexation pointed to Hawaii’s strategic location – argued that Japan or
other powers might seize the islands if the United States did not
 suggested that Americans had a responsibility to civilize and Christianize the native
Hawaiians
o annexation came swiftly in July 1898 – in the midst of excitement over victories in the SpanishAmerican War
o President William McKinley
 Navy Department – sent the battleship Oregon and ordered naval forces to take Hawaii
if the Japanese made threatening moves
o McKinley and congressional leaders switched strategies to seek a joint resolution, rather than a
treaty, for annexation
 required only a majority of both houses
 treaty needed a two-thirds vote in the Senate
 the measure moved quickly through Congress
o Samoan Islands – 3,000 miles to the south, offered a strategic location astride the sea-lanes of
the South Pacific
 a naval officer negotiated a treaty granting the United States the use of Pago Pago – a
splendid little harbor on one of its islands
 Senate – rejected the treaty, but six years later approved a similar agreement
providing for a naval station there
o could adjust any disputes between the Samoan chiefs and foreign
governments
o Great Britain and Germany – three nations jockeyed for position
 1889 – all three countries gathered in a Samoan harbor
 sudden typhoon damaged the fleets, and tensions eased
o 1899 – United States and Germany divided Samoa and compensated Britain with lands
elsewhere in the Pacific
 Germany claimed the two larger islands in the chain – the United States kept the harbor
at Pago Pago
The New Navy
o large navies were vital in the scramble for colonies, especially in the Age of Imperialism
 American navy had fallen into rapid decline
o conditions changed in the 1880s – group of rising young officers, steeped in a new naval
philosophy, argued for an expanded navy equipped with fast, aggressive fleets capable of
fighting battles across the seas
o the US needed greater fleet strength to protect its economic and other interests in the
Caribbean and Pacific
 1883 – Congress authorized construction of four steel ships – marked the beginning of
the new navy
 initial building program focused on lightly armored fast cruisers for raiding
enemy merchant ships and protecting American shores
o after 1890, the program shifted to the construction of a seagoing
offensive battleship navy capable of challenging the strongest fleets of
Europe
o Alfred Thayer Mahan (and Benjamin F. Tracy) – main forces behind the new navy
 Mahan was the era’s most influential naval strategist
 devoted a lifetime to studying the influence of sea power in history
 summarized his beliefs in several major books – The Influence of Sea Power upon
History and The Interest of America in Sea Power
o Mahan believed that industrialism – produced vast surpluses of agricultural and manufactured
goods, which markets needed to be found for
 involved distant ports and reaching them required a large merchant marine and a
powerful navy to protect it
 navies needed coaling stations and repair yards
 coaling stations meant colonies and colonies then became strategic bases, which
was the foundation of a nation’s wealth and power
 bases could also serve as markets themselves
 more valued as stepping stones to other objectives (like the markets of Latin
America and Asia)
o to compete in the struggle – Mahan argued that the United States needed to expand
o Benjamin F. Tracy – pushed for a far-ranging battleship fleet that would be capable of attacking
distant enemies
 wanted two fleets – eight ships in the Pacific and twelve in the Atlantic
 he got four first-class battleships
War With Spain
- after the Spanish-American War, American possessions would stretch into the Caribbean and deep into
the Pacific
o United States would now be recognized as a “world power”
- Spanish-American War – established the United States as a dominant force for the 20 th century
o brought America colonies and millions of colonial subjects
 which also brought on the responsibility of governing an empire and protecting it
o this also strengthened the office of the presidency, swept the nation together in a tide of
emotion, and confirmed the long-standing belief in the superiority of the New World over the
Old World
- A War for Principle
o 1890s – Cuba and the nearby island of Puerto Rico were basically all that remained of Spain’s
New World empire
o Cuban insurgents had rebelled against Spanish rule previously in the decade-long rebellion from
1868 to 1878 (the Ten Years’ War) – had failed to settle the conflict
 Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 – hurt the Cuban economy and the island’s sugar market
was in ruins, discontent with Spanish rule increased and in February 1895, revolt broke
out again
o Cuban insurgents established a junta (a committee of military leaders) in New York City to raise
money, buy weapons, and wage a propaganda war to sway American public opinion
 insurgents pursued a hit-and-run scorched-earth policy to force the Spanish to leave
o January 1896 – Spain sent a new commander – General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau – he gave
the rebels ten days to lay down their arms
 used a “re-concentration” policy – designed to move the native population into camps
and destroy the rebellion’s popular base
 Cubans died by the thousands – they were victims of the unsanitary conditions,
overcrowding, and disease
o wave of sympathy for the insurgents was stimulated by the newspapers, but the so-called
yellow or sensationalist journalism did not cause the war
o Grover Cleveland – preferred Spanish rule to the kind of turmoil that might invite foreign
intervention
 issued a proclamation of neutrality and tried to restrain public opinion on the matter
o President McKinley – took office in March 1897, also urged neutrality but leaned slightly toward
the insurgents
o 1897 – a change in government in Madrid recalled Weyler and agreed to offer the Cubans some
form of autonomy
o McKinley - warned Spain that it needed to find a humane end to the rebellion
 ordered the battleship Maine to Havana to demonstrate strength and to protect
American citizens if necessary
o New York Journal – was a leader of the yellow press and published a letter stolen from Enrique
Dupuy de Lôme – the Spanish ambassador in Washington
 was published February 9th
 de Lôme called the president “weak,” “a would-be politician,” and “a bidder for
the admiration of the crowd”
 De Lôme – immediately resigned and went home, but the damage had already been
done
o February 15th – an explosion tore through the hull of the Maine, which was at anchor in Havana
harbor
 ship sank quickly and 266 lives were lost
 new slogan: “Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!”
