Download BIODIVERSITY SEMINAR - WMI 23-09

BIODIVETRSITY: A RESOURCE FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND
SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS
Seminar for Postgraduate students , Wangari
Maathai Institute, 23rd September 2015
By Dr. Dan Kiambi, ABCIC
BIODIVERTSITY
Biodiversity which is the totality of genes,
species and ecosystems
Humanity derives most of its food, many
medicines and industrial products from both
wild and domesticated components of
biodiversity
However, the reduction of this biodiversity
has been an inevitable consequence of
human development
BIODIVERSITY
 Biodiversity defined
“The variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD)”
It is considered at three levels:
a. Genetic diversity: variation in genes
enabling organisms to evolve and
adapt to new conditions
a. Species diversity: the number, kind
and distribution of species within
an ecosystem
a. Ecosystem diversity: the variety of
habitats and communities of
different species that interact in a
complex web of interdependent
relationships
Management of biodiversity
Maintaining the
right balance
between
conservation and
sustainable use
Major ecosystem types in Kenya
Value of biodiversity
Kenya has 6,506 higher plants, 359 mammals,
344 breeding birds, 261 reptile; 63 amphibians
and 314 fish species (WRI, 2003)
The diversity of species and their ecosystems
play a significant role in Kenya’s economy,
peoples’ livelihoods and human well-being
– Ecosystem resilience
– Food provision (wild food plants and animals)
– Watershed protection and energy resources
– Diverse environmental goods and services
(pollination services, air purification etc)
Value of biodiversity
Human survival may depend upon reversing
the accelerating threat to species diversity
When a species vanishes, we lose
– Access to the survival strategies encoded in its
genes through millions of years of it existence
– The opportunity to understand those strategies,
which may hold absolutely essential options for
our own future survival as a species
– We lose emotionally; we loose the unique beauty
and the unique spirit, socio-cultural and aesthetic
values associated with that life form
Biodiversity is essential for ensuring
food security
Major food crops, maize, beans, rice, wheat and
potatoes etc, depend on genetic material to
remain productive and healthy
Breeders and farmers rely on genetic diversity
of crops and livestock to increase yields and
respond to environmental changes
Plant breeding using wild genetic stock and
other sources, account for half the gains in
agricultural yields
Biodiversity is essential for ensuring
food security
Wild relatives of crops and animals are
important sources of genes for
development of improved crops and
animal breeds
Earth's oceans, lakes and rivers contain
fish which is the single largest
source of animal protein
in the world
Biodiversity safeguards human health
79% of top-selling 150 prescription drugs in US
originate from biodiversity
 Many synthetic drugs, including aspirin were
first discovered in wild plants and animals
 There are roughly numerous pure chemical
substances that are extracted from 90 species of
higher plants that are used in pharmaceuticals
Biodiversity safeguards human health
 Traditional medicine
80% of people in developing countries relies on
species of wild and cultivated plants for their
primary health care
Only 2% of the 250,000 described species of
vascular plants have been screened for chemical
compounds
Biodiversity provides recreational
opportunities
Provides recreational opportunities and aesthetic value
 Saltwater recreational fishing in the U.S. generates
more than $15 billion annually and provides over
200,000 full-time jobs
 Tourism in Kenya amounted to $400 million
The economic value of viewing elephants alone totaled
$25 million in 1989
 Large economic revenues reflect the high value people
place on recreation involving biodiversity
Nature-based enterprises
There is a high potential for entrepreneurship and
employment through nature-based enterprises
These are business ventures that can be exploited
to support biodiversity utilization, conservation
and equitable benefit sharing from derived
