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Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam EARLY ISLAM - Rise 600 to 800s - Nomadic to one of greatest empire in pre-industrial world - Laid basis for truly global civilization (excluding Americas) MUSLIM CONQUESTS - - Explode in mid 630s Arab warriors conquests o Conquer Syria & Fertile Crescent o Sassanid Empire in Persia o Byzantine Empire (640s) o Africa – Egypt (Nile, Alexandria) Foundations for 1st global civilization Illiterate and ignorant of wider world Respected & built on advanced civilizations of conquered peoples Muslim traders o Cooperated with other traders o Traders & conquerors primary agents for: Transfer of food Technology Ideas PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIAN WORLD - Once prosperous trade but now desert wasteland Unlikely place for 1st global civilization Isolation of Arabia and poverty of environment – limited wealth BEDOUIN CULTURE o Nomadic culture o Camel & goat herding o Organized into tribes / clans EMERGENCE OF ISLAM - Urban roots o Trading towns in rocky regions adj. to Red Sea Bedouin influence o Mecca & Medina (key towns) extension of tribes & nomads o Kinship links to Bedouin o Safety of trade routes depend on nomadic tribes o Social organization, language & culture similar to nomads 1 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam CLANS - - Harsh environment create unique social organization o Strong dependence / loyalty to family o Expel from clan fatal Use of watering places & grazing land – regulated by clan councils Clan o Cohesion forced by inter-clan rivalry o Turf wars (pastures, water) o Violence over slight matters – continuous feuds o Disparity of wealth & status between clan groups o Bedouin herders in kinship clans Highly mobile o Clans organized into larger tribes Rarely congregate except in crises or war o Shaykhs Leaders of tribes & clans Elected by council of elder advisors Almost always men w/ large herds, wives, children Dictates enforced by warriors - family make up a clan group TOWNS - Bedouins in most habitable areas - Some communities in west & south of peninsula - North transcontinental trade system o long distance caravan trade - Often near oasis – sedentary farming - Mecca o Mountainous west of Arabia along Red Sea o Founded by Umayyad clan of Quraysh Bedouin tribe o Wealth & status o Merchant elites o Ka’ba Revered religious shrine in pre-Islamic Arabia o At times of year obligatory truce from feuds – enjoy city life - Medina (Yathrib) o NE of Mecca o City of prophet Muhammad o Established in oasis o 2 bedouin 3 Jewish clans dominate Quarrels critical in survival of Islamic faith 2 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam WOMEN - Evidence scant - Indications of women more freedom & higher status than other ME (Sasanid, Byzantine) - Key economic roles o Milk camels, weave cloth, child-rearing - Some matrilineal – men on the move - Some tribes allow men and women more than 1 spouse - Bride price to brides family rather than paying dowry - Women not secluded & didn’t wear veils (like in Syria, Persia) - Advice highly regarded by councils - Wrote notable Bedouin poetry - Still unequal o No glory as warrior (Bedouin’s most prized occupation) o Status depend on clan not on legal code o Property control, inheritance, divorce – favor men o More stable city, more inequality POETRY - Main focus of pre-Islamic era - Oral – no written language - Kinsmen heroism, clan’s great deeds - Love, war, loyalty, generosity, passion - Poets o Some believed to have magical powers o Believed to be possessed by demons BEDOUIN RELIGION - Blend of animism & polytheism - Religion little to do with ethics - Morality of unwritten tribal customs - Seriousness of adherence to religion questionable - Quraysh clan o Supreme god Allah (abstract) o Most concentrate on practical spirits affecting every day life Hubal – moon god Nature sprits – caves, springs, trees MUHAMMAD - 500s camel nomads dominant in Arabia - Civilization in ruins o Mecca & Medina dependent on Bedouin alliances 3 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam - Byzantine & Sasanid empires assert control over nomadic tribes More Arabs migrate to Mesopotamia – increasing foreign influence o Exposed to Judaism & Christianity o Arab prophets urge monotheism in response - Muhammad (570~632) o Banu Hashim clan (prominent) of Quraysh tribe o Hard early life Father died before birth, raised by relatives Mother’s death Abu Talib – paternal uncle’s protection Grandfather educate Muhammad as merchant o First caravan journey to Syria Exposed to Christian & Jewish faiths Influenced his teachings o Trader / Traveler Travels make him aware of clan / tribal feuds Growth of town & trade widen gap between