o most recent study – blames the sinking on an accidental internal explosion, caused maybe by
spontaneous combustion in poorly ventilated coal bankers
 1898 – Americans blamed it on Spain
o early in March 1898 – McKinley asked Congress for $50 million in emergency defense
appropriations, a request Congress quickly approved
 late March – the report of the investigating board blamed the sinking of the Maine on
an external (and thus presumably Spanish) explosion
 pressures for war increased
o Spain – offered a suspension of hostilities (but not an armistice) and left the Spanish
commander in Cuba to set the length and terms of the suspension
-
-
 revoked the re-concentration policy
o McKinley reluctantly prepared his war message
 April 19 – Congress passed a joint resolution declaring Cuba to be independent and
authorizing the president to use the army and navy to expel the Spanish from the island
 April 21 – Spain severed diplomatic relations
 the next day, McKinley announced a blockade of Cuba and called for 125,000
volunteers
 April 25 – Congress passed a declaration of war, which McKinley signed
o McKinley – wanted peace – so did Spain – in the end, the conflicting national interests of the
two countries brought them to war
“A Splendid Little War”
o ten weeks after the declaration of war – the fighting was over
o relatively few Americans died – the quick victory seemed to verify burgeoning American power
o the United States was militarily unprepared for war though
 army had not been rebuilt or modernized
 had shrunk drastically since the Civil War
o army was unquestionably small for war against Spain
o War Department – officials enlisted the volunteers in National Guard units that were then
integrated into the national army
 Spanish troops – were better equipped, had modern Mausers with smokeless powder
o food was a problem, as was disease
 War Department fell behind in supplies and received many complaints about the canned
beef it offered the men
 tropical disease killed many soldiers
o soldiers identified themselves by their hometowns, dressed in the local fashion, and thought of
themselves as members of a town unit in a national army
o National Guard units mirrored the social patterns of their communities
 had very easygoing familiarity
o enlisted men resented officers who grabbed too much authority and expected officers and men
to call each other by their first names
o little censorship in the war with Spain and the freshest news arrived in the latest letter home
“Smoked Yankees”
o when the invasion force sailed for Cuba – ¼ of the troops were African American
 included four regiments of African American soldiers
o War Department – called for five black volunteer regiments
 army needed men and military authorities were sure that black men had a natural
immunity to the climate and disease of the tropics
o orders went out to the four black regular army regiments stationed in the West to move to
camps in the South to prepare for the invasion of Cuba
o many soldiers were not prepared to put up with negative treatment
 some forcibly desegregated the railroad cars
 refused to ride in the segregated “trailers” attached to the trolleys
-
 segregation continued on some of the troopships
o confusion of war often ended the problem – at least temporarily
 blacks took command as white officers died
o Spanish troops came to fear the “smoked Yankees” – the name used by the Spanish troops
The Course of the War
o naval strategy in the war was simple: destroy the Spanish fleet, damage Spain’s merchant
marine, and harry the colonies or coast of Spain
o army – had to defend the United States, invade Cuba and probably Puerto Rico, and undertake
possible action in far-flung places like the Philippines or even Spain
 was joint planning between the army and navy
 decided on the limited strategy of blockading Cuba, sending arms to the
insurgents, and annoying the Spanish with small thrusts by the army
o victories changed strategy
o May 1, 1898 – the war was barely a week old – Commodore George Dewey – commander of
the Asiatic Squadron located in Hong Kong, crushed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay
 Dewey had two modern cruisers, a gunboat, and a Civil War paddle steamer
 had no troops to attack the Spanish army in Manila
o the War Department stunned by the speed and size of the victory, quickly raised an
expeditionary force
 August 13, 1898 – troops accepted the surrender of Manila and the Philippines as a
whole
o an American force under Admiral William T. Sampson bottled the Atlantic Spanish fleet up in
Santiago Harbor
 in early June, a small force of Marines seized Guantánamo Bay
 established depots for the navy to refuel and pinned down Spanish troops in the area
o marines then landed at Daiquiri – where the Spanish offered no resistance
 Americans immediately pushed west toward Santiago, which they hoped to surround
and capture
o first battle broke out at Las Guasimas, a crossroads on the Santiago road
o black soldiers from the 25th Infantry charged the El Caney blockhouses, surprising the Spanish
defenders with Comanche yells
o defenders fought stubbornly and held back the army’s elite corps
o Theodore Roosevelt – rallied an assortment of infantry and cavalry to take Kettle Hill (adjacent
to San Juan Hill)
 charged directly into the Spanish guns
 losses were heavy; 89 Rough Riders were killed or wounded
o nightfall – the surviving Spanish defenders withdrew, and the Americans prepared for a
counter-attack
 American troops now occupied the ridges overlooking Santiago
o were weakened by sickness (which was unknown to the Spanish, who decided the city was lost)
 Spanish command in Havana ordered Cervera to run for the open sea, although he knew
the attempt to escape was hopeless
 in a few hours every Spanish vessel was destroyed
