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Chapter 26
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Lusitania- British ship that was sunk 1915 after Germans declared waters around British
Isles a war zone, 1000 innocents dead including 128 Americans
civilians had to mobilized for two reasons: 1) soldiers being replaced by civilian reserves 2)
to provide food, equipment, and productive materials
Why We’d Beat Each Other Up
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war was a test of strength and citizens enjoyed the idea of war, believed it would end quickly
with modern weapons
nation-states- a system of independent national societies that had to balance one another
‘but controlling public opinion served to lock policy makers into permanent partnerships and
“blank checks” of support for their allies’
How We’ll Beat Each Other Up
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German Schlieffen Plan- plan of invading France by Germany devised by Alfred von
Schlieffen, Prussian general and chief of the German General Staff; Russia would likely
attack Germany, France is allied with Russia, good idea to destroy France first, why?,
because France could mobilize troops faster and Russia had room to run away; but plan
would involved invading three neutral countries, Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg in
order to be accomplished in six weeks
Russian Mobilization Plan- plan in the case of war with Austria-Hungary, which menaced
interests of Russia’s ally Serbia; Germany would aid Austria-Hungary; but Russia has a bad
railway network, what to do? mobilize before declaring war
French Plan XVII- plan of invading Germany by France; would concentrate forces and win;
aimed at recapturing Alsace and Lorraine; believed Germans wouldn’t enter through
Belgium and go for Paris (wrong)
Starting to Beat Each Other Up
June 28, 1914- assassination at Sarajevo
July 23, 1914- Austrian ultimatum against Serbia
July 28, 1914- Austria declares war on Serbia
July 30, 1914- Russia, Germany, France mobilize
August 1, 1914- Germany declares war on Russia
August 3, 1914- Germany declares war on France
August 4, 1914- Germany begins Schlieffen Plan by declaring war on and invading Belgium,
Britain declares war on Germany
August 6, 1914- Austria declares war on Russia
August 1914- Japan joins Allies
November 1914- Ottoman Empire joins Central Powers
1915- Italy joins Allies, Belgium joins Central Powers
1917- United States joins Allies
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The spark that ignited World War I occurred on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, capital of the
Austro-Hungarian province of Bosnia, when teenager Gavrilo Princip, member of the
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Young Bosnian Society, a group of people who wanted to free Slavic populations from
Habsburg control, and member of those South Slavs wanting national liberation from
Austria-Hungary, opened fire on and assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the
designated heir of the Habsburg throne, and his wife, Sophie.
Germany wanted Austria to take Serbia, Russia promised to protect Serbia
Austria blamed Serbia for the assassination and used it as an excuse to attack; issued an
ultimatum to Serbia July 23, 1914, terms would strip Serbia of independence, Austria would
invade whether or not terms were met
Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, five days after ultimatum; Russia, Germany,
France mobilize two days later; Germany declares war on Russia two days later and on
France two days later
Great Britain tries to break up the fight, declares war on Germany one day later
Beating Each Other Up
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August 1914 Japan joins Allies
November 1914 Ottoman Empire joins Central Powers
Allies- (Entente) Serbia, (Russia, France, Britain), Belgium, Japan
Central Powers- (Alliance – Italy) (Austria, Germany), Ottoman Empire
Italy hesitated to join its Central Power allies because of its own interests in Balkans, joined
Allies, Belgium joins Central Powers, United States joins Allies near the end
Technology
 old strategies used in WWI: movement, high maneuverability, maximum territorial conquest;
new strategies used in WWI: ditches and fixed positions!
