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Министерство образования и науки Республики Казахстан Павлодарский государственный университет им. С Торайгырова Факультет филологии журналистики и искусства Кафедра практического курса иностранных языков СБОРНИК УЧЕБНЫХ ТЕКСТОВ ПО РАЗВИТИЮ АНГЛИЙСКОЙ УСТНОЙ РЕЧИ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ НЕЯЗЫКОВЫХ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ Павлодар Кереку 2009 УДК 811. 111 (075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ-923 С 23 Рекомендовано к изданию учебно-методическим советом факультета филологии журналистики и искусства Павлодарского государственного университета им. С. Торайгырова Рецензент: кандидат филологических наук, доцент Каирбаева А.К. Составители: Аипова А.К., Смагулова Г.Ж., Нурсапинова М.К., Макаренко М.В., Макарихина И.М., Аскарова Л.Б., Кажикенова Г.М., Омарова Х.С., Мухамбетова Р.А., Авазбакиева Ф.Р., Кабжанова Г.А. С 23 Сборник учебных текстов по развитию английской устной речи для студентов неязыковых специальностей / сост. Аипова А.К., Смагулова Г.Ж., Нурсапинова М.К., Макаренко М.В., Макарихина И.М., Аскарова Л.Б., Кажикенова Г.М., Омарова Х.С., Мухамбетова Р.А., Авазбакиева Ф.Р., Кабжанова Г. А. – Павлодар : Кереку, 2009. – 79 с. Настоящий сборник учебных текстов по развитию английской устной речи предназначается для студентов всех специальностей, изучающих английский язык по программе неязыкового вуза. Основная цель – достижение студентами практического овладения социально-политической речью, развивая поликультурную личность студента посредством этнокультурного, общечеловеческого и гуманитарного характера текстов. УДК 81.2 Англ-923 ББК 811. 111 (075. 8) © Аипова А.К., и др., 2009 © ПГУ им. С. Торайгырова, 2009 За достоверность материалов, грамматические и орфографические ошибки ответственность несут авторы и составители Сontent Introduction……………………………………………………3 1 About Myself.....................…………………………………… 4 2 My working day…..…………………………………………....9 3 Sport and Health……………………………………………….16 4 The system of education in Kazakhstan................ …………...23 5. Kazakhstan and English Speaking Countries ..........................33 6 My University. My future profession........................................51 7 Sphere of economics in Kazakhstan and in English Speaking Countries..............................…………........................................59 Literature.......................................................................................71 Введение В настоящем сборнике представлены тексты аутентичного характера из различных источников (научной и художественной литературы). Тексты содержат информацию страноведческого характера, направленные на развитие кругозора студентов. Изучение текстов способствует развитию умений чтения и говорения. Основной целью является достижение студентами практического овладения социально-политической речью, развивая поликультурную личность студента посредством текстов этнокультурного, общечеловеческого и гуманитарного характера. 1 About Myself 1.1 People are different It’s a well-known fact that in order to get to know another person we should learn more about his character. Read the following ideas about people’s features of character and say whom you would like to make friends with most of all. Irene: Well, actually it’s very difficult to speak about yourself, but still, I’ll try. I think that I’m home-loving, kind and patient. I can get on with people well, because I always try to help them and they trust me. But sometimes I’m lazy – I don’t want to do anything. And I guess Steve doesn’t like it very much. Steve: I am practical I think, because I always try to do the work that will help me in future. I’m also honest and I don’t like those people who tell lies me, because I always notice it and tell them about it. That’s why they say me that I’m tactless. I won’t argue, perhaps I am. What I don’t like about myself is that I’m sometimes bossy and Irene knows it very much. I am sorry. Jane: Me? Ha! My mother says that I’m light-minded, because I do everything without thinking. I like to take risks, because I’m really risky. The feature of my character that I hate is that I’m undisciplined and my mother is always angry with me about it. But I’m really hard-working. I try to do everything when I’m asked, but sometimes I just forget about it. Mark: I am very active, although my parents say that I am lazy, because I don’t like to do the things they want me to do. I think that I’m leading, because I want other people to follow me. They sometimes get offended with me and say I’m rude. I’m just very honest and I tell people what I think about them. It’s natural, I believe. And if they don’t agree with me, it’s their problem. Nataly: I have a lot of friends. But I can say that most of all I enjoy my own company. My brother believes that I’m rather self-centered and live only for myself. Do you think it’s bad? I think that selfishness is not so bad, because all people are selfish. The most important thing is being hard-working, thorough and ambitious. That’s why my friends say that I’m very reasonable and trustworthy. Andrew: You might think that I boast, but I’d say that I’m really clever. I study a lot because I like it and I try to work hard to get good results. That’s why I think that I’m determined. I’m rather critical I’d say, because I like when everything is perfect. Do you still think that I boast? Kate: I am very conservative, they say, and I completely agree with them. I never change anything in my life: ideas, principles, and friends. And the proverb “Old friends and old wines are the best» is my motto. I never go out, because I like to stay at home with my relatives. People say that I’m shy. Is it really bad? George: I am very timid. I am always afraid that people will laugh at me. I am not very sociable, I prefer to spend time with animals in the Zoo where I work more than with people. I am also very patient, because animals need care and attention, I like them very much and they know it. 1.2 True Friend Friendship is something that is very difficult to describe. It is like love - if you have never had it, you will never explain how it feels. But still it is very interesting to get to know what other people think about friendship. So we asked some of them the question “Does a true friend exist?” And here are the answers! Andrew: I am sure that a true friend exists. And I am a lucky person because I have one. I’ve always dreamt about a person who would understand me, whom I could share my joys and sorrows with, whom I could rely on. And now I’ve got a real friend. Her name is Kate. She is the only person whom I trust. I often tell her my secrets and I’m sure she will never let me down or betray me. Kate’s very kind and sympathetic. She is also very considerate and devoted to me. Frankly speaking, I’ve never thought that girls could be real friends. I thought that they liked to gossip and were not able to keep secrets. I’m glad now that I was wrong. I also think that a person can have only one true friend, whom he/she can confide to. I don’t understand those people who say that they have a lot of friends. I believe they are not true friends - they are just good acquaintances, aren’t they? Nataly: A true friend? I can’t understand what you mean. Will you tell me what a true friend is? Of course you can say that a true friend is a person who is generous and trustworthy. But, to tell you the truth, I’ve never met such people. Our life is a very complicated thing. I’m grown-up enough to realize that it’s based on principles different to “A Friend in need is a friend indeed”. Today money rules the world. So if you are the wealthy person, who is able to help, then you will have lots of friends. I also think that friend is a person whom you can benefit from. If you need something - he will help you, if you need some money – he will give it to you. That is a real friendship. Although my mum says that a true friend is a disinterested person, I won’t agree with her. I personally think that if you have a friend who is ready to help you any time and is able to do everything for your sake - use it, there won’t be any better chance. That is the thing that I always do. Don’t you think that I’m right? Jane: I think that he does. I’d like to say even more: there should be more friends than one. I agree with the statement: “The more friends - the better» I’m a very sociable person and for me to find a friend is just a piece of cake. Frankly speaking, I am really surprised that for somebody to find a friend is very difficult. What can be easier that to be a friend for somebody? Just do something good for this person, say something pleasant to him, do him a favour and oops- he is your best friend because he owes you. Perhaps somebody will say that it is not right, that a true friend should the only one, but I think that they are mistaken. We often quarrel with our friends or sometimes we part. If you have one friend but you still have some more - so, you are not alone. Don’t you think so? Kate: A true friend exists, but I don’t mean anybody of peers. My true friend is my mother. She’s the only person I can rely on. You might think that I’m wrong but I’m not, I think. I have always thought that a true friend is a person who understands me perfectly, who’s always ready to help, whom I can trust and share my feelings with. And my mother is the only person I can have complete confidence in. I truly believed that they were my real friends but soon I realized that I was wrong. I had some problems with my studies and wanted them to help me, but they didn’t. My mother was the only person who helped me out. Now she is the only friend I have. We are like sisters. I always tell her about my grief and pain and she often gives me a good piece of advice. She is very sincere and kind-hearted and I’m sure that she will never let me down. I can always bare out the secrets of my soul to her and I’m sure that she will never let them out. She is a model for me. She always supports me and understands me because she is grown and experienced. I don’t think that my peers possess such qualities. They are too young to understand the reality of life. Don’t you agree with me? 1.3 How to keep friendship forever? Friendship is something that is very difficult to keep. Only those people who are truly devoted to each other, who are confident and faithful can stay friends for a long time. But still sometimes it is very difficult to answer this question and here are the results. Steve: I can’t see what the problem is. If you’ve ever had a real friend you can always find the answer to this question. I’m sure that a true friendship is based on confidence, respect, kindness and understanding. That’s why I think that in order to keep friendship forever people should be always honest and attentive to each other. To be a good friend you should devote all your life to your friend. I even think that sometimes you should be able to do everything for your friend‘s sake, devote all your time to him and be always near-by. Perhaps, you don’t agree with me, but this is my idea about a true friendship, and what’s yours? Irene: Sometimes I think that keeping friendship forever isn’t an easy matter, because very often friends use your friendship for their own needs. I personally think that having a best friend doesn’t mean devoting all your time to him, for whatever good he is, we sometimes need other people to communicate with. And if your friend gets offended in this case - I don’t think that he is a real friend, because he doesn’t understand you. For me, being friends means doing a lot of things together, having much in common, enjoying each other’s company and having much fun together. But if you sometimes want to be alone or to go different place your friend should let you do it. If he doesn’t want you to do this then he is selfish – a feature of character that isn’t appropriate for a true friend. So, I think that to keep friendship forever you should never forget about equality. Never forget that you don’t owe your best friend, so let him do what he wants and you’ll never be bored with your true friend. Mark: Should we really keep friendship forever? I don’t think that we should, because I don’t know what we need it for. I believe that friendship shouldn’t last forever. Sometimes we just get bored with our friends. For me it’s very difficult to spend all my time with one person - my friend. Although we have much in common, sometimes we just don’t know what to do when we are together. I know everything about him and he knows perfectly me. There is nothing new and it’s not very interesting. What’s more, I think, if you can’t learn anything new about the person, you should find someone else to deal with. Moreover, some people say that real friends should be able to forgive each other. Well, I don’t think that they are right. Why should I forgive a person who has let me down or betrayed me? The best way here is to part, otherwise I’ll always think about him as an unreliable man. So, my idea about friendship is rather simple - we shouldn’t keep friendship forever and sacrifice our life to it. Life without changes is very boring, so change it as much as possible just to have fun and be happy. 