resources
Expanding nature-based enterprises can increase
income for the Kenya’s rural poor
This approach, as outlined in the latest World
Resources Report 2008, can also enhance the
rural poor’s resilience to social and
environmental threats such as climate change
Nature-based enterprises
The global, natural products industry, including
the key sub-sectors of
–
–
–
–
Food and beverages
Cosmetics
Herbal medicines
Pharmaceuticals
Currently valued at US$65 billion per annum and
is booming with a 15–20 percent annual growth
rate in the last few years (Keynote, 2005)
Nature-based enterprises
Commercial nurseries
Tree nurseries
Flower nurseries
Small scale
Large scale
Individual
Groups (youth or women)
Nature-based enterprises
Bee keeping
– Big market for
honey
Bamboo products
Nature-based enterprises
Silk farming
Butterfly farming
Nature-based enterprises
Baobab and tamarind
Aloe
Medicinal plants
Nature-based enterprises
• Biodiesel
• Bio-fertilizers
• Pesticides
CONCEPTUAL VIEW OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES
BIODIVERSITY
Plant genetic
resources
Wild relatives of crops
Wild species e.g wild food plants
Landraces/farmer varieties
Obsolete cultivars
Modern cultivars
PGR economic value
◆Genetic diversity is the basis for
stable agricultural productive
systems
◆Cushions farmers against
environmental risks
◆Basis for plant breeding and crop
selection
◆Important raw material for
biotechnology
PGR economic value
 Single Ethiopian barley plant happened to have the one
gene that now protects California’s US$160 million annual
barley crop from yellow dwarf virus
 A gene (Xa-21) for bacterial resistance has been
transferred from O. longistaminata into rice conferring
resistance to six races of bacterial blight in Philippines
 Tanzania in 1988, the value of all the wild plant resources
to rural communities for subsistence consumption or sale
was more than US$120 million, about 8% of the GDP
 In 1995 South Africa made US $ 1 million from the
overseas sales of a wild species of Aloe and over 2000
people are employed as aloe tapers – national market for
medicinal plants is US $128 annually
PGR economic value: nutrition and health
Cucurbitaceae
Widely distributed in
Africa
Nutritional quality
includes
micronutrients,
vitamins A, C and E,
niacin, thiamine,
riboflavin, iron, oil,
proteins and
carotenoids
Ricinodendrum rautenenii
(sheanut butter tree)
Found in Southern and
Eastern Africa
Nutritional value includes
edible fruits with 39%
sucrose, 9% protein several
minerals e.g potassium,
vitamins B and C; kernel
has 57% oil, could be used
in manufacture of cooking
oil and paints
Threats to biodiversity
• The earth’s biological diversity is crucial to the
continued vitality of agriculture, medicine and
perhaps even to the life on earth’s itself.
• Yet, human activities are pushing many
thousands of plant and animal species into
extinction.
• Two of any three species is estimated to be in
decline
Threats to biodiversity
The major threats facing biodiversity are:
 Over-exploitation of both plants and animals
e.g. hunting of elephants and rhinos)
Pollution of rivers (e.g case of Nairobi river)
Climate change (the GHGs effect and
destruction of the ozone layer)
Invasive species (displacement of native
species) Prosopis juliflora, nile perch
Threats to biodiversity
Destruction of natural
habitats
Deforestation
Overgrazing
Replacement of traditional
varieties with HYVs
Natural disasters
Civil unrest and instability
Erosion of culture and
indigenous knowledge
Threat factor identified from protected area officers
Number of protected
areas
where the threat factor
exist
Illegal killing of wildlife for their bush meat
96
Human–wildlife conflicts.
82
Large mammal poaching for international trade
80
Human encroachment
72
Loss, conversion and degradation of wildlife
migration and dispersal corridors important
70
Over-exploitation of natural resources (water, plant resources
and minerals)
46
Agricultural expansion and other incompatible land use
changes to biodiversity requirements.
36
Pollutants from external sources of a protected area that
harm biodiversity directly or indirectly.
26
Negative tourism impacts to the welfare of biodiversity and
their habitats.