 TEN MILLION PEOPLE died in combination of old and new warfare
 shovels, machine guns- transformed war
 airplane and tank- developed out of need to break trenches; British created tanks in secrecy,
under pretext of building water tanks, hence the name
 chlorine gas- first used in warfare by Germans 1915
 mustard gas- introduced 1917, caused severe blisters
 flame throwers- first used by Germans, especially on vehicles with vulnerable fuel tanks
 barbed wire- invented in American Midwest to contain farm animals, essential
 each power countered technology with other technology, ex. gas mask
 Belgium tried but failed to resist Germany
 German General Staff decided to modify the Schlieffen Plan by leaving some troops on the
right; Germans expected to take France in 6 weeks, underestimated difficulty of invading, were
to take Paris from the left, chose to take from the northeast crossing the Marne River resulting in
the series of battles between September 6 and 10, 1914 known as the First Battle of the Marne,
Allies advanced into gap caused by German invasion, called “the race to the sea”, battle fought
between Marne and town of Ypres in northwest Belgium, Allies gained victory in fighting
known as “miracle of the Marne” enhanced by true stories of French troops rushing from Paris in
taxicabs
 “I don’t know what is to be done – this isn’t war.” –British general Lord Horatio Kitchener
end of August 1914- Germans defeat Russians at Tannenberg
September 1914- Germans defeat Russians at Masurian Lakes
September/October 1914- Russians defeat Austro-Hungarians at Lemberg
1916- Russian Brusilov devastates Austro-Hungarians; battle of Verdun; battle of Somme
War on the Eastern Front
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war in the east was mobile, unlike in the west
Russian army was largest in the world, but had inadequate supplies & poor leadership
Germany Kicks Russia’s Ass
 end of August 1914- Germans delivered devastating blow to Russians at Tannenberg,
destroying entire Russian Second Army and taking 100,000 Russians prisoner; humiliated,
General Aleksandr Vasilievich Samsonov committed suicide in battle
 former German general Paul von Hindenburg, veteran of Franco-Prussian war of 1870 who
knew the area very well, was called from retirement, assisted by Quartermaster General Erich
Ludendorff, they both delivered another devastating blow to Russians at the Masurian Lakes
Russia Kicks Austria’s and Romania’s Asses
 Russia defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at Lemberg in September, giving Serbia a break
 Russian commander General Aleksei Brusilov ALMOST ELIMINATED Austro-Hungary
despite Russia’s lack of everything, Russia’s last show of strength, Brusilov forced Germany to:
o send 8 divisions from Italy therefore relieving Tyrol
o send 12 divisions from the west therefore relieving the French at Verdun and the
British at Somme
o send forces to aid Romania
o establish control over the Austrian army, giving command to General Ludendorff
 Russians were defeated, giving the Germans territory and supply bases and power to fight in
the west
War on the Western Front
Verdun
 French want to join British to kick German ass in Somme, but Germans want to fight in
Verdun
 Germans outnumbered French 5-2; one million shells fired first day, living hell; French
lacked adequate artillery and reinforcements and were told to hold out, General Joseph Joffre
didn’t want to divert reinforcements
 French held out for 10 MONTHES from February to December 1916
 General Henri Philippe Petain, bolstered morale by rotating troops so most of the French
army saw action at Verdun
 French Petain and General Robert Georges Nivelle were hailed as heroes for obeying the
order, “They shall not pass.”; German Falkenhayn retired in disgrace
Somme
 British went ahead with battle of Somme in July 1916
 over seven miles, 400,000 British and 200,000 French killed or wounded
Desperate Allied Attempts
 French homie Nivelle wanted more glory, planned offensive for Champagne region in 1917,
sure he could succeed, resulted in 40,000 deaths, Nivelle is dismissed
 British wanted to fail too, commander in chief General Douglas Haig launched attack in
Flanders in 1917, known as Passchendaele offensive, resulted in slaughter of almost 400,000
British for small territory gains
War on the Other Fronts
 Allies convinced Italy to join them with reward of South Tyrol, southern part of Dalmatia,
and the key Dalmatian Islands, which would ensure dominance over Adriatic Sea
 Serbia was quickly knocked out of the war and lost one-sixth of its population to war,
famine, and disease; Bulgaria joined the Central Powers after being promised booty; Romania
and Greece joined the Allies
 Ottoman Empire was weak internally because of different groups it contained, but could
block off Russian shipping, when doing so France and Britain came to Russia’s aid and fought