1.4 Generation Gap Many young people say that very often they have some problems with their parents. They think that their parents don’t understand them, they want to be more independent and to live alone, etc. Such a situation is usually called a “generation gap”. This is the situation of misunderstanding: children refuse to listen to their parents, while parents think that their children are too young to make their own decisions. Is it possible to solve the problem? Kate: She is optimistic Frankly speaking, I can hardly understand what people mean when they say “generation gap”. What is a generation gap? I know that it means misunderstanding between parents and children, adults and teenagers. But I cannot see what could be the problem. Parents love their children: they grow them up, care for them and support them. And children should pay them the same coin. I love my parents, because they take care of me, they are kind and sympathetic; they are always ready to help me. I’m sure that they love me too. And where there is love there should be understanding. My parents never ignore me, they always support me and understand all my problems. I can’t live without their help and respect, and I know that they also need my attention. So, these are the only relations that are possible between parents and children, I think. Jane: She has some problems There is such a thing as a generation gap. And I know it for sure. I experience it every day. My parents never understand me. Whatever I say or do they always think that I’m wrong. They keep saying that I’m not grown-up enough to do what I want. That’s why they always tell me what to do and what to say; where to go and what people to make friends with. They don’t like my friends, my hobby and my style of life. They make me do things I don’t want to. They are always after me and it is very annoying. My friends laugh at me very often and say that I am “mother’s darling”. They say that I depend on my parents and that I won’t be able to live on my own. I really wish I had more freedom. I know that my parents love me and care for me, but I want them to treat me not as a child but as an adult person. I need more liberty, and I don’t want to depend on them. I’m 18 and I’m grown-up enough to make my own decisions. I just want them to respect my personality. Andrew: He is in trouble Many people say that only their relatives help and support them feel comfortable and cosy. I understand them and I wish I felt the same about my family. But unfortunately I can’t. I love my parents very much, but I don’t think they feel the same. My parents never pay attention to me and they don’t understand my soul. It hurts very much when my parents ignore me. I never feel desirable at home. That’s why very often I think about leaving them. I know that many children leave their homes because of some terrible problems in their families - a step-parent, a parent with alcohol problems or a violent parent. In comparison with them I should be a lucky person, because we don’t have such problems in my family. My parents let me do whatever I want. I’m free and I should be happy. But I don’t feel my parents’ love and care: the things that I long for. So, can you say that I’m a happy person? 2 My working day 2.1 Domestic Chores A comfortable home makes our everyday life and work easier and more pleasant. And what should you do to make your home comfortable? Perhaps the first thing is to keep it clean and tidy. If you haven’t done your room, your mother may say to you, “Go and do your room!” Domestic chores are numerous. You must air the rooms, wash or sweep the floor, clear the table after meals. What else can you do about the house? You can polish the floor or the furniture; clean the carpets with the vacuum-cleaner. Most of the cooking in your family is probably done by your mother or grandmother, but you can help them by laying the table and clearing it after meals, and washing the dishes up. On washing-day you can also help your mother. If your washing is sent to the laundry, you can take it there and fetch it when it’s ready. If you have pets at home, you must take care of them. Here are teenagers’ opinions on their attitude to domestic chores. “I get some week pocket money, but most of my friends get much more. When I ask my Mum and Dad for more, they say I can have more if I help about the house, but I don’t see why I should. I think it’s not mine. What do you think?” “On Fridays I usually clean my room which is in terrible mess by the end of a week. It is awfully boring, but it’s my duty.” “If you have a dog, it’s usually great fun, but you have to take him for a walk twice a day. Besides you have to wash him sometimes. I have pets that are exotic, but easy to keep. They are insects. I feed my insects on leaves which I get in my garden. They are always clean, and I don’t have to take them for a walk!” 2.2 My attitude to homework When I get from school what do I do? Instead of getting on with my personal interests, like playing computer games or designing programmes or models, I have to do a huge mountain of homework set by our teachers to fill our outside school hours. Teachers and parents could spend years arguing that doing homework develops the pupils’ ability to work without assistance, or that additional work could help us complete our education successfully. But I believe, in many subjects, homework is totally unnecessary and find that it doesn’t do me any good. I think, it’s really stupid to copy from textbook because someone else has already taken the time and effort to write this book, and it will remain with me until I leave the school year. So what the point of duplicating it? It’s reinventing the wheel! While copying things, it’s not easy to take in what you are taking down. However, I believe, homework is essential in learning languages. New things are learnt at school, and then they have to be practiced in writing. I agree that some phrases have to be learnt by heart. From this, the teacher can comment on what has been taken in by the pupils and can be improved. If we could get rid of unnecessary home work, we would have more time to take up hobbies and interests which could make us more enthusiastic and interesting. 2.3 Kinds of activities There are plenty of other kinds of activities, such as travelling, visiting historical places, babysitting, delivering newspapers, putting together puzzles, reading, going to different museums, skateboarding, going fishing, hitchhiking, shopping, helping people in need, joining a computer club and others. We can say “So many teens; so many kinds of activities.” Now some words about me. I am fifteen and I am a computer addict. I am fond of communication with other teens. That’s why I have a lot of friends in my and other countries. We send messages from one computer to another using e-mail; we have on-line conversations. I am a member of the computing club and I spend much time there. Of course, it’s rather expensive, but my parents understand me and give me enough money to pay for my computer club. And I think that my hobby will be useful in my future profession. Besides, I spend my free time in the sport club. I go in for kung fu. Recently films about kung fu have become very popular in Russia. This fighting itself is a great art, the result of many years of hard work and self- discipline. The man who made kung fu films famous was Bruce Lee. He used fists, elbows, feet (never weapons) and moved as fast as lightning. I am rather good at kung fu now, but I never use my skills to hurt anybody, unless it is absolutely necessary. Now people know what Kung Fu is, and I think it may become a sport of the future, because it develops up your personality, will and nobility. 2.4 Different styles of music Young people are fond of different styles of music. What kinds are popular now? What kind of music do you like? Why? Can you think of a day without music? We can hear music everywhere: in the streets and at home, over the radio and on TV, in the shops and in the parks. People all over the world are fond of music. They listen to music, they dance to music, and they learn to play musical instruments. But what is music? Specialists explain that music isn’t only a combination of pleasant sounds. It is an art which reflects life. There are a lot of different kinds of music. Some of them appeared long ago, and some are modern. For example, folk music appeared long ago, but it is still alive. Folk songs are very tuneful and pleasant to listen to. Classical music is often associated with the music of the past. However, this style also includes music being written now, and we may speak of modern classical music. Rap is a modern musical style where the singer speaks or shouts the words in time to music with a steady beat. Great Britain has produced more popular music stars than any other country. Over the last 30 years rock and pop music have been very popular in Britain. The Beatles, with their style of singing, eloquent and exciting, is still one of the most popular groups. British groups often set new trends in music. New styles, groups and singers continue to appear. 2.5 My day off Yesterday it was Sunday, that’s why my last day off was not long ago and I remember it quite well. I always try to do my best to make my holidays really exciting, because we have only few days in a week for relaxation and rest. Yesterday my friends and I agreed to meet at my place. First we watched a very interesting TV show “What? Where? When?” Then we went took a videocassette and watched an outstanding movie “The Independence Day”. This is a story about strangers from the other planets that were trying to conquer the whole Earth and about the struggle against them. The movie is full of visual effects and computer graphics that takes your breath and makes you admire the modern technologies in the cinema. I wish our studios and directors made such movies. “The Independence Day” can be added to the genius pieces of modern art – that is my opinion. Having watched the film, we decided that it was a time to go outside. The first place we went to was the sports ground. Though it was rather cold, we put on warm clothes and had fun. Almost all day long we played soccer and basketball. As for me, I like weekends and holidays, as the majority of other people. And I like telling about my holidays. It’s dull to listen about the ordinary working day, how do you think? Every working day looks like another, but every weekend is different from the other. During the weekend we have an opportunity of enjoying the life and having rest. 2.6 The working day of an engineer One of my friends, Dmitry Shevelyov, lives in Vladivostok now though he was born in Nakhodka. Some years ago he graduated from the one of our institutions and became an engineer. Now he lives near his office. He usually walks there. He works on weekdays. I can’t say that he work hard, but all his mates like him because he is a good mixer or, as you may say, he is a very sociable person. He doesn’t work on Saturday and Sunday. His working day usually lasts for eight hours. His duties are to answer all incoming letters and calls, to meet with different specialists, to help young engineers. He often tells me that he likes his job. I usually meet him after the work and we speak about life. He is very glad that he found such work where he can show all his talents. Though there is a difference between our ages, we have much in common. He is among my best friends. By the way, my friend knows English rather well. It helps him a lot as every year various foreign delegations come to their office. These delegations change different technologies with our specialists and discuss many problems. All foreigners consider Shevelyov to be the best translator in the company. 2.7 Traveling by air Many people devote their lives to traveling. They can travel by car, by sea, by train, and by air. Traveling by air is usually preferred by people who haven’t got much time and they must get to another city, country or continent quickly. Nowadays there are a lot of businessmen who have to communicate with people from other countries. Each of us has a lot of relatives and friends. Some of them live in other countries. For example you live in Russia, Moscow and you have some relatives in France or in Britain. You certainly can get to GB by train, and by sea but it will take you a lot of time. It would be easier if you choose a plane. There are some rules in airport which every passenger must follow. It is necessary to arrive at the airport 2 hours before departure time. They must register their tickets, weigh and register the luggage. Most airports have at least 2 classes of travel, first class and economy class, which is cheaper. Each passenger of more than 2 years of age has free luggage allowance. Generally this limit is 20 kg for economy class passengers and 30 kg for the first class passengers and if you have some extra luggage must pay for it. At first you go through the Customs, there you must fill in the customs declaration before you talk to the customs officer. He may ask routine questions any passenger: about declaring the things, spirits, tobacco, presents. Then you go to the check - in counter where your ticket is looked at, you are given luggage tags and boarding passes. The next formality is filling in the immigration form and going through passport control. The form has to be filled in block letters. You write your name, nationality, permanent address and the purpose of your trip. After fulfilling all these formalities you go to the departure lounge where you can have a snack, read a paper, buy something in the duty-free shop and wait for the announcement to board the plane. 