20
Fencing entirely or in part of a protected area and their
interference in wildlife movements
10
Climate as a major driver on
biodiversity
Human driven climate change is now widely
acknowledge to be a reality with impacts
discernible for a large number of sectors
One of the most vulnerable sectors is
biodiversity; which is already under pressure
from a wide range of existing stressors
Climate change present an additional
challenge on top of and interacting with
existing stressors
30
Global climate change scenarios
Without interventions to reduce emissions,
global annual temperatures will increase by 2.57 oC above pre-industrial levels by 2100
Temperatures higher than 2 oC are predicted to
lead to
– irreversible and potentially catastrophic impacts to
which societies and ecosystems will not be able to
adapt
Global climate change scenarios
Some further warming (about 0.6 oC by 2100)
due to past GHGs is unavoidable even if
present day concentrations of GHGs were held
constant
It will be necessary to adapt to climate change
resulting from global warming
Africa climate change scenarios
Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents to
climate change and climate variability

a situation aggravated by low adaptive capacity and
interaction of ‘multiple stresses occurring at various
levels
In most of the African continent, there is a clear
manifestation of climate change with observed
temperatures indicating a greater warming trend
since the 1960s
– An increase in the number of dry spells over southern
and western Africa between 1961 and 2000
– Rainfall patterns exhibited notable spatial and
temporal variability with inter-annual rainfall variability
being large over most of Africa
Africa climate change scenarios
In West Africa, a decline in annual rainfall has
been observed since the end of the 1960s
– A decrease of 20-40% noted between the periods
1931-60 and 1968-90
In southern Africa, inter-annual variability has
been observed in the post-1970 period
– Higher rainfall anomalies, more intense widespread
droughts reported
Africa climate change scenarios
During recent decades, eastern Africa has been
experiencing an intensifying dipole rainfall pattern
– Increasing rainfall over the northern sector and
declining amounts over the southern sector
Droughts have also increased both in frequency and
intensity
– Mostly adversely affecting the Sahel, parts of east
Africa, Horn of Africa and southern Africa,
particularly since the end of the 1960s
Overall climate change effects on
agriculture: crops
Redistribution and occurrence of new crops and
livestock disease and pests
Loss and re-distribution of crops and their genetic
diversity
Adverse effects on agro-biodiversity leading to
large scale extinctions of wild relatives of crop
plants
Overall climate change effects on
agriculture: crops
Projected reductions in yield in some countries could
be as much as 50% by 2020, and crop net revenues
could fall by as much as 90% by 2100, with small-scale
farmers being the most affected
IFPRI study on climate change impacts on agriculture
and costs of adaptation
– 25million more children will be malnourished by
2050 if there are no serious mitigation efforts or
adaptation expenditures
Overall climate change effects on
agriculture: crops
Irrigated wheat yields will be reduced by around
30% by 2050 and irrigated rice yields by 15% in
developing countries
Climate change will increase prices by 90% for
wheat, 12% for rice and 35% for maize by 2050,
on top of already higher prices
At least US$7 billion a year are necessary to
improve agricultural productivity to prevent
adverse effects on children
Overall climate change effects on
agriculture: livestock
 Climate change will have major impacts on the millions of
African livestock farmers, particularly pastoralists
 Possible effects of climate change on tropical forages and crop
residues may be little understood
– the strong relationship between drought and animal deaths combined
with the possibility of a warmer and drier climate in regions such as
southern Africa and Horn of Africa is likely lead to bigger livestock
losses under climate change scenario .
 Global warming will alter heat exchange between animals and
their environments.
– potentially jeopardizing animal feed intake, growth, reproduction,
maintenance and longevity
Effects of climate change on biological
life forms
Climate change is one of the major factors
influencing the distribution of wild plant species
with the following effects
– Physiological constraints on growth and
reproduction
• Indirectly through ecological factors such as competition
for resources
– The distribution, abundance, phenology and
physiology of a wide range of species
Effects of climate change on biological
life forms
 Losses and or changes in genetic diversity
 Extinction of species
 Increased occurrence and redistribution of insect
pests and diseases
 Mara ecosystem has a 50% reduction in wildlife
numbers between 1970 and 1990 due to expansion
of subsistence and commercial agriculture
Reconstitution of
ecosystems and habitats
On Mt. Kenya and
Kilimanjaro snow cover and
ice extent have decreased by
92% within the last 100
years
42
Climate change: Drought and Floods
Year
1971
1975
11yrs 1977
1980
1983/84
1991/92
8rs
1995/96
4yrs
1999/2000
2004/2005
2008/2009
2012/2013
Area of Coverage No: of people affected
150,000
Widespread
16,000
Widespread
20,000
Widespread
40,000
Widespread
200,000
Widespread
1,500,000
Widespread
1,450,000
Widespread
4,400,000
Widespread
3,500,000
Widespread
10,000,000
Widespread
???????????
widespread
Economic costs of droughts
Huge financial expenses
– 1999-2000 – US $ 340 million (Ksh 25 Billion)
– 2004/2005
- US $ 400??? Million ( 32 billion)
– 2008/2009
- US $ 600 Million (Ksh 48 billion)
Loss in livelihoods
– 30-40% Cows
– 25-30% sheep lost
– 15-30% of goats
Social costs
–
–
–
–
Damages social safety nets
Desperation and helplessness
Drop from production systems
Family breakdowns
Taking action
How people preserve or abuse biodiversity
could largely determine whether living
standards improve or deteriorate
Growing human population, urban expansion,
resource over exploitation do not auger well
for the future.