o two weeks later, Santiago surrendered
 army troops, meeting little resistance, also occupied Puerto Rico
 Spain – was helpless against attacks on the colonies or even its own shores
o war was over
 took 113 days
 relatively few lives
 most from accidents, yellow fever, malaria, and typhoid
 of the 5,500 Americans who died in the war, only 379 were killed in battle
o navy lost one man in the battle of Santiago Bay and only one to
heatstroke in their victory in Manila Bay
Debate Over Empire
- afternoon of August 12, 1898 – representatives of Spain and the US met in McKinley’s White House
office to sign the preliminary instrument of peace
o US received an expansion of its territory and an even larger expansion of its responsibilities
- Spain – granted independence to Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico, and the Pacific Island of Guam to the US,
and allowed Americans to occupy Manila until the two countries reached final agreement on the
Philippines
o Philippines were the problem – huge, sprawling, and thousands of miles from America
- McKinley believed he could not give the islands back to Spain: public opinion would not allow it
o might turn them over to another nation, but then they would fall as “a golden apple of discord,
among the rival power” of Germany, Japan, Great Britain, and Russia
o McKinley considered independence for the islands but was talked out of it
o thought of establishing an American protectorate – but discarded the idea, convinced that it
would bring American responsibilities without full American control
o decided there was only one practical policy: annex the Philippines, with an eye to future
independence after a period of tutelage (instruction on how to be free)
- some wanted to “Christianize” them
- others wanted the key to the China market and the wealth of Asia
- some saw them as legitimate fruits of war
- Spain – agreed to recognize Cuba’s independence, assume the Cuban debt, and cede Puerto Rico and
Guam to the US
o the American representatives also demanded the cession of the Philippines
- United States – offered a repayment of $20 million, Spain resisted but had little choice and signed the
Treaty of Paris in 1898
o the treaty violated the very principles of independence and self-determination on which the US
was founded
- some feared the importation of cheap labor from new Pacific colonies
o were against the assimilation of the races
o these racial views were common among those favoring expansion
- if the US established a tyranny abroad, they believed that there would soon be tyranny at home
o the possession of colonies meant big armies, government, and debts
-
-
-
Andrew Carnegie – even offered to buy Filipino independence with a personal check for $20 million
opponents of expansion formed the Anti-Imperialist League to fight against the peace treaty
o group was weak because they had no coherent program
 some favored keeping naval bases in the conquered areas
 others wanted Hawaii and Puerto Rico, but not the Philippines
 still more wanted nothing at all to do with any colonies
 most wished that Dewey had sailed away after beating the Spanish at Manila Bay
the treaty debate in the Senate lasted a month
o William Jennings Bryan – supported ratification as a means to end the war, his support
influenced some Democratic votes
 treaty was still two votes short
o when news reached Washington that fighting had broken out between American troops and
Filipino insurgents
 this increased pressure to ratify the treaty
 February 6, 1899 – the Senate finally approved it with two votes to spare
o the United States now had a colonial empire
Guerrilla Warfare in the Philippines
o war with the Filipinos lasted more than three years
 Americans were now fighting men of a different color in an Asian guerrilla war
o Philippine-American War (1898-1902) – took a heavy toll: 4,300 American lives and untold
thousands of Filipino lives
o Emilio Aguinaldo – the Filipino leader who was only 29 years old in 1898
 was an early organizer of the anti-Spanish resistance
 was certain the US would grant independence and worked for an American victory
 helped to drive the Spanish out of many areas of the islands
o Aguinaldo established local governments with appointed provisional governors
 waited patiently for American recognition
o question was now that of Filipino independence
o late 1899 – American army had defeated and dispersed the organized Filipino army
 Aguinaldo and his advisers switched to guerrilla tactics, striking suddenly and then
melting into the jungle or friendly native villages
o Americans found themselves using brutal, Weyler-like tactics
 established protected “zones” and herded Filipinos into them
o William Jennings Bryan – tried to turn the election of 1900 into a debate over imperialism, but
the attempt failed
 he refused to give up the silver issue
o McKinley – was able to take advantage of the surging economy and could defend expansion as
an accomplished fact
o Philippine Commission – led by William Howard Taft was directed to establish a civil
government, they organized municipal administrations and in stages created a government for
the Philippines
-
o five American soldiers tricked their way into Aguinaldo’s camp (deep in the mountains) and
took him prisoner
 he signed a proclamation urging his people to end the fighting
 authority was transferred from the army to Taft – who was named civilian
governor of the islands
o Taft Commission – introduced many changes
 new schools, built roads and bridges, reformed the judiciary, restructured the tax
system, and instituted vaccination programs
 established local governments built on Filipino participation in local government
o independence would eventually come on July 4, 1946
Governing the Empire
o How could – and how should – the distant dependencies be governed?