2.8 Traveling by train The first railway in Russia was opened in 1837 and since that time people have covered millions of kilometers traveling from one part of the country to another by train. Passenger trains carry people, goods trains carry goods, and mail trains carry passengers and mail. In Britain and in America there are also special coaches attached to some trains, called Traveling Post Offices. In these coaches people sort letters and parcels while the train runs from one station to another. Long-distance trains are fast trains. Local trains make all the stops, and you can get on or off a local train at a very small station, even if it is only a platform. If you are going to a distant place, a sleeping compartment is very comfortable; a reserved seat for a day journey is good. Local trains have carriages with wooden seats as passengers make only short trips. After a long-distance train starts, the passengers often begin to talk to each other. They ask questions about how far they are going and whether they are traveling on business, or going to visit relatives, or going to a rest home. They talk about various things to pass the time. 2.9 British leisure How do British people spend their time when they are not actually working? Leisure time of British people isn’t very much organized. They might watch TV for instance. Television is the most popular entertainment in many countries. Statistics says that we spend an average of 25 hours a week watching it or at least keeping it switched on. Theatre, opera and ballet, sorry to say, are almost exclusively the pleasures of the educated middle class. The author of the book «Understanding Britain» Caren Hewitt convinced that people who are deprived of the great works of art suffer a diminishment of spirit no matter whether they are intellectuals, blue-collar or white collar and so forth. Private leisure is characterized by the national enthusiasm for gardening. About 44% of the population claim to spend time gardening. In fact they don’t need to grow vegetables, but home grown fruit and vegetables taste much better than those in shops, which have been grown commercially. They also grow flowers and have a passion for lawns of grass which stay green throughout the year. The other popular home-based activity is «D-I-Y» or «Do-ItYourself». It means improvement of one’s home by decorating, making furniture, fitting in shelves, cupboards, etc. There are excellent stores (such as hardware stores), which supply the materials and tools, and books with detailed advice are everywhere on sale. Women more concentrate on needlework – sewing curtains and cushions as well as clothes. About half the women in the country spend time on needlework or knitting. It is extremely difficult to decide how important books are for in the lives of the British citizens. There are well-stocked shops and a good public library service. Books are available, brightly colored, cheerfully designed – and expensive. However there is an unquestionable loss when the attractions of television and videos have reduced the enthusiasm for reading, which is for many people just glancing at a newspaper. And no wonder! TV dramas and documentaries, cultural and scientific programmes 119 and coverage of the world’s news are excellent in general, by world standards. And of course, there is a lighter entertainment – games, family comedies, celebrity shows, soap operas and so on. Music is another way of spending time. People listen to pop and rock music on the radio, on records and tapes, at home and in public places. Music magazines persuade teenagers to buy new and new records with the only purpose to make money. That is why cultivating an individual taste becomes very difficult, and cultivating a serious musical taste is extremely difficult. People often keep on spending money to catch up with what is popular. Some people are interested in music making and might play in amateur or professional orchestras or sing in choirs. Some words should be said about holidays. Summer holidays are the time to spend as a couple or a family. It may just be like visiting friends, or hiring a caravan on the seashore, or camping. You can walk, explore mountains and streams, and take picnics on boating expeditions on lakes, and visit castles, caves and historic sites. This is the way the majority spends their time. Of course, there are minorities. They may join various clubs, or just relax each evening in pubs drinking, or do something else. People are free in their choice as they should be. It may be good or bad, but the reality is like this and you know, there are people and people. 2.10 Marie's story My name is Marie and I started with Northants Careforce in June 2007. I was very nervous to start with; I didn’t know anything about caring or looking after clients, as I had no previous experience. On initial induction there was a lot of information for me to learn, but my fellow colleagues and I worked together and helped each other. The training made more sense once I was in the community putting it into practice. I also had help and support from colleagues that had experience during my shadowing. I also learnt a lot when going out on double up calls. Originally I wasn’t sure whether I would like the job at first, but the more I went to see my clients the more I liked my job and the more confident I became. I found it nice getting to know my clients and wish now I had chosen to do this work a long time ago. I have now passed my NVQ level 2 in Health and Social Care, which I’m very pleased about. I got a lot of support when required from my assessor and from Pam the Care force trainer. If anyone is at all nervous or feels without experience they wouldn’t be able to do this job, I am living proof that anything is possible and with support you can achieve anything you want to. 2.11 Curious Stamp Mistakes The first stamp in the world was an English one. It was made in 1840 to pay the postage on letters going to different parts of the country. Since that time people began to use stamps and in the course of time started collecting them. Stamps are always interesting to collect because they bear views of the countries they come from; pictures of animals and birds living in jungles or on far-away islands; pictures showing the people of different countries, dressed in their national costumes. Stamp-collection gives many-sided information about history, geography and many other subjects. Sometimes stamps are issued with unexpected mistakes which are seen only if one knows geography, history, music and many other things as well. The St. Kitts and Nevis stamp, issued in 1903, shows Christopher Columbus looking through a telescope, an instrument which was unknown in his days. The Newfoundland stamp, issued in 1886, shows a seal on ice-floe. It looks like any other seal till you look at its front legs and find that it has feet instead of flippers. For a long time collectors who had knowledge of zoology thought that this was another stamp mistake. However it was discovered that the great Grey Seal of Newfound really has forefeet instead of flippers. The artist had been right after all. On a German stamp, issued in 1956 in commemoration of the composer Schumann, the music printed on the stamp was not written by Schumann. It was written by another German composer Schubert. Stamp-collectors knowing music well saw the mistake at once. The post-offices stopped selling the stamp and today one can be found only in a few collections. 3 Sport and Health 3.1 Sport and Health Sport is very popular. However, the number of people who take part in sport is quite small. The most popular spectator sports are football, icehockey, volleyball, boxing and swimming. In recent years tennis and basketball have become rather popular. A lot of people never exercise. They often eat unhealthy food as well. These are the people that wait until they get sick before they start to think about their health. In our family we believe that preventing sickness is better than trying to cure it after you get sick. My mother once told me that there were three ways to prevent illness. They are: 1) eating well; 2) avoiding stress; and 3) exercising regularly. Sports — individual sports and team sports are a big part of my life. I especially like to play team sports, because I enjoy working together with others toward a common goal. I play football every day after school. I would like to play sports in a foreign country some day. I would really like to represent my country internationally. 1 also enjoys staying fit with my family. At home we eat fresh fruit and vegetables every day. We don't smoke or drink alcohol. We all love to swim and play tennis. My brother and I ride our bicycles to and from school every day. Not only is bicycle-riding good exercise, but it also helps to clear my head and relieve stress after a long day. I usually go for a jog on Saturday mornings. Jogging and swimming are particularly good for the heart and lungs. On Sundays I practice my favourite sport of all — sleeping! 3.2 Drugs In facts, all medicines are drugs. You take drugs for your headache or your asthma. But you need to remember that not all drugs are medicines. Alcohol is a drug, and nicotine is a drug. There are many drugs that do you no good at all. There's nothing wrong with medicinal drugs if they're used properly. The trouble is, some people use them wrongly and make themselves ill. Most of the drugs are illegal, but some are ordinary medical substances that people use in the wrong way. People take drugs because they think they make them feel better. Young people are often introduced to drug-taking by their friends. Many users take drugs to escape from a life that may seem too hard to bear. Drugs may seem the only answer, but they are no answer at all. They simply make the problem worse. Depending on the type and strength of the drug, all drug-abusers are in danger of developing side effects. Drugs can bring on confusion and frightening hallucinations and cause unbalanced emotions or more serious mental disorders. First-time heroin users are sometimes violently sick. Cocaine, even in small amounts, can cause sudden death in some young people, due to heartbeat irregularities. Children born to drug-addicted parents can be badly affected. Regular users may become constipated and girls can miss their periods. Some drugs can slow, even stop the breathing' process, and if someone overdoses accidentally they may become unconscious or even die. People who start taking drugs are unlikely to do so for long without being found out. Symptoms of even light drag use are drowsiness, moodiness, loss of appetite and, almost inevitably, a high level of deceit. First there's the evidence to hide, but second, drugs are expensive and few young people are able to find the money they need from their allowance alone. Almost inevitably, needing money to pay for drugs leads to crime. 3.3 AIDS AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a sickness that attacks the body's natural system against disease. AIDS itself doesn't kill, but because the body's defense system is damaged, the patient has a reduced ability to fight off many other diseases, including flu or the common cold. It has been reported that about 10 million people worldwide may have been infected by the virus that causes AIDS. It is estimated that about 350 thousand people have the disease and that another million (!) may get it within the next five years. Africa and South America are the continents where AIDS is most rampant, although in the States alone about 50,000 people have already died of AIDS. So far there is no cure for AIDS. We know that AIDS is caused by a virus which invades healthy cells, including the white blood cells that are part of our defense system. The virus takes control of the healthy cells genetic material and forces the cell to make a copy of the virus. The cell then dies and the multiplied virus moves on to invade and kill other healthy cells. The AIDS virus can be passed on sexually or by sharing needles used to inject drugs. It also can be passed in blood products or from a pregnant woman with AIDS to her baby. Many stories about the spread of AIDS are false. One cannot get AIDS by working with someone who's got it or by going to the same school, or by touching objects belonging to or touched by an infected person. Nobody caring for an AIDS patient has developed AIDS and, since there is no cure for it at present, be as helpful and understanding as possible to those suffering from this terrible disease. 3.4 Smoking Smoking is very dangerous. Most young people smoke, because their friends, pressure them to do so. They may be copying their parents who smoke, or other adults they respect. At one time this would have been accepted as normal. But in the past 30 years attitude about smoking have changes. Smoking is now banned in many places so that other people don't have to breathe in smokers' shocking tobacco smoke. Passive smoking, when you are breathing someone else smoke, can damage your health just like smoking can. Smoking becomes addictive very quickly, and it's one of the hardest habits to break. Take 1000 young people who smoke 20 cigarettes a day. A quarter of them will die from a disease caused by smoking. That’s 250 lives wasted! Only six of those 1000 teenagers will die in road accidents. So what is it in cigarette smoke that is harmful? A chemical called nicotine is a substance that causes addiction. It is a stimulant that increases the pulse rate and a rise in the bloods, pressure. Cigarette smoke also contains tar - a major factor for causing cancer. Chronic bronchitis occurs when tar and mucus damage the air sacks in the lungs. The sufferer has a bad cough which is worse in the mornings, and may get breathless easily. Gases in cigarette smoke increase your blood pressure and pulse rate. This can contribute to heart disease. Smokers as twice as non-smokers are likely to have heart trouble. Smokeless tobacco that is chewed rather than smoked is also harmful causing mouth sores, damage to teeth and cancer. If you've ever watched an adult try to give up smoking, you know how hard it can be. It's easier, healthier and cheaper never to start. Facts about smoking - The smell of smoke on your breath and clothes will put people off. - Someone who smokes 15 cigarettes a day can forget six to nine years of their life. - You're burning a great deal of money. In many countries cigarettes are heavily taxed. - Your skin will wrinkle faster and deeper than that of a non-smoker. - Females who smoke heavily may wrinkle like a woman 20 years older in age. 3.5 Alcohol Another poison of many young people is alcohol. Remember, alcohol is a drug. It can make you sick, and you can become addicted to it. It's a very common form of drug abuse among teenagers. Don't let anyone at a party pressure you into drinking if you don't want to, especially if you're legally under age. For years we have been told not to drive after we have drunk alcohol, which weakens our sense and clouds our judgment. And yet people still do. Young people, who are drunk are less likely to wear their seat belts, and are less experienced when a problem occurs. The alcohol makes them think they are brilliant drivers and can take risks without getting hurt. But, more importantly, they become a risk to other drivers and pedestrians potential killers. If they do have an accident, the alcohol in their body will make treatment of an injury more difficult. Alcohol drinks are made up chiefly of water and ethanol, which is an alcohol produced by fermenting fruits, vegetables or grain. Beer is about one part ethanol to 20 parts water. Wine is stronger, and spirits are about half ethanol and half water. Alcohol is a drug. In fact, it is a mild poison. It is absorbed quickly into the bloodstream, within four or 10 minutes of being drunk. Absorption is slower if there's food in the stomach. Once inside the body it passes through the bloodstream to the liver, where poisons are digested but the liver can only process 28 grams of pure alcohol each hour. This is a small amount - just over half a glass of beer. Anything else you drink is pumped round the body while it waits its turn to enter the liver. When alcohol reaches your brain, you may immediately feel more relaxed and light-hearted. You may feel you can do crazy things. But after two or three drinks, your actions are clumsy and your speech is slurred. If you over-drink, you might suffer from double vision and loss of balance, even fall unconscious, hangover. 