Without practicing sustainable development,
humanity faces a deteriorating environment,
diminishing of biodiversity and may even
invite ecological disasters e.g Mau forest
Taking action
 Using resources more efficiently
 Better management of resources i.e. energy,
water, forests, coastal and marine resources
 Protection of biodiversity hotspots
 Sustainable development -“development that
meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs” (World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED), 1987).
Climate change adaptation strategies
Collection and conservation of germplasm
Breeding and development of climate
ready varieties
– Wide adaptation
– Drought resistance
– Multiple resistance to diseases
Climate change adaptation strategies
Promotion of alternative crops
o Replacing maize with more drought resistant
crops
Altering timing of crops
o Development of short duration crops
Integrated crop pests management
Integration of indigenous knowledge
and modern science
Mixed cropping systems
Climate change adaptation strategies
Conservation of traditional livestock breeds
Weather index crop insurance schemes
– provide a safety net to mitigate risk for
subsistence farmers (Malawi, ILRI )
– provides compensation to smallholder farmers
climate extremes
Climate change mitigation:
Carbon sequestration
Also known as “carbon
capture”
 The process through which
CO2 from the atmosphere is
absorbed naturally by plants
through photosynthesis and
stored as carbon in biomass
and soils
 Plant biodiversity has a major
role to play in carbon
sequestration
Carbon sequestration for
climate change mitigation
Conservation of forests and
natural habitats
Reforestation and ecosystem
rehabilitation
Agroforestry practices
Case for biodiversity conservation: Ex situ
and In situ methods
Ex situ conservation
“Conservation of components of biodiversity outside their natural
habitats” (CBD)
“The preservation of germplasm away from its natural environmental
selection pressures to a steady state of conservation” (Bennet, 1986)
•
Objective
–
The collection, maintenance, documentation and regeneration of
germplasm to ensure its existence and long term availability
collection captures maximum variation initially
conservation and regeneration minimizes loss of alleles
through time
Ex situ conservation methods
 Seed Gene Bank
 Field gene bank
 In vitro storage
– Slow growth
– Cryopreservation
 Pollen storage
 DNA storage
 Botanical Gardens
Types of seed gene banks
Base collection
Long term storage -usually 50-100 years;
Sub zero temp. (preferably -18°C); 3-7% mc
(FAO/IPGRI, 1994)
Active (or working) collection
Accessions available for multiplication and
distribution for use
Conditions that ensure viability maintain above 65%
for 10-20 years
MC depends on species but generally 7-10%,
temperature range 0-10°C.
Other storage techniques
• Ultra dry seed technology
– Low-input alternative for medium to long term
cold storage
– Involves the maintenance of very dry seeds under
ambient or partly cooled condition
– Seeds (of various species) can be dried to very low
mc (1-2%) and kept in moisture proof containers
can be stored at room temperature for long
periods
– Not be practical to all species
In vitro storage
Complementary ex situ method for
species propagated vegetatively,or
with recalcitrant seeds and
Germplasm are kept as sterile plant
tissue or plantlets maintained
either under slow growth on
nutrient gels or cryopreserved in
liquid nitrogen
Long term conservation of animal
genetic resources (ova and sperms)
Botanical gardens
 Early collections of
plant diversity of the
world
 Ex situ collections in
the field or in green
houses
 Limited intra-specific
diversity
 Only a few accessions
per species or taxon.
