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THE GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE I. Thinking Geographically a. Geographers, like other social scientists, contribute a unique perspective or way of thinking about phenomena. b. This involves developing a spatial perspective, appreciation of scale, and the ability to analyze and interpret varied forms of geographic data. i. Scale 1. Conceptual organization of spaces from small to large 2. For example: neighborhood – urban area – metropolitan area – region. 3. How do processes at one scale affect activities at another? ii. The Spatial Perspective 1. Intellectual framework allowing geographers to view the Earth in terms of relationships between various places. 2. Geographers ask why or how phenomena occur in certain places 3. Spatial association a. Describes the distribution of two or more features and how they correspond to one another. b. Allows a geographer to understand why certain spatial patterns exist. c. For example: correlations between socio-economic status and literacy or disease or crime. 4. Major questions: a. How do two places interact economically, socially and culturally? II. b. Why do some places have more in common than others? c. How are social phenomena conveyed over time and space? Five Themes of Geography in Practice a. Location i. Relative location: describes where something is in relation to something else. ii. Absolute location: exact coordinates 1. Latitude (parallel) lines circle the Earth from the equator to the poles 2. Longitude (meridian) lines circle the Earth from the prime meridian with all lines intersecting at the poles. 3. The Earth’s graticlue a. Graticules turn graphics into maps b. Three fundamental analytical operations i. Directional orientation ii. Scale iii. Time c. Characteristics i. Parallels are parallel ii. Parallels are spaced equally on meridians iii. Meridians and other great circle arcs are straight lines if looked at perpendicularly to the Earth’s surface. iv. Meridians converge toward the poles and diverge toward the equator. v. Meridians are equally spaced on the parallels, but their vi. vii. viii. ix. x. distance apart decreases from the equator to the poles. Meridians at the equator are spaced the same as parallels Meridians at 60° (N or S) are half as far apart as parallels. Parallels and meridians cross each other at right angles The area of the surface bounded by any two parallels and two meridians (a given distance apart) is the same anywhere between the same two parallels. The scale factor at each point is the same in any direction. b. Place i. Sense of place 1. Characteristics of points of geographic space 2. Unique physical characteristics 3. Perceived characteristics by humans ii. Site vs. situation 1. Site = the physical and cultural features of a place 2. Situation = place’s relationship to other places iii. Feature distribution concepts 1. Density = amount of a particular feature within a given area 2. Dispersion = features sread out from one another 3. Pattern iv. Absolute v. relative distance 1. Absolute = exact measure between two points 2. Relative = less precise but still meaningful such as measuring distance with time. v. First Law of Geography: everything is related to everything else; but near things are more closely related than far things due to the friction of distance. c. Region i. Definition – pieces of Earth’s surface area that compartmentalize spaces with common characteristics for different purposes. ii. Conceptual, NOT necessarily physical, constructions geopraphers use for convenience and comparison. iii. Types 1. Formal / thematic a. Defined by one or more common variables b. Membership strength varies throughout the region c. Boundaries are vague d. Change between regions is gradual e. Examples: climate, language, religion 2. Functional / practical a. Network of regions each with a node of interaction b. For example, public transit or branch offices of a business. c. Boundaries are also vague 3. Administrative / political a. Hierarchical (U.S. federalism) b. Uniform membership c. Exact boundaries 4. Cognitive / perceptual / vernacular a. How people informally organize places in their mind b. Usually based on shared culture c. Boundaries are vague d. Wilbur Zelinsky i. Divided U.S. into vernacular regions in the 1970’s ii. Developed means to test his ideas about cultural boundaries e. Perceptual regions of the United States i. Northwest ii. West Coast iii. Inter-mountain West iv. Southwest v. Great Plains vi. Midwest vii. New England viii. Mid-Atlantic ix. South x. South Florida d. Movement i. Connectivity (relative distance) – the measure of all the means of connction between places ii. Accessibility – the relative ease by which you can reach a destination iii. Networks – real patterns of connections between places both literal and via mass communication. iv. Time-space convergence 1. The idea that with increasing transportation and communications technology, absolute distance between certain places is shrinking 2. Increased transportation technology makes places more accessible. 3. Increased communication technology has almost negated the effect of distance on interaction. v. Spatial diffusion 1. The ways in which phenomena, such as technological innovations, cultural trends or outbreaks of disease travel over space. 2. Relocation diffusion – physical movement, usually migration, leads to the spread of phenomena. 3. Expansion diffusion – interaction leads to the spread of phenomena. a. Contagious expansion diffusion – results from direct contact with an individual (AIDS) b. Hierarchical expansion diffusion – phenomena spreads to major nodes then down a hierarchy (fashion trends) c. Stimulus expansion diffusion – a pattern is diffused but not in original form (written language) d. Barriers to diffusion i. Physical (mountains, oceans, etc) ii. Sociocultural (cultural beliefs, fear, rules) iii. Psychological (fear, ignorance) iv. Time-distance decay: the longer it takes the less likely it is to spread. vi. Gravity Model 1. Based on Newton’s law of universal gravitation 2. Lij = PiPj/DijDij (the interaction between places I and j equals the population of place i. times the population of place j, divided by the distance between places i and j squared. 3. This implies that large cities may be far apart and still have extensive interactions. e. Human Interaction with the Environment i. Adapt – humans change environment to suit their needs ii. Conform – humans change behavior to suit the environment iii. Distance decay 1. The further away a place is, the less likely we are to interact with it. 2. Distance decay curve varies from place to place. We are less likely to travel 50 miles to shop at a grocery store; but we are more likely to travel 50 miles for a concert with our favorite band.