3.6 Meat: to eat or not to eat? However, there is no easy answer to the question. Some people say meat is bad for us; others claim meat is essential for our health. So where does the truth lie? Experts say red meat, such as veal, can be harmful: if you eat a lot of it, you may develop heart problems. White meat, such as pork or chicken, is not as bad, according to the experts. Furthermore, it is argued by antimeat-eating groups that if more people switched to a vegetarian diet, there would be less starvation in the world. In the case of children, doctors agree that they need a balanced diet to help them grow. Meat provides a range of proteins and vitamins that are essential for a healthy body. Finally, although I personally don't eat meat very often, many people think it is the most enjoyable and satisfying type of food there is. Perhaps a reasonable compromise would be to say, 'Yes, eat meat but don't overdo it!' 3.7 The origins of soccer There are lots of stories about how soccer-like games have been played all over the world and at different times in history. About 10,000 years ago Romans played ball games, they played for exercise. Britain was invaded by Rome, and the game — playing Roman soldiers probably brought soccerlike games with them and may have introduced them to people living in Britain. In any case, football was played in Britain for over 1,000 years. Many kings and queens tried to ban it because football took time away from soldierly activities, such as archery. Despite being illegal in Britain until the 18th century, the English created rules for the game in 1863. The Pilgrims could have been met on the beach at Plymouth by soccer — playing American Indians! By the time the Pilgrims arrived in 1620, Indians in New England had been playing a game called, "gather to play football", for a while. This game looked a lot like modern soccer: it was played entirely with the legs and the feet, and the object was to cross the opponent's goal line with the ball. The ball, however was small, about 2 to 4 inches in diameter, and was made of wood, or deerskin stuffed with leaves. In 1634 English settlers wrote about the game, which reminded them of English football, and noted that play could involve anywhere from 30 to 1,000 players on a mile-long field! 3.8 A Brief History of the Olympic Games When it began According to historic records, the first Olympic Games were held in 776 B.C. in Olympia, Greece. By 676 B.C. the Games included Greeks from every corner of the Greek world. The Games were held every four years in honor of the king of the gods, Zeus. It is reported that there was only one event in the very earliest Olympiad: the 200-yard sprint. The events Soon, other events were added, including boxing, wrestling, the pankrathion (a match that combined boxing and wrestling), the discus throw, the javelin throw, and the long jump. By the 25th Olympiad, the four-horse chariot race was added. The chariot races were very popular. Teams of two or four horses would race 12 laps around a track. Twelve chariots could participate. Sometimes there were collisions! Horse races were added later. A time-line of the Olympic Games For 1000 years the Games were at regular intervals of four years. Special messengers were sent out in every direction to announce the beginning of the Games and to signal an end of all disputes and wars until after the Games. The modern Olympic Games are still held every fourth year, but were interrupted in 1916, 1940 and 1944 by World Wars. In 1894 Baron Pierre de Coubertin wrote a letter to the athletic organizations of every country. In his letter he described the educational value of sports to modern man based on Greek ideals. Two years later the first modern Olympic Games took place. In the modern Olympic Games the athletes march in a parade for the opening of the Games. Before the parade, a torch is lighted. The flame for the torch comes from the site of Olympia. There it is lighted from the sun's rays and carried by relays of runners to the city where the Games are being held. 3.9 My sister taught me to score Soccer is my favorite sport, and I have been playing for nine years. I love to play all sports, but I play only soccer and basketball in a league. I have a sister Elizabeth. She is 15. She plays soccer too. She has been playing for 10 years. I wasn't very good at first. I was about 6 at the time. My sister was naturally good and she scored a lot for her team. My sister started to teach me the fundamentals. Elizabeth taught me how to pass. Soon I could do it with my eyes shut. She started to teach me moves to get around another guy. I practiced a lot by myself, with Elizabeth, and at team practices. Elizabeth then taught me how to shoot. One day there was a game. I was not good enough that day and we lost the game. I was so mad, I went home and practiced and practiced without a break. I almost fainted. Elizabeth and I were both disappointed. We began to practice again, especially how to trap, pass and shoot. I didn't want the same thing to happen to me again. Gradually, I became a very good soccer player. I almost always make the right decisions now. Soccer is a mental game as well. 3.10 Sport in my life I am Peter. Sport plays a great role in my life. In fact it is all I care for. I love every kind of sports — football, hockey, volleyball and basketball. I also play chess and once played in our school team against Kasparov. We all lost of course, but it was an unforgettable experience. I also love to play football. I go to our local football club every spare minute and my dream is to become a football player. I also watch football on TV a lot. I never miss a single match. I am a fan of "Spartak" and I get very upset when they lose. However I'll never betray my favorite team. My name is Alex. I do not understand people who spend all their lives going crazy over sports and their body or watching others doing the same on TV. I think aiming for physical perfection people miss out a lot in their lives. It is much more fun to train brains. In the modern world people do not need muscles; difficult things can be done by machines. I knew one guy, who was very anxious about getting big muscles. He was exercising every day and was still not happy with his looks. So he started taking special hormones to make his muscles grow. He got huge muscles, but he ended up in a hospital, because his excessive workout and hormones did a lot of harm to his health. I would never do anything like that. I am much happier sitting on my sofa with a book or in front of the computer. I am Ted. I am a professional sportsman. My attitude towards sports is problematic. On one hand sport is my life. I play volleyball, that is the only thing I like to do and can do very well. I like this sport, because you have to be strong, fast and clever to play it. On the other hand a professional sportsman gets old too quickly. You can not play when you are old. You have to retire in your mid thirties and then you need to do something else in your life. By this time a lot of sportsmen have bad injures which influence their health. In general sport costs professional sportsman too much. 4 The system of education in Kazakhstan 4.1 Kazakhstan system of credits in higher education Kazakhstan system of credits in higher education was established in 2002 with the aim to support further integration of the country to the global educational environment. While implementing it, developers of the local credit system tried to avoid introducing radical changes to the whole system of higher learning. New educational standards introduced in 2004 by the Ministry of Education and Science of Kazakhstan allow universities to realize educational process according to both the traditional linear or new credit system. Credit system is seen as an educational technology which helps to make educational process more innovative and student-centered.. During the years of independent statehood considerable work has been done in Kazakhstan for adapting of the local educational system to the needs and realities of civil society with market economy. Higher education system underwent fundamental changes. A new procedure of entering higher educational institutions by independent testing of university entrants was introduced. Multilevel system of preparing specialists consistent with international standard specialties classifiers was developed. Educational services market based on the multi-channel mechanism of financing of universities has emerged. According to the priorities set by the government the next step is the internationalization of the higher education system through developing students and faculty exchange programs and modernization of educational process in accordance to the international practice. In order to assure quality of education universities have to deal with a number of tasks: international accreditation, international recognition of diplomas awarded, improvement of university management and democratization of educational process. Therefore the needs for an efficient and transparent tool enabling local educators to make study programs and curricula comprehensible to their foreign colleagues are obvious. It is especially critical for development of students exchange programs, as well as for development of joint educational programs, which would combine both the best western teaching practice and the local specificity. Being a system compatible with all existing credit systems, ECTS (European Credit Transfer System) meets requirements put for the reference system on the base of which qualitative assessment of educational programs could be done. Implementing of ECTS at Kazakhstani institutions of higher education is not aiming only to replace of the existing credit system by another one. Local educational institutions would get a useful tool which helps to assure quality and compatibility of educational programs, provide students and faculty mobility and validate academic records. 4.2 «Bolashak» Kazakhstan was the first Central Asian country to launch in 1993 a presidential scholarship program "Bolashak" for study abroad. "Bolashak", which means "The Future" in Kazakh, best describes Kazakhstan's recognition of importance of educating its most talented youth at the best universities of the world thus enabling them to acquire necessary skills to lead the country into its prosperous future. The Decree of President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev of November 9, 1993 says that "In Kazakhstan's transition toward a market economy and the expansion of international contacts, there is an acute need for cadres with advanced western education, and so, it is now necessary to send the most qualified youth to study in leading educational institutions in foreign countries". The program is designed to train future leaders in business, international relations, law, science, engineering, and other key fields. Upon completion of their programs, scholarship recipients return to Kazakhstan to perform government service for a period of five years. The rigorous criteria for selection of Bolashak scholars and the highly competitive nature of the selection process assure that only the best students, who represent Kazakhstan's most promising young leaders, are named Bolashak Scholars. There are over 100 nationalities living in Kazakhstan and exceptionally talented and able young people of different ethnicity and from different regions of Kazakhstan become recipients of the scholarship. The Bolashak program is fully funded by the Government of Kazakhstan and overseen by the Ministry of Education and Science. This program being a top priority of President Nazarbayev's plan to develop and modernize the society is one of many Kazakhstan bold educational reforms oriented to foster sprouts of democracy. 