the Turks in the straits of the Dardanelles in 1915; First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill
supported a new front at sea; naval attempt failed, British decided to land troops on the Gallipoli
Peninsula, were trapped; Gallipoli was first large-scale attempt at amphibious warfare
 British finally captured Baghdad 1917 after not knowing where they were going
 Australian and New Zealand troops captured Jerusalem
War at Sea
 battle of Jutland- only major naval battle, took place in the North Sea in early 1916; inflicted
damage on each other, were afraid of bringing battleships together
 German relied on the new submarine, first used for reconnaissance; called U-boats
(Unterseebooten), were countered by the Allied invention of depth charges and mines
At Home
 total war- war in which all citizens of a nation are involved
 the number of women employed at home exploded after men were drafted to fight, they also
filled war-related positions, some even fighting
 to provide supplies: Germany: Walter Rathenau and Alfred Hugenberg worked with the
government to eliminate German munitions scarcity; France: used up half its munitions supplies
in the First Battle of the Marne 6 weeks in, Germany occupied its northern industrial basin,
improvised and relocated war industries; Britain: David Lloyd George established the first
Ministry of Munitions, distinct from the Ministry of War
 nations introduced food-rations because of blockades, especially Germany
 three factors that put food at risk: 1) farmers and peasants were busy fighting 2) fear causing
agricultural producers to hoard supplies 3) enemies targeted trade routes for attacks
 work stoppages and strikes stopped at the initial outbreak of war 1914, and resumed 1916,
people were now tired of war and wanted peace
 French Premier Georges Clemenceau, British Prime Minister Lloyd George, and German
generals von Hindenburg and Ludendorff suppressed criticism of the war
Bothering Each Other
 Germany supported the Eastern Rebellion in Ireland to distract Britain and decrease its
moral; also returned avowed revolutionary V. I. Lenin under escort to Russia
 British secretary Arthur Balfour worked with Zionists in 1917 and wrote the Balfour
Declaration, promising to “look with favor” on a Jewish homeland in Palestine; also encouraged
Arabs in Ottoman Empire to rebel in return for Palestine
Finishing Beating Each Other Up
 1917, Serbia, Bulgaria, Italy, and Russia eliminated! Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire
on the brink of collapse!
 1917 = “the blackest year of the war”
U.S. Tips the Scale
 United States remained neutral but supplied the Allies, eventually entered because:
o Germans sank the civilian Lusitania, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson warned
the Germans of using submarine sneak attacks because international law required
warning, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare on Feb 1, 1917 by
informing the US that all ships, neutral and unarmed, would be sunk by U-boats
o German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann sent what’s known as the
Zimmermann telegraph to Mexico, promising the recovery of US territories to
Mexico in exchange for Mexico aiding the Central Powers if the US entered the
war
 US entered the war 1917 even though Woodrow Wilson won the 1916 election promising
peace; tipped the then-even scales in favor of allies, allowed shipment of resources, added
American Expeditionary Forces under General John “Black Jack” Pershing to Allied forces;
Americans ended up sending enormous numbers of troops
Last Push
 Germans tried to give one last great push and win in the Ludendorff offensive devised by
General Erich Ludendorff; had initial success; Allied Supreme Commander General Ferdinand
Foch withstood the attack; German prisoners gave away secrets; Germans destroyed everything
as they were pushed back
 November 11, 1918, armistice signed by representatives of German and allied forces
Post War
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Russians were excluded from negotiations because of their separate treaty with Germany
 task of settling peace was given to the Council of Four- Premier Georges Clemenceau of
France, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele
Orlando of Italy, and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States; Germany, AustriaHungary, and Russia were excluded
 Woodrow Wilson proclaimed the “Fourteen Points” which included requirement of
announcing alliances, reduction of armaments, freedom of commerce and trade, selfdetermination of peoples, and a general association of nations to guarantee the peace that
became the League of Nations, which the US itself didn’t join
 George Clemenceau worried about self defense; had all of Germany disarmed and territory
west of the Rhine River demilitarized for 15 years; carved states out of former Russian, Austrian,