Animal sanctuaries, zoos and orphanages
 Threatened animals
species eg Rhino
 Artificial breeding
 Release into the
environment upon
attainment of
population threshold
In-situ conservation
• Definition-“The conservation of ecosystems and natural
habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable
populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in
the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the
surroundings where they have developed their distinctive
characteristics” (CBD)
In situ conservation
Can be viewed in two different context:
- Natural ecosystems
- On-farm
Ecosystem conservation
 Protected areas
– Legally protected
– Different categories (IUCN, 1994)
– National Parks
 Genetic reserves
– Intra-specific variation
– multiple population
 Biosphere reserves
– UNESCO - MAB- rational use and
conservation of resources
– Conserve various representative
ecosystem of the biosphere
– BR consist of undisturbed core zone
surrounded by buffer zones
 Habitat/ecological restoration
Process of in situ conservation
Initial surveying
Formulation of conservation objectives
Determination of minimum requirements for
conservation of targeted species
Assessment and choice of sites
Reserve design
Reserve management
Monitoring
Access
On-farm conservation
Definition:
“the continued cultivation and management of
a diverse set of crop population by farmers
in the agroecosystem where a crop has
evolved.” (Bellon et al., 1997)
Set include weedy and wild relatives
of crop
Dynamic and is aimed at maintaining
the evolutionary processes
Recognition that farmers developed
and nurtured the crop genetic
diversity
Complementary conservation strategy
Strategy utilizes more than one conservation
technique
Includes both in situ and ex situ methods
Advised for several reasons:
– Makes conservation durable and flexible
– Cost effective and biologically sustainable
– Provides options in support of crop improvement
– Security and safety of germplasm
Biodiversity policies and legal
frameworks
International level
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992)
o Conservation
o Sustainable use
o Sharing of benefits
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA, 2004)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
Biodiversity policies and legal
frameworks
• National level
– Constitution of Kenya Chapter 5 Part 2 —
Environment and Natural Resources, Section (69)
which states that, “(1) The State shall
 (a) ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization,
management and conservation of the environment and
natural resources, and ensure the equitable sharing of
the accruing benefits
(b) work to achieve and maintain a tree cover of at
least ten per cent of the land area of Kenya
(c) protect and enhance intellectual property in, and
indigenous knowledge of, biodiversity and the genetic
resources of the communities
Biodiversity policies and legal
frameworks
• National level
(d) encourage public participation in the
management, protection and conservation of the
environment
(e) protect genetic resources and biological
diversity
 (g) eliminate processes and activities that are
likely to endanger the environment
 (h) utilize the environment and natural resources
for the benefit of the people of Kenya
Biodiversity policies and legal
frameworks
Environmental Management and Co-ordination
Act of 1999
The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan (NBSAP)
National Climate Change Strategy
The Kenya Climate Change Action Plan.
National institutional framework
 Biodiversity conservation institutions
o KALRO - Genetic Resources Research Institute)
 KEFRI – forestry genetic resources
 National Museums of Kenya (in situ conservation,
partly ex situ)
 Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) – in situ protected
areas
 Kenya Forestry Services – forests in public domain
 Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
 Ministry of Agriculture
Key issues and constraints
 Lack of domestication of international agreements
 Lack of proper coordination of development of
biodiversity policies
 Poor coordination among and between institutions
in implementation of activities
 Duplication and overlap of institutional mandates
 Weak policy and institutional frameworks
enforcement mechanisms
 Institutional competitions and niche protection
Conclusion
 Biodiversity is critical for environmental
conservation, sustainable livelihoods and
economic development
 A careful balance needs to be maintained
between conservation and sustainable use
 There is need to strengthen policy, legal and
institutional frameworks
 Need for greater involvement and empowerment
of local people in conservation, sustainable use
and sharing of benefits
 We all have a responsibility for conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity for the present
and future generations
References
• Given D. 2012. Principles and practice of plant
conservation. Springer
• Anne E. Magurran 2003. Measuring biological diversity.
Wiley-Blackwell
• Frankel, O.H, Brown, A.H.D and Burdon, J.J. 1995. The
conservation of plant biodiversity. Cambridge
University Press
• Jarvis D.I, Padoch, C and Cooper, HD. 2007. Managing
biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems. Columbia
UniversityPress
• Castri, F and Younes T. 1996. Biodiversity, science and
development. CAB International
References
• John M. Fryxell, Anthony R.E. Sinclair, & Graeme
Caughley. 2014. Wildlife ecology, conservation and
management. Wiley Blackwell. 508pp
• Paul R. Krausman & James W. Cain. 2013. Wildlife
management and conservation. Contemporary
principles and practices. JHU Press 360 pp.
• Vold, T. and D.A. Buffett (eds.). 2008. Ecological
concepts, principles and applications to conservation,
BC. 36 pp. Available at: www.biodiversitybc.org
• Ford-Lloyd B and Jackson M. 1986.Plant genetic
resources: an introduction to their conservation and
use. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd, London.
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