4.3 KIMEP KIMEP is the oldest and largest US-style university in Central Asia. It was founded by a resolution of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, on January 14, 1992. Classes began in August of that year, and KIMEP’s first MBA students graduated in June 1994. KIMEP is an independent, not-for-profit coeducational institute serving a multi-cultural, multi-national student body. It is situated on a modern campus spread in the center of Almaty, Kazakhstan and Central Asia’s financial capital. Its facilities are among the best of any university in the region. KIMEP has a license to offer academic programs from the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The last visit of an attestation commission from the Ministry, on April 14-16 2008, resulted in KIMEP being awarded five-year attestation for all its degree programs. KIMEP continues to work towards accreditation with the Commission of Institutions of Higher Education and the New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC), USA. KIMEP currently offers fifteen degree programs, including undergraduate programs in Business Administration, Economics, Political Science, Public Administration and Journalism, and masters programs in Business Administration, Economics, Law, and Teaching English as a Foreign Language. KIMEP also offers a doctoral program in Business Administration. An Executive MBA program and a wide range of certificate programs and short courses are also offered. All KIMEP’s degree programs are taught in English. KIMEP’s faculty is made up of both Kazakhstani and expatriate scholars, the vast majority of whom earned their Masters and Doctoral Degrees from European and North American Universities. KIMEP is home to the largest concentration of Western Ph.D. holders of any institution of higher education in the CIS. Except Kazakhstan, students at KIMEP come from 25 different countries, including, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, the USA, the UK, Germany, China and Korea. 4.4 PSU The history of Pavlodar state university is the history oh higher education formation in Pavlodar Priirtyshye. The Toraigyrov Pavlodar state university was founded in 1996, on basis of Pavlodar industrial institute, which, in its turn, was founded in 1960 on the strength of the USSR Council of Ministers Decree dared the 20th of September, 1960, and opened on the 1st of December of the same year. There were 400 students who studied at 3 faculties. There were machine-building, construction engineering and power engineering faculties. The lessons were conducted by 16 teachers, and only one of them had an academic status of dotsent. Today, the Toraigyrov Pavlodar state university is a multiplediscipline higher educational institution, which realizes educational programmes along 2 specialities of doctorate, 17 specialities of postgraduate course, 34 specialities of graduate school and 114 specialities of higher professional training, including 54 specialities of baccalaureate and 21 secondary professional education specialities. The university consists of 12 departments: 1. Power engineering faculty 2. Faculty of metallurgy, machine-building and transport 3. Architecture and construction-engineering faculty 4. Faculty of finance and economics 5. Biology and chemistry faculty 6. Faculty of physics, mathematics and informational technologies 7. History and low faculty 8. Faculty of foreign languages 9. Faculty of philology, journalism and art And also: 10. Distance-learning faculty 11. College 12. Multi-discipline school-lyceum for gifted children of Pavlodar oblast. The university has a well developed material and technical basis: 6 educational buildings, a scientific library with 6 reading-halls, 4 subscription departments and 1 million specimen resources, a museum complex, plenty of laboratories, including modern computer classes, professional graphics workstation for architecture and design, media library with Pentium 4 class computers and laser printers, TV sets with videotape recorders, video cassettes, compact disks and internet-café. The educational process is realized by the teaching staff of the university: 46 professors, 156 candidates, 52 doctors and 94 dotsents work at the 40 departments and 12 scientific practical centres. There are 2 dissertational councils in 3 specialities at the university. The scholars of PSU are the members of 9 doctoral and 3 candidates’ dissertational councils. The scientific magazines: “Vestnik PGU”, “Nauka i technika Kazahstana” and “Olketanu Krayevedenie”, the newspapers “Bylyk”, “Akparat aidyny” are quarterly published at the university. 4.5 The system of higher education in the USA Out of the more than three million students who graduate from high school each year, about one million go on for “higher education”. Simply by being admitted into one of the most respected universities in the United States, a high school graduate achieves a degree of success. A college at a leading university might receive applications from two percent of these high school graduates, and then accept only one out of every ten who apply. Successful applicants at such colleges are usually chosen on the basis of: - High school records; - Recommendations from high school teachers; - The impression they make during interviews at the university; - Their scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT); The system of higher education in the United States is complex. It comprises four categories of institution: - the university, which may contain several colleges for undergraduate students seeking a bachelor’s four-year degree; one or more graduate schools for those continuing in specialized studies beyond the bachelor’s degree to obtain a master’s or a doctoral degree; - the four-year undergraduate institution – the college – most of which are not part of a university; - the technical training institution, at which high school graduates may take courses ranging from six months to four years in duration, and learn a wide variety of technical skills, from hair styling through business accounting to computer programming; - the two-year, or community college, from which students may enter many professions or may go to four-year colleges or universities. Any of these institutions, in any category, might be either public or private, depending on the source of its funding. There is no clear or inevitable distinction in terms of quality of education offered between the institutions, which are publicly or privately funded. The factors determining whether an institution is one of the best, or one of lower prestige, are: quality of teaching faculty, quality of research facilities, amount of funding available for libraries, special programs, etc., and the competence and number of applicants for admission, i.e. how selective the institution can be in choosing its students. All of these factors reinforce one another. In the United States it is generally recognized that there are more and less desirable institutions in which to study and from which to graduate. The more desirable institutions are generally – but not always – more costly to attend, and having graduated from one of them may bring distinct advantages as an individual seeks employment opportunities and social mobility within the society. Competition to get into such a college prompts a million secondary school students to take the SATs every year. 4.6 Graduate programs Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master's degree, which could be a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or other less common master's degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA). After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the completion of a master's degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, or Doctor of Jurisprudence. Some programs, such as medicine, have formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation like residency and internship which must be completed after graduation and before one is considered to be fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must take the bar exam in order to legally practice law in nearly all states). Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student's undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the Graduate Record Examination (GRE-graduate schools in general), the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), or the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT). Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor's degree to enter their programs; however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying. Only 8.9 percent of students ever receive postgraduate degrees, and most, after obtaining their bachelor's degree, proceed directly into the workforce. 4.7 Harvard University Harvard University is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1636 by the colonial Massachusetts legislature, Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. It is also the first and oldest corporation in North America. It was named after a young clergyman named John Harvard, who bequeathed the College his library of four hundred books and £779 (which was half of his estate). Harvard is considered one of the top four leaders-preparing institutions representing three different political systems in the world: Harvard JFK School of Government and Yale Law School in the US, Sciences Po in France, and MGIMO in Russia. Today Harvard has nine faculties: - The Faculty of Arts and Sciences and its sub-faculty, the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, which together serve: - Harvard College, the university's undergraduate portion (1636) - The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (organized 1872) - The Harvard Division of Continuing Education, including Harvard Extension School (1909) and Harvard Summer School (1871) - The Faculty of Medicine, including the Medical School (1782) and the Harvard School of Dental Medicine (1867). - Harvard Divinity School (1816) - Harvard Law School (1817) - Harvard Business School (1908) - The Graduate School of Design (1914) - The Graduate School of Education (1920) - The School of Public Health (1922) - The John F. Kennedy School of Government (1936) Harvard has several athletic facilities, such as the Lavietes Pavilion, a multi-purpose arena and home to the Harvard basketball teams. Harvard's athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax each fall in their annual football meeting, which dates back to 1875 and is usually called simply The Game. The Harvard University Library System is centered in Widener Library in Harvard Yard and comprises over 80 individual libraries and over 15 million volumes. This makes it the largest academic library in the United States, and the fourth among the five "mega-libraries" of the world (after the Library of Congress, the British Library, and the French Bibliothèque nationale, but ahead of the New York Public Library). Harvard operates several arts, cultural, and scientific museums:The Harvard Art Museums, The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, The Semitic Museum, The Harvard Museum of Natural History, and The Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts. Harvard has produced many famous people. Among them the bestknown are John Adams, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama. Seventy-five Nobel Prize winners are affiliated with the university. Since 1974, 19 Nobel Prize winners and 15 winners of the American literary award, the Pulitzer Prize, have served on the Harvard faculty. In 1893, Baedeker's guidebook called Harvard "the oldest, richest, and most famous of American seats of learning.” The first two facts remain true today; the third is also arguably true.. The 2007 U.S. News & World Report rankings place Harvard in first place among "National Universities", although the 2008 rankings had Harvard at second place behind Princeton University. 4.8 The system of higher education in Great Britain There are now 44 universities in the United Kingdom: 35 in England, 8 in Scotland, 2 in Northern Ireland and one in Wales. All British universities are private institutions. Students have to pay fees and living costs, but every student may obtain a personal grant from local authorities. If the parents do not earn much money, their children will receive a full grant which will cover all the expenses. Students studying for first degrees are known as “undergraduates”. The typical academic program for university students in Great Britain is composed of a varying number of courses or subjects. The academic obligations for each subject fall into three broad types: 1) lectures, at which attendance is not always compulsory, often outline the general scope of the subject matter and stress the particular specialization of the lecturer; 2) tutorials, through individual or group discussion, reading extensively, and writing essays under the tutor's direction, ensure focused and in-depth understanding of the subject; 3) examinations on each subject require the student to consolidate his knowledge of the subject, which he has gained through lectures, discussions and a great deal of independent study. These three categories of academic activity - lectures, tutorials and examinations - provide the means by which students prepare themselves in specialized fields of knowledge in British universities. The course of study at a university lasts three or four years, then the students will take their finals. Those who pass examinations successfully are given the Bachelor’s degree: Bachelor of Arts for History or Bachelor of Science. The first postgraduate degree is Master of Arts, Master of Science. Doctor of Philosophy is the highest degree. It is given for some original research work which is an important contribution to knowledge. Open Days are a chance for applicants to see the university, meet students and ask questions. All this will help you decide whether you have made the right choice. Besides universities there are 30 polytechnics, numerous colleges for more specialized needs, such as agriculture, accountancy, art, design and law, a few hundred technical colleges providing part-time and fulltime education. It is common for students to leave home to study, and only 15% of all university students live at home while they study. 