rich & poor Spread of monotheism – dissatisfaction w/ old gods o Khadijah Widow of wealthy merchant married Muhammad o Qur’an Growing dissatisfaction w/ material gain Increasing meditation on hills/wilderness around Mecca Allah transmit revelation to Muhammad through angel Gabriel Revelations written in Qur’an Basis of new religion o Persecution Started small but attracted more followers Umayyads of Mecca feels threatened Muhammad flees Mecca wealth & power threatened Taught religion rivaling their own Medina (hijra – flight to Medina) Request Muhammad as good negotiator – civil war/clan feuds Ali – clansmen secure safe passage to Medina Hero’s welcome – mediated arguments successfully w/ political leadership Umayyads view him as more of threat o Leadership strengthening rival town Medina o Umayyads vs. Muhammad Battle Umayyads attack 4 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE o THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam Several battles – Muhammad victor Treaty w Quraysh (628) Allow Muslim visit to Ka’ba Mecca during season of truce Rise of Islam Muhammad win many Bedouin Allies 10,000 converts accompany him to triumphal return to homeland (629) Prove ultimate power of single god Allah Smash idols of shrine Gradually won over Umayyads and most people of Mecca ISLAM - Initially only by Arab town dwellers & Bedouins - Offered Unity o Form of monotheism belonging to no single tribe o Monotheism more uncompromising because no intermediary between god & individual No priests Angels & saints only as messengers Single source of authority & discipline o Transcend clan & class divisions o Distinctly Arab but equal to other faiths o Offered end to feuds o Umma – community of believers Transcend old tribal boundaries Political unity - Energy from former feuds redirected - greatest conquerors of Middle East - Promote Ethics o Dignity of all believers as equal in eyes of Allah o Kindness & generosity even to slaves o Forbid exploitation o Zakat Responsibility of wealthy to poor and weak Tax for charity - Qur’an as Law o Legal code established to regulate life on earth for Last Judgment o Last Judgment determine fate of eternity o Stern but compassionate God o Strict but socially minded body of law attract many - Universal Elements / Appeal to Many o Uncompromising monotheism o Highly developed legal codes 5 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE o o o o o o THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam Egalitarianism Strong sense of community Most attributes anticipated by other Semitic religions Accept validity of earlier divine revelations that gave rise to Judaism & Christianity Revelations received by Muhammad a refinement of earlier ones Last divine instructions for human behavior & worship Five Pillars 1. Confession of faith simple & powerful 2. Pray facing Mecca 3. Fast in month of Ramadan 4. Zakat for charity 5. Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca DEATH OF MUHAMMAD - Many Bedouins renounce Islam - Quarrel over succession o Muhammad name no successor or procedure o Caliph – Religious / political leader o Deadlock on next Caliph Ali (cousin / son-in-law) passed over due to age – young Decision major source of division - Abu Bakr (caliph - 632~634) o Courage, warmth, wisdom o Versed in Bedouin genealogy o Initially mandate limited No financial support from Muslim community Worked as merchant part-time Loose control of military o Ridda Wars Able military commanders route Bedouin tribes & rival prophets Arabian tribes return to Islam Bakr oversee wars in N Arabia (Iraq, Syria, E Egypt) - Community still holds together - Umayyads take over Muslim community - Arabia under Islamic banner (633) - Muslim Military o Military prowess & zeal o Conquests Mesopotamia N Africa Persia o No intent for conversion of new peoples 6 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam o More Arab than Muslim o Conquest of Middle East Bedouin forces originally intend to raid for booty Initial probe reveal vulnerability of Byzantine & Persian Empires Encouraged by Arab migrants to Fertile Crescent for centuries CONQUEST OF MIDDLE EAST - Bedouin forces originally intend to raid for booty - Initial probe reveal vulnerability of Byzantine & Persian Empires - Encouraged by Arab migrants to Fertile Crescent for centuries - 2 powers competing for Fertile Crescent – Persian & Byzantine Empires - Motives o Unity of Islam – common cause & strength o Stand up against non-Arab rulers who conspired and considered them barbarians o Release pent-up energy o Promise of share of booty in expansion o Arab warriors exempt from taxes due from non-Arabs o Glorify new religion – but not convicted in converting Jihads (holy wars to spread faith) misrepresent Islam in