 some people believed that acquisition did not automatically incorporate the new
possessions into the US and endow their inhabitants with constitutional privileges
 some said “the Constitution followed the flag” – believed that acquisition made the
possessions part of the nation, and that entitled them to all constitutional guarantees
 third group suggested that only “fundamental” constitutional guarantees – citizenship,
the right to vote, and the right to trial by jury – not “formal” privileges – the right to use
American currency, the right to be taxed, and the right to run for the presidency – were
applicable to the newly created empire
o Supreme Court – asserted the principle that the Constitution did not automatically and
immediately apply to the people of an annexed territory and did not confer upon them all the
privileges of US citizenship
o Congress – granted territorial status to Hawaii, gave American citizenship to all citizens of the
Hawaiian republic, and provided for a governor appointed from Washington
 similar action made Alaska a territory in 1912
o Guam and American Samoa – placed under the control of naval officers
o Puerto Ricans – accepted the war’s outcome and McKinley was able to withdraw troops from
the island fairly early
 Foraker Act of 1900 – established civil government in Puerto Rico
 organized the island as a territory, made its residents citizens of Puerto Rico –
empowered the president to appoint a governor general and a council to serve
as the upper house of the legislature
o lower house of delegates was to be elected
o Cuba – proved to be a trickier matter
 McKinley promised to govern the island until the Cubans had established a firm and
stable government of their own
o General Leonard Wood – completed a census of the Cuban population, conducted municipal
elections, and arranged the election of delegates to a constitutional convention
 convention adopted a constitution modeled on the US Constitution
o included provisions for future relations with the US

-
Platt Amendment – provisions stipulated that Cuba should make no treaties with other
powers that might impair its independence, acquire no debts it could not pay, and lease
naval bases like Guantánamo Bay to the US, most importantly it gave the US the power
to intervene in Cuba to maintain orderly government
o American military government worked hard for the economic and political revival of the island
 repaired the damage of the civil war, built roads and schools, and established order in
rural areas, began a public health campaign
o 1902 – Cubans at last had a form of independence, they were still under the clear domination
of their neighbor to the North
The Open Door
o US had become an Asian power on the doorstep of China
o China – was unable to resist foreign influence
 Japan, England, France, Germany, and Russia eyed it and divided the country into
“spheres of influence”
 forced China to grant “concessions” that allowed them exclusive rights to
develop particular areas and threatened American hopes for extensive trade
with the country
o McKinley – not “asking only the open door for ourselves, we are ready to accord the open door
to others”
o John Hay - established the “Open Door” Policy
 urged three agreements
 nations with a sphere of influence would respect the rights and privileges of
other nations in that sphere
 Chinese government would continue to collect tariff duties in all spheres
 nations would not discriminate against other nations in levying port dues and
railroad rates within their respective spheres of influence
o outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion – secret, intensely nationalistic Chinese society called the
Boxers tried to oust all foreigners from their country
 drove foreigners into their legations and penned them up for nearly two months
 the US joined Britain, Germany, and other powers in sending troops to lift the siege
o Hay – sent off another round of Open Door notes affirming US commitment to equal
commercial opportunity and respect for China’s independence
 together the two notes made up the Open Door Policy – became a central element in
American policy in the Far East
o bravery in Cuba and the Philippines won some recognition for black soldiers, the war itself set
back the cause of civil rights
 spurred talk of “inferior” races – at home and abroad – and united whites in the North
and South
 outburst of segregation and lynching occurred during the decade after the war
o nation now dominated its own hemisphere, dealt with European powers on more equal terms,
and was a major power in Asia