4.9 Oxbridge Oxbridge is a composite of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in England, and the term is now used to refer to them collectively, often with implications of perceived superior intellectual or social status. Oxbridge can be used as a noun refering to either or both universities or as an adjective describing them or their students. In addition to being a collective term, Oxbridge is often used as shorthand for characteristics that the two institutions share: 1) they are the two oldest universities in continuous operation in England. Both were founded more than 800 years ago, and continued as England's only universities until the 19th century. Between them they have educated a large number of Britain's most prominent scientists, writers and politicians, as well as noted figures in many other fields. 2) because of their age, they have established similar institutions and facilities such as printing houses (Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press), botanical gardens (University of Oxford Botanic Garden and Cambridge University Botanic Garden), museums (the Ashmolean and the Fitzwilliam), legal deposit libraries (the Bodleian and the Cambridge University Library), and debating societies (the Oxford Union and the Cambridge Union). 3) rivalry between Oxford and Cambridge also has a long history, dating back to around 1209 when Cambridge was founded by scholars taking refuge from hostile Oxford townsmen, and celebrated to this day in varsity matches such as the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. 4) each has a similar collegiate structure, whereby the University is a co-operative of its constituent colleges, which are responsible for supervisions/tutorials (the principal teaching method) and pastoral care. 5) they are the top-scoring institutions in cross-subject UK university rankings, so they are targetted by ambitious pupils, parents and schools. Entrance is competitive and some schools promote themselves based on their achievement of Oxbridge offers. 6) both universities comprise many buildings of great beauty and antiquity, sited on level terrain ideal for cycling, near slow-moving rivers suitable for rowing and punting. 7) Oxford and Cambridge have common approaches to undergraduate admissions. Until the mid-1980s, entry was typically by sitting special entrance exams. Applications must be made at least three months early, and, with only minor exceptions (e.g. Organ Scholars), are mutually exclusive for first undergraduate degrees so, in any one year, candidates may only apply to Oxford or Cambridge, not both. Because most candidates are predicted to achieve top grades at A level, interviews are usually used to check whether the course is well suited to the applicant's interests and aptitudes, and to look for evidence of self-motivation, independent thinking, academic potential and ability to learn through the tutorial system. The word “Oxbridge” may also be used pejoratively: as a descriptor of social class (referring to the professional classes who dominated the intake of both universities at the beginning of the twentieth century), as shorthand for an elite that "continues to dominate Britain's political and cultural establishment". 4.10 The Open University The purpose of the Open University is to offer alternative universitylevel opportunities to people, who have a previous business education or those without it, to continue their life-long education in a desired content and volume. The studies correspond to traditional university studies because to a large extent they are carried out at the lectures meant for the students studying according to the general university programmes. In case of free spots it is possible to participate in full-time, evening, Internet-based and also master's degree level lectures. Every person has a right to collect credit points. Credit points are given to the students who actively participate in the study process (pass the exams, homework etc.), and entering the university later it is possible to transfer the credit points according to the rules of the university. The Open University (OU) was the world's first successful distance teaching university. Nearly all students are studying part-time. About 70 per cent of undergraduate students are in full-time employment. More than 50,000 students are sponsored by their employers for their studies. 11,000 people are currently studying for OU Higher Degrees. Most OU courses are available throughout Europe. Some of them are available in many other parts of the world. More than 25,000 OU students live outside the UK. The OU is ranked among the top five UK universities for the quality of its teaching. Through academic research, pedagogic innovation and collaborative partnership it seeks to be a world leader in the design, content and delivery of supported open and distance learning. Born in the 1960s, the 'White Heat of Technology' era, the Open University was founded on the belief that communications technology could bring high quality degree-level learning to people who had not had the opportunity to attend campus universities. The OU has been faithful to its mission of openness to methods. Over three decades various new media for teaching and learning have been adopted. Audiocassettes and later videocassettes gave students more autonomy. Then, in the 1980s, personal computers opened up exciting new possibilities for many courses. Many students are enthusiastic about exploring CD-ROM and web-based materials. By the mid-nineties the massive exploitation of the internet was begun that has made the OU the world's leading e-university. Today more than 180,000 students are interacting with the OU online from home. Each week 25,000 students view their academic records online. When exam results are available 85,000 students viewed them online. The student guidance website receives 70,000 page hits per week. The Open Library receives more than 2.5 million page views each year. 110,000 students use the conferencing system. There are 16,000 conferences, of which 2,000 are organized and moderated by students themselves. This intensity of usage allows colleagues to do pioneering research on the most effective approaches to online teaching and learning that gives the OU world leadership in this field. 5 Kazakhstan and English Speaking Countries 5.1 Astana Astana was founded in 1830 in the steppes of Sary-Arka — the sacred place known as a centre of ancient civilization of nomads. Astana is the capital of Kazakhstan and the centre of Akmolinsk region — the Motherland of Saken Seifullin and Magjan Joumabayev. In 1832-1961 the city was called Akmolinsk, and when the development of virgin lands started in the Soviet Union it was renamed into Tselinograd. After Kazakhstan had gained the independence, a decision was made to replace the capital. Now Kazakhstan has a new capital and the city has a new name — Astana. Textile, light and printing industries are highly developed in Astana. There are many universities, institutes and colleges here. Astana is the centre of political life of Kazakhstan. Residence of President the Parliament and the Government are located here. Astana is the city of great construction projects. For a short time the Governmental buildings and the “Continental” hotel have been built and the central residential section has been reconstructed. In XXI century Astana will be one of the most beautiful and flourishing capitals of the world. 5.2 Nature of Kazakhstan You can find almost all mineral resources known in the world (more than 90 types) in Kazakhstan and in a large amount. The biggest rivers of Kazakhstan are the Irtysh, the Syrdaria, the Ili, the Ishim and the Tobol. The climate of Kazakhstan is very various because of the great size of its territory. The most general characteristics typical for the whole territory of the Republic are aridity and variety. The highest mountain of Kazakhstan is Khan Tengri peak (6995 meters) of the Tian-Shan mountains in the South-East of the Republic. There are 158 species of mammals, 485 species of birds about 156 species of fish and many endemic animals in Kazakhstan. The flora of Kazakhstan is rich and various. For example only about 150 species of officinals grow here. There are six state nature reserves in Kazakstan. Nowadays many rare animals and plants are under state protection. Among them there is a snow leopard that is the Almaty city emblem and an eagle, which is on the Republican Flag simbolizing proud trend of Kazakhstan to the bright future. Spring in Kazakhstan is usually warm. Snow begins to melt in March out sometimes it freezes especially in northern part of Kazakhstan. In April everything is in blossom. Summer begins in June and lasts till September. It is a favourite season for many people because there is no school, most people are on holiday and it is the time of leisure. Summer in Kazakhstan is usually nice and full of fruit but sometimes it is too hot, especially in the south. July is the hottest month. August is sometimes rainy, but it is still hot and trees are green. In September it is still warm but leaves start getting yellow. Autumn is the most beautifull season in Kazakhstan. October and November are usually rainy and cool. It can freeze and snow in November. The coldest winter month is January. Winter months are good for skiing in the mountains and skating on the "Medeo" skating rink. In December the days are the shortest and the nights are the longest. It is usually a little warmer in February than in January. 5.3 Art of Kazakstan The most ancient works of art on the territory of Kazakhstan are the petroglyphs of animals in the Karatau mountains (the Paleolithic age). In 1970 the grave of the young sak warrior ("The Golden Man") was found near Issyk town. It dates back to the fifth century В. C. More than 4000 gold articles of art were found in Issyk burial mound. This find is a unique contribution to the world culture. The Golden Usun crown from the Kargaly treasure (the second century В. C.) is in "animal style" with dynamic figures of deer, birds, winged horses and dragons. Otrar earthenware with elegant ornament is referred to the samples of decorative applied art. This tradition has been kept up to now - yurtas, household articles are decorated with original ornaments. Elegant remarkable carpets with artistic patterns and ornaments were the main decorations of the interior of yurta. The history of Kazakhstani painting began in the XIX century when Russian painters, such as V. Shternberg (1818-1845), A. Goronovich (1818-1889) and others visited Kazakhstan. They made drawings reflecting the life of Kazakh people. Nikolai Khludov (1850-1935) a Russian painter graduated from Odessa art school lived in Kazakhstan for 50 years. He dedicated all his works to Kazakh land and people. The most famous pictures of his are "In the Yurta» and "The Nomad's Camp". The first professional Kazakh painter was Abylkhan Kasteev (1904-1973). His art is diverse and includes historical paintings, portraits and landscapes. The 1920s and 30"s is the peak of the creative activity of brothers Kulahmet and Hojahmet Hojikovs. They created some famous graphic works. M. Kisametdinov, B. Pak, I.Isabayev, A. Guriev, A. Rakhmanov and others should be named among the well-known Kazakhstani painters. 5.4 Holidays Nowadays we live in the independent state of Kazakhstan that is why history dlfferent from those that we had in the soviet period of our history. We do not have any longer most of Soviet holidays dealing with communist ideology like the First of May and the Seventh of November. On the contrary now we have many new holidays that returned fivm the past. The Constitution of Kazakhstan guarantees people freedom of religion and many religious people can celebrate religious holidays. The majority of Kazakh people celebrate Muslim holidays - Oraza-Ait, Curban-Ait and others. There are many orthodox Christians in Kazakhstan. They celebrate Christmas Easter, Ascension and so on. All the other nations with other religions can freely celebrate their own holidays. The most popular holiday in Kazakstan is Nauryz, the ancient holiday oj spring, the oriental New Year. For very shot period of time Nauryz has become the all-Kazakhstan holiday, the most grand and merry day of the year. 5.5 Education in Kazakhstan Before going to school, children attend kindergartens until they are six or seven. Compulsory education begins in our country at the age of seven, when children go to primary school. The secondary stage begins from the 5th form when children start studying a lot of new subjects, such as Literature, History, Natural Sciences and others. Examinations are taken at the end of the 9-th and the 11-th forms. Some children may leave school after the 9-th form and continue their education at vocational or technical schools or colleges. Besides secondary schools there are other types of schools in Kazakhstan. There are specialized secondary schools with intensive study of a certain subject, for example Foreign Languages, Literature, Physics and others. There are also specialized art, music, ballet and sport schools for gifted children ana special schools for handicapped children. Secondary education in our country is free of charge. Among secondary schools there are gymnasiums, colleges and lyceums most of them are private. There are institutes, schools of higher education, universities and academies among higher educational institutions. In 1992 Kazakhstan system of higher education adopted the western model - a 4 years course of studies with getting the Bachelor degree after graduation and a 2 years course of study with getting the Master's degree after graduation. U. In order to enter a higher educational institution young people have to take an entrance examination. 