Western view - Persian (Sasanid) Empire Weaknesses o Autocratic emperor Manipulated by aristocracy to exploit farmers (most of population) o Zoroastrianism Official religion of emperor No popular roots Mazdak Reformer formed religion widely popular Brutally suppressed Fought w/ poorly equipped army / defection of Arabs Lost Fertile Crescent – retreat E 651 last Sasanian emperor assassinated - Byzantine Empire Weaknesses o Stronger adversary o Weakened by long wars w/ Persia o Defection of Arabs o Support of Christians in Syria & Egypt Copts & Nestorians (Christian sects) resent Orthodox Byzantines Orthodox Byzantines tax heavily & persecute as heretics 7 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE o o o o o THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam Muslims would tolerate and reduce taxes Syria, W Iraq, Palestine, Egypt, Libya Rise of Muslim naval supremacy compete w/ Byzantium E end of Mediterranean Seal provinces in Syria & Egypt Byzantines stave off from Asia Minor & Balkans Arab early triumph reduce power Kingdom under siege SUNNI / SHI’A SPLIT - Causes o Personal Animosity o Division of booty between tribes o Uthman (3rd caliph) Murdered by mutinous warriors returning from Egypt Supporters of Ali rally for him to be next caliph Unpopular - 1st caliph to be chosen from Muhammad’s early enemies (Umayyad) Ali fail to punish assassins Umayyads reject Ali & swear revenge - Battle of the Camel (656) o Ali famous warrior supported by followers – victory o Most Arab garrisons (Syria & Mecca) shift support to his side - Battle of Siffin (657) o Ali on verge of defeating Umayyads o Won over by plea for mediation o Fatal Decision Supporters renounce his leadership Some suppressed violently Unsuccessful compromise Umayyads regroup and take Egypt - Mu’awiya o New leader of Umayyads o Proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem o Directly challenge Ali’s position o Ali assassinated Son Hasan pressured to renounce caliphate - Succession source of division 8 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE o o THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam Sunni – Umayyads supporters Shi’a – Ali supporters Husayn (Ali’s 2nd son) Continue struggle between Umayyad Clans in S Iraq abandon Husayn Husayn overwhelmed & killed in Karbala (680) This point forward, Shi’a actively resist Umayyad caliphate o Recognize none of the early caliphs except Ali - Other Sources of Division o Differences in belief, ritual, law o Formation of splinter sects in Shi’a - After Division o Mecca remain holy city of Islam o Damascus in Syria become political center of Umayyads o Umayyad caliphs strive to build bureaucracy o Arab or Muslim aristocracy rule Except in Arabian peninsula and parts of Fertile Crescent Only Muslim Arabs first class citizens Make up core army Imperial administration Only to receive share of booty Taxed only for charity Umayyads keep warrior elite separate from local population o Assimilation, intermarriage, conversion would mean less taxable subjects o Bedouin tribes interact intensively – attempt unsuccessful o Increasing numbers voluntarily convert to Islam o Mawali (converts) Still paid commercial & property taxes Jizya – head tax on nonbelievers No share of booty Virtually impossible to gain important positions in military / bureaucracy Not considered full members of umma Accepted only as clients of powerful Arab clans o Number of conversion during Umayyad period low o Dhimmi (people of the book – Bible) Christians & Jews Other conquered 9 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam WOMEN - Broad social changes and growing Islamic community change position of - First centuries of Arab expansion, position of women strengthen - Muhammad’s Teachings & Dictates o Qur’an stress moral and ethical dimensions of marriage His kindness to wives and daughters Strengthen bond between husband & wife & nuclear family Encourage marriage over sexual liasons Denounced adultery for husband and wife Men allowed to marry up to 4 wives Forbade multiple marriages if husband cannot afford or treat wives equally Women cannot take more than 1 husband o Forbade female infanticide (widely practiced pre-Islam) o Gave his daughters choice in marriage o Legal rights in inheritance & divorce o Equality of men & women before god o Earliest bravest followers were women – 1st martyr woman o Hadiths (traditions of the prophet – law & ritual) recorded by women o Qur’an compiled by wives and daughters o Women didn’t lead prayer but active in politics o Free occupations – law, commerce, scholarship etc o Not veiled or secluded MUSLIM CONQUESTS (Late 600s to Early 700s) - Central Asia – rivaling Buddhism - North Africa - cross Gibraltar to conquer Spain - W Europe o Blocked by