and German territory, Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria,
Hungary, and Yugoslavia became nation-states
 peace conference made 5 treaties with each defeated nation: Austria, Hungary, Turkey,
Bulgaria, and Germany; Germany’s is known as the Treaty of Versailles- signed in great
Bourbon palace, contained War Guilt Clause which put blame for causing the war on Germany,
Germany had to put down payment of $5 billion, give merchant ships and large vessels, lose all
colonies, and deliver coal
 agreements written for the end of the war were disliked by allied and central powers
Russian Unrest
Taking Out the Last Tsar
 Russia’s Tsar Nicholas II was warned about war and revolution, got both
 1880-1900 time of industrialization, catching up with western nations
 Sunday, January 1905- workers of Russia’s capital, St. Petersburg, protested peacefully in
front of the Winter Palace, tsar’s troops fired upon them, killing many, called Bloody Sunday
 October 1905- responded with series of reforms legalizing political parties and established
the Duma, national parliament
 peasants launched attacks on big landowners between 1905 and 1906
 after 1905, worker’s organizations proliferated, including soviets- workers’ councils
 unrest revived before the Great War, when war started, all collective action was banned
 Nicholas II wanted to command his own troops, left government to wife Tsarina Alexandra, a
German princess by birth, and her peasant adviser Rasputin
 March 1917- citizens toppled the regime, tsar abdicated, public symbols of the tsar destroyed,
new flag raised at the Winter Palace
Making a New Dual Power
 two centers of authority created:
o 1) Provisional Government appointed by the Duma, made up of liberals led by
Prince Georgi Lvov, new prime minister and minister of the interior; Aleksandr
Kerenski, only socialist, was minister of justice
o 2) soviets- “committees or councils elected by workers and soldiers and supported
by radical lawyers, journalists, and intellectuals in favor of socialist self-rule”;
most prominent was the Petrograd Soviet
 food crisis
 many Russian soldiers deserted war, the Provisional Government tried to get people to fight
and support the Allies; enlisted the Women’s Battalion of Death to shame men into fighting, also
had high casualty rate
Taking Out the Dual Power
 members of the intelligentsia- Russia’s educated class – returned, after being exiled for their
beliefs, to participate in revolution; Marxist- Social Democrats – had greatest impact
 the Russian Social Democrats argued and split to the Mensheviks- (meaning “minority”) the
majority group, peaceful, wanted to work with the Provisional Government, and the Bolsheviks(meaning “majority”) the minority group, militarized, did not want to work with the Provisional
Government, took control of the Petrograd Soviet
 Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov, or Lenin, lead the Bolsheviks; had spent most of his life in exile or
prison, felt the time was right for revolution; in his April Theses he promised the Russian people
peace, land, and bread, wanted to leave war
 July 1917- “July Days” (First Revolution)- massive demonstration against the Provisional
Government and in favor of the soviets, Lenin flees to Finland; head of the Ministry of Justice
Kerenski became prime minister of Provisional Government, protected the government by
arming the Red Guards- workers’ militia units of the Petrograd Soviet
 November 1917 (October in Russian calendar) Second Revolution- Red Guards seize the
capital, was planned by Lenin who returned from Finland and was disguised; military action was
directed by Lev Bronstein AKA Leon Trotsky, used Red Guards to arrest members of the
Provisional Government, Kerenski flees, almost no blood-shed, endorsed by the All-Russian
Congress of Soviets, Bolshevik regime under Lenin ruled, Nicholas II and family were executed
Making a New Bolshevik Power
 Lenin made peace with Germans in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, humiliation to the Soviets,
was size of its Muscovite period, recognized the independence of Ukraine, Georgia, and Finland
and relinquished much land
Taking Out the New Bolshevik Power
 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk betrayed the Allies and the Russians who fought hard (White
Army) resulted in three years of civil war between Whites and Reds; Allies supplied the Whites
and tried to overthrow the Bolsheviks even after the Great War ended
 Lenin didn’t succeed in fixing food shortages
And What Did They Get?
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8.5 million dead in western Europe from Great War; 37.5 million total deaths
France lost 20 percent of those aged 20-44, Germany 15 percent, Britain 10 percent
United States benefited from the war, was owed billions of dollars, had new markets