5.6 Postage stamps and postal history of Kazakhstan. Under the Soviet Union, the Kazakh SSR postal service was an integral part of the Soviet system. The republic was periodically recognized in sets of stamps honoring the different parts of the USSR. Kazakhstan became independent in December 1991, and wasted no time in organizing its own post. Its first stamp, depicting a warrior's suit found at the Issyk mound in 1969, was issued 23 March 1992. Overprinted stamps of the USSR are also known from this early period, but the Philatelic Club of Almaty has concluded that their official status is uncertain; although some saw postal usage, they were not generally available in post offices, nor do their values reflect actual postal rates in effect. (Although they may be fabrications intended to deceive collectors, this has apparently not been proven or disproven.)The first definitive stamps were a set of five issued in 24 January 1993, four of which were a stylized design consisting of a yurt and spaceship (alluding to the country's Baikonur Cosmodrome), along with a high value of 50 rubles depicting the flag of Kazakhstan. The currency changed to tijn and tenge around the end of 1993. Existing stamps, all denominated in rubles and kopecks, were then sold as if they were in the new currencies. New stamps issued in the first half of 1994 were initially sold as denominated in tijn, then later in tenge. The yurt-andspaceship design was re-issued in the new currency beginning in July 1994. Kazakhstan has since followed a moderate pattern of issues, averaging 30 to 40 types per year. The space theme is frequent. 5.7 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Many foreigners say “England” and “English” when they mean “Britain”, or the “UK”, and “British”. This is very annoying for 5 million people who live in Scotland, the 2.8 million in Wales and 1.5 million in Northern Ireland who are certainly not English. (46 million people live in England). However, the people from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and England are all British. The United Kingdom is an abbreviation of “the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland”. It is the political name of the country which is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (sometimes known as Ulster). Several islands off the British coast are also part of the United Kingdom (for example, the Isle of Wight, the Orkneys, Hebrides and Shetlands, and the Isles of Scilly), although the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not. However, all these islands do recognize the Queen. Great Britain is the name of the island which is made up of England, Scotland, and Wales and so, strictly speaking, it does not include Northern Ireland. In everyday speech “Britain” is used to mean the United Kingdom. The British Isles is the geographical name that refers to all the islands off the north-west coast of the European continent: Great Britain, the whole of Ireland (Northern and Southern), the Channel Islands and the Isle of man. But it is important to remember that Southern Ireland – that is the Republic of Ireland (also called “Eire”)- is completely independent. Britain is one of the world’s smaller countries with an area of some 244,100 square kilometers (94,250 sq.miles); with some 56 million people, it ranks about 14th in terms of population. About half the people live in a large belt stretching north-westwards from London across England. Other large concentrations of population are in the central lowlands of Scotland, south-east Wales and the Bristol area, parts of north-east England and along much of the English Channel coast. The climate is generally mild and temperate. The average of temperature between winter and summer is greatest inland, in the eastern part of the country. During a normal summer the temperature occasionally rises above 30°C (86°F) in the south; winter temperatures below- 10°C (14°F) are rare. January and February are usually the coldest months, July and August- the warmest. The landscape is rich and varied, sometimes showing marked contrasts within short distances. Most of the land is agricultural, of which over one third is arable, growing various crops and the rest pasture and grazing. Woodlands cover about 8 per cent of the country. 5.8 Britain’s Government Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a Constitutional monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as the head of State. The country is governed in the Queen’s name by the Government although she performs certain important acts of government on the advice of her ministers. The Queen is also the head of the Commonwealth, and is the head of State in 14 of its 41 member countries. She is a temporal head of the Church of England. Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons, together with the Queen in her constitutional role. The Queen formally summons and dissolves Parliament, and opens each new session with a speech setting out the Government’s broad programme. She also gives formal assent to laws passed by Parliament. The House of Commons, which plays the major part in law making, consists of 635 elected members of Parliament (MPs), each representing an area in England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Mps are elected either at a general election (which must be held at least every five years) or at a by-election held when a seat falls vacant because of the death or resignation of the member. The minimum voting age is 18, and the voting is by secret ballot. The Government is formed by the political party which can command majority support in the House of Commons. Its leader is the Prime Minister, who chooses a number of ministers, of whom 20 or so are in the Cabinet, which is collectively responsible for all Government decisions. The second largest party becomes the official opposition with its leader and “shadow cabinet”. The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker, an impartial member acceptable to the whole House. The House of Lords is made up of hereditary and life peers and peeresses, including the law lords appointed to undertake the judicial duties of the House, and the Lords Spiritual (two archbishops and 24 bishops of the Church of England). The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor who is head of the judiciary in England and Wales. Legislative measures are introduced into Parliament as Bills, usually by ministers but also by other MPs. Bills are considered both by the House of Commons and by the House of Lords. The debating procedures of the two Houses are broadly similar, and Bills approved at all stages receive the Royal Assent and become Acts of Parliament. The House of Lords may delay certain Bills but cannot finally Veto them. The work of Government is carried out through the various government departments, each directly or indirectly responsible to a minister and staffed by members of a politically neutral Civil Service – a change of Government does not involve a change in the civil servants staffing a department. 5. 9 Science and Technology in Britain Since the first artificial splitting of the atom at Cambridge, in 1932, by Sir John Cockcroft and Dr. E.T.S. Walton, Britain’s nuclear scientists have made continuous progress in harnessing atomic energy. Today eight commercial nuclear power stations are supplying electricity for factories and homes and others are being built. Some of Britain’s top scientists are engaged in space research on projects such as upper atmosphere probes with British- built rockets at Woomera, Australia, and in work on satellite communications. Others are making vital discoveries in the laboratory into the very nature of life itself. Britain is pre-eminent in radio astronomy and in many fields of electronics including miniaturisation, one of the most important factors in the electronics revolution, and in radar for marine and aviation purposes. Much basic work was done in Britain on electronic computers. British advances in medicine include penicillin and other antibiotics, such as cephalosporins, heart-lung machines, and a new anti- viral agent, interferon, of great potential value and many other important developments in the treatment of disease. British contributions to science include many great discoveries linked with famous names – Sir Isaac Newton (theory of gravitation), Robert Boyle (“the farther of modern chemistry”), Michael Faraday (whose discoveries gave rise to the electrical industry), and Henry Cavendish (properties of hydrogen). In the present century- J.J. Thomson, Lord Rutherford and Sir James Chadwick (basic work on nuclear science), Gowland Hopkins (the existence of vitamins), Sir William Bragg (X-ray analysis), and many others. Medicine owes much to such pioneers as William Harvey (circulation of blood), Edward Jenner (vaccination), Joseph Lister (antiseptics), Sir Ronald Ross (who proved the relation between malaria and mosquitoes). Since 1945 there have been 27 British scientists who have received international recognition for their work by gaining Nobel awards. There are over 200 learned scientific societies in Britain. In ten years Britain has doubled her total number of qualified scientists. 5.10 English Characteristics In a nation of many million of people, there are many different kinds: good and bad, honest and dishonest, happy and unhappy. The best- known quality of the English, for example, is reserve. A reserved person is one who does not talk very much to strangers, does not show much emotion. He never tells you anything about himself. If English people are making a journey by train, they will try to find an empty compartment. If they have to share the compartment with a stranger, they may travel many miles without starting a conversation. If a conversation does not start, personal questions like “How old are you?” or even “What’s your name?” are not easily asked. Questions like “Where did you buy your watch?” or “What’s your salary?” are impossible. But the people of the North and West of Britain, especially the Welsh, are much less reserved than those of the South and East. Closely related to English reserve is English modesty. If a person is, let us say, very good in golf, and someone asks him if he is a good player, he will probably give an answer like “I’m not bad”, or “I think I’m quite good”, or “Well, I’m very keen on golf”. The famous English sense of humour is similar. Its ideal is the ability to laugh at oneself- at one’s own faults. “He is a man of humour” or “He has no sense of humour” is often heard in Britain, where humour is so highly prized. 5. 11 Merry England and London May Queen Festival Visitors from many parts of the world are among the thousands of people who gather on the Common at Hayes, near Bromley, Kent, to witness the crowning of London’s May Queen. It is the largest May Queen Festival in Britain and over a thousand children take part. The date is the second Saturday in May. The procession forms up in the village church. The actual crowning takes place about 1.30 p.m. and makes its way to the Common by way of the village church. The actual crowning takes place about 3 p.m. As many as forty May Queens from different parts of the country are present and with their attendants present a colourful spectacle. Their dresses are beautifully made, with a distinctive colour scheme for almost all the different “Realms”. The Festival has been held since 1880. 5.12 Egg-Rolling Egg-rolling is a traditional Easter pastime which still flourishes in northern England, Scotland, Ulster, the Isle of Man, and Switzerland. It takes place on Easter Sunday or Monday, and consists of rolling coloured, hard-boiled eggs down a slope until they are cracked and broken after which they are eaten by their owners. In some districts, this is a competitive game, the winner being the player whose egg remains longest undamaged, but more usually, the fun consists simply of the rolling and eating. This is evidently the older form of the custom, since egg-rolling does not appear to have been originally a game to be lost or won. In the Hebrides, formerly, it provided an opportunity for divination. Each player marked his or her egg with an identifying sign, and then watched to see how it fared as it sped down the slope. If it reached the bottom unscathed, the owner could expect good lick in the future, but if it was broken, misfortune would follow before the year was out. Similarly, at Connel Ferry in Argyllshire, where it was customary for young men to roll their eggs in one place, and for young women to roll theirs in another, the man or girl whose egg went farthest and most smoothly would be the first person to marry in that particular group. 5.13 Do you know English words? “Hooligan” Do you know the word “hooligan”? Yes, you know the word and you don’t like hooligans, of course. But do you know that Hooligan was an English surname and not a word? In 1890 there lived in London a man whose surname was Hooligan. He was a very bad man and he behaved so badly, that soon everybody in London knew him and talked about him. When somebody began to behave badly, people said, “Oh, he behaves like Hooligan”, and a new word was born. You can find this word not only in English but in some other languages too. “Mackintosh” Do you know what a mackintosh is? Of course, you do. But do you know that the word “Mackintosh” is a surname? In 1823, in Scotland lived a man whose name was Charles Mackintosh. It often rained in Great Britain, and Charles Mackintosh got wet quite often. One day he rubberized his coat ant it became waterproof. Many of his friends liked his coat and asked him to rubberize their coats too. Soon many people began to rubberize their coats and they called those coats “mackintoshes”. “Primula” Primula is the name of one of the genius of the Primulaceae family, sometimes known as the primrose family. There are three wild species which are quite common in Great Britain and these are the primrose, the cowslip and the oxlip. The primrose is supposed to have been the favourite flower of Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beaconfield, who was Britain’s Prime minister in the 19th century, and it is said that Queen Victoria often gave him bunches of these pretty yellow flowers. When he died, in April 1881, the Queen sent a wreath of primroses to his funeral. Later, Primrose Day was inaugurated. This was celebrated on April 19th, the day of his death, and Disraei’s supporters wore primrose buttonholes in his memory. Primroses were also laid on his statue in Parliament Square. The generic word “primula” is a corruption of the French “primeverole” and the Italian “ primeverolla”. Both these words came from the Latin “prima vera” and mean “first flower of spring”. 