Charles Martel and the Franks at Poitiers (732) o Arabs didn’t fully retreat beyond Pyrenees into Spain - Warriors & sailors dominate much of Mediterranean o Solidified by conquest of key islands – Crete, Sicily, Sardinia UMAYYAD DECLINE - Harems manifest caliphs addiction to luxury and soft living - Abandonment of frugal life outrage Muslims and spark revolts - Legitimacy questioned since seizure of caliphate - Further alienate Muslim faithful by retreating from dirty business of war - Fatal Uprising o Began by frontier warriors in Iran (oasis town Merv in E Iran) o Intermarry and adapt to region – resent dictates of governors from Damascus o Didn’t get share of booty won by their conquests o Contemptuous of Damascus elite – corrupt and decadent 10 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE o - THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam 740 place officials try to introduce new troops into Merv area – touched off revolt Abbasid Ascent o Trace descent to Muhammad’s uncle al-Abbas o Abu-Al-Abas Great-grand-son of prophet’s uncle Victory after victory Shi’a important ally – rejected Umayyad caliphate Mawali (non-Arab converts) also ally – never recognized as full Muslim Battle of the River Zab (750) Abbasid victory near Tigris o Slaughtered all Umayyads at reconciliation banquet Tracked down remaining family members Most slain Grandson of former caliph found caliphate of Cordoba in Spain ABBASID EMPIRE - Islam becomes universal religion (N Africa / Euro-Asia) - Baghdad – new capital o Near ancient Persian capital o Luxurious and extravagant, harems, marble, gold-encrusted thrones etc. - Rejection of Allies o While Shi’as & mawalis gave support needed – rejected once leveled Umayyads o Shi’as viewed as heretics – reinforce Sunni dominance o Brutally suppressed allies and establish absolutist imperial empire - Empire’s Bureaucracy o Lived near circular walls of Baghdad o Wazier (chief administrator) Head of caliph’s inner councils Growing power Royal executioner Oversee empire’s administration Demands for tribute in distant provinces Poor communication, collusion between officials & local notables Royal commands less effective More than century Abbassid regime effective - Full Integration of Mawalis o Last decades of Umayyads – full acceptance of mawalis Efforts to converts, esp. Arabs outside peninsula o Dividing booty amongst believers long discarded 11 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE o o o o THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam Mass conversions Berbers of N Africa to Persian, Turkic peoples of C Asia Treated as equals Won over by peaceful means Exempt from head tax Greater opportunities in administration, trade, judges, schools Persians take great advantage – lead imperial system ABBASID ECONOMY - Growth in wealth & power in status of merchant and landlord classes - Time of great urban expansion o Afro-Eurasian trading network (once declined at fall of Han & Rome) o Abbasid and Song/Tang empires revive commercial system o Increase in handicraft production Artisans poorly paid but not slaves Most skilled artisans form guild-like organizations w/ merchants - Dhows o Sailing vessels w/ triangular sails – later influence Euro ship design o Merchant ships o Joint ventures w/ Christians & Jews Each different Sabbath – do business all week o Provided Provisions for cities Long distance trade of luxury goods for elites Great profits reinvested in commerce, purchase of land, mansions of empire Charity Construction of mosques, religious schools, bath & rest houses for travelers Hospitals – surpassed those in its time - Slaves o Unskilled labor o Prominent families – domestic servants o Serve caliphs or highest advisors o Some able to buy freedom or rise to great power o Drudge laborers - Rural estates & government projects – mostly hard labor Non-Muslims captured in slaving raids in E Africa - Ayan o o o o o Wealthy landed elite emerge during early Abbasid Most long established Some Arab soldiers investing booty Some merchants or administrators Most peasants didn’t own land 12 Post-CLASSICAL 500 BCE ~ 1450 CE THE FIRST GLOBAL CIVILIZATION: Rise and Spread of Islam ABBASID ISLAMIC LEARNING - Artistic expression focused on mosques & palaces - Advances in legal, religious, philosophical discourse - Learning focus on math & science - Recover & preserve learning of ancient civilizations o Beyond Plato, most Greek learning lost to W Europe o Muslim & Jewish scholars recopy & disperse Greek writing Medicine, anatomy Algebra, geometry Astronomy Ethics Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, Euclid o Muslim invaders of S Asia learn Indian system of numbers - disperse o Indian (Arabic) numeric system critical to Scientific Revolution 13