5.14 The USA The United States of America is the fourth largest country in the world (after Russia, Canada and China). It occupies the southern part of North America and stretches from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. It also includes Alaska in the north and Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The total area of the country is about nine and a half million square kilometers. The USA borders on Canada in the north and on Mexico in the south. It also has a sea-boarder with Russia. The USA is made up of 50 states and the District of Columbia, a special federal area where the capital of the country, Washington, is situated. The population of the country is about 250 million. If we look at the map of the USA, we can see lowlands and mountains. The highest mountains are the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and the Sierra Nevada. The highest peak is Mount McKinley which is located in Alaska. America's largest rivers are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Rio Grande and the Columbia. The Great Lakes on the border with Canada are the largest and deepest in the USA. The climate of the country varies greatly. The coldest regions are in the north. The climate of Alaska is arctic. The climate of the central part is continental. The south has a subtropical climate. Hot winds blowing from the Gulf of Mexico often bring typhoons. The climate along the Pacific coast is much warmer than that of the Atlantic coast. The USA is a highly developed industrial country. It is the world's leading producer of copper and oil and the world's second producer of iron ore and coal. Among the most important manufacturing industries are aircraft, cars, textiles, radio and television sets, armaments, furniture and paper. Though mainly European and African in origin, Americans are made up from nearly all races and-nations, including Chinese and native Americans. The largest cities are: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, San-Francisco, Washington and others. The United States is a federal union of 50 states, each of which has its own government. The seat of the central (federal) government is Washington, DC. According to the US Constitution the powers of the government are divided into 3 branches: the executive, headed by the President, the legislative, exercised by the Congress, and the judicial. The Congress consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are two main political parties in the USA: the Republican and the Democratic. 5.15 Washington DC Washington is the capital of the United States of America. It is situated in the District of Columbia and is like no other city of the USA. It's the world's largest one-industry city. And that industry is government. The White House, where the US President lives and works, the Capitol, the home of the US Congress and the Supreme Court are all in Washington. Washington was named after the first US President George Washington. He selected the place for the capital and Pierre L'Enfant, a French engineer, designed the city. Washington was first settled in 1790 and since 1800 it has been the Federal capital. Washington is one of the most beautiful and unusual cities in the United States. In the very centre of it rises the huge dome of the Capitol — a big white dome standing on a circle of pillars. The 535 members of the Congress meet here to discuss the nation's affairs. It's easy to get lost in this huge building, full of paintings and statues. Not far from the Capitol is the Library of Congress, the largest library in the States. It contains more than 13 million books, more than 19 million manuscripts, including the personal papers of the US presidents. The White House is the official residence of the US President. He works in the Oval Office. One can hardly find a park, a square or an open area in Washington without a monument or a memorial. The most impressive and the best-known ones are the Lincoln Memorial and the Washington Monument. There are some important museums in Washington where you can see ail kinds of things: famous paintings and sculptures, the dresses of President's wives, the original of the Declaration of Independence, the largest blue diamond in the world, etc. There are 5 universities in Washington. There are no skyscrapers in Washington, because they would hide the city's many monuments from view. No building in the city may be more than 40 meters tall. Thousands of tourists visit Washington every day. People from all parts of the United States come to see their capital. 5.16 Basic themes about America A few general cultural patterns cut across regional and political boundaries and, in many cases, ignore major differences in the physical environment. These themes characterize the ways Americans have organized their country. Urbanization: Millions of Americans, most of them urbanites, prefer to consider their country as a basically rural place, and they seem to believe that this rurality provides the country with a basic national vigor. There is no longer much justification for this view of rural dominance. About 70 percent of Americans live in urban areas, and more than 40 percent are in areas of 1 million people or more. In 1990, the U.S. farm population numbered about 5 million (2 percent of the population), a figure that has declined steadily since the first national census in 1790, when over 90 percent of all Americans were farmers. Several elements of urbanization are emphasized in our discussion. Cities have a particular form, a particular layout. Most American cities have a rectangular-grid pattern, partly a result of cultural attitudes, partly a result of a desire for efficient transport before the automobile, and partly because that pattern i s i n easy way to survey the land. Within cities, there is a collection of industrial and commercial centers, residential areas, warehouses, and so on. Cities exist for many different reasons. They mane have an important transportation role. Or they may provide an important administrative function. Perhaps they are a centre of recreation or manufacturing. Most cities, certainly all large ones, contain many different urban functions. Nevertheless, many are characterized by certain dominant functions that were the reason for their development and much of their early growth, and that today continue to give them their special character. The pattern of continuing and often rapid urban growth in the United States during the last 100 years, coupled with the increasing mobility of the urban population, has stimulated a great sprawling pattern of urbanization. In some areas, the result of urban spread is urbancoalescence, with the edges of different urban areas meeting and blending. 5.17 Industrialization A substantial part of U.S. employment is related to manufacturing, either directly or indirectly. Most cities were founded and experienced their major periods of growth when manufacturing was I he primary factor in urban growth. Today, there is substantial regional specialization in manufacturing, partly as the result of variations in the availability of industrial raw materials and partly as the result of industrial linkages; manufacturing concerns that produce component parts of some final product are located near each other as well as near the final assembly site to minimize total movement costs. Other important sources of variation include differences in labor availability or labor skills, in the quality of transportation facilities, and in local political attitudes. Regions tend to specialize in the production of whatever it is that they can best produce. And with this regional specialization has come regional interdependence; few sections of America are truly self-sufficient in manufacturing, in spite of what local pride might lead us to believe. High Mobility: America's extensive transportation network is an important element in its high level of economic interaction. Goods and people move freely within and between regions of the country. Regional interdependence is great; it is made possible by these inter regional flows. Relative isolation is uncommon, but it does exist. Nearly 20 percent of all Americans change their residence in any one year. Although much of this residential migration is local in nature, it does result in substantial interregional population movement. Until the last decade of the 19 th century, there was a strong westward population shift toward frontier agricultural lands. The focus of opportunity then changed and migration shifted to urban areas. More recently, the U.S. economy has entered what some call a postindustrial phase; employment growth is primarily in professions and services rather than primary (extractive) or secondary (manufacturing) sectors. Such employment is much more flexible in its location, and there has been a more rapid growth in such employment in areas that appear to contain greater amenities. 5.18 Resources About 25 percent of the land in row crops in the United States produces exports. Also, the country is able to satisfy much of its gigantic demand for industrial raw materials domestically. The United States has the potential to be a major supplier for a few nonagricultural raw materials internationally and is the world's leading exporter of coal. Although the U.S. population is predominantly urban, the extraction of natural resources from its abundant base requires a large nonurban labor force. Furthermore, particularly for agriculture, the development of these resources often involves a substantial land area. As a result, the relationship between the physical environment and human adaptations to that environment are clearly vi sible. Government plays an important role in this relationship by establish ing controls on land use and agricultural production and by regulating the development of many resources. It is partly because processes inherent in urbanization and industrialization lead to high demand for raw materials that the United States has become dependent on imported raw materials in spite of great natural resource abundance. High Income and High Consumption. The high U.S. national income is achieved through high worker productivity, which requires a significant use of machines. And modern machines are fueled by inanimate energy sources. Mobility also implies heavy use of energy resources. High income spread somewhat evenly among a large share of the population will generate high product demand. All this increases energy consumption. Americans consume about 25 percent of the world's total energy production. The United States imports half the petroleum it consumes, an increasing share of the iron ore and natural gas used, nearly all of its tin and aluminum, and large quantities of many other mineral ores. High income also affects diet. Americans eat far more meat products and have a substantially more varied diet than most of the world's population. Beef and dairy production are, therefore, especially important in the agricultural economy. 5.19 Environmental Impact One consequence of high consumption combined with resource abundance and dependence is a strong disruption of the physical environment. Resources seldom can be removed from the natural landscape without some impact, and the manufacture and use of these resources often harm the air and water. The increased severity of such environmental impacts has enlivened the argument between development and conservation—an argument that has stimulated greater governmental intervention in both processes in an attempt to establish a middle ground. As domestic resources become increasingly scarce and their costs of extraction and production increase, the importance of this conflict will grow. Political Complexity: The United States has a complex political structure, with jurisdiction over an activity or state divided among many different decision-making bodies, some elected and some appointed. Below the state level, the complexity of the political structure can present a major problem in the effective and efficient distribution of governmental services. Counties, townships, cities, and towns are all governed by their own elected officials. Many special administrative units oversee the provision of specific services, such as education, public transportation, and water supply. The resulting administrative pattern is often nearly impossible to comprehend, because many overlapping jurisdictions may provide one service or another in a given area. Cultural Origins: The United States has grown from a diverse cultural background. African Americans have made important contributions to the national culture. A distinctive cultural region has developed in the Southwest, with an admixture of Hispanic Americans, American Indians, and European Americans. The Chinese contributed to the life of such cities as San Francisco and New York. This cultural diversity is an important element in the distinctive character of the country. 5.20 American weddings. There are many different kinds of weddings in the United States, reflecting the different religious and ethnic backgrounds of the American people. Weddings may be large or small, religious or civil, formal or informal; it all depends on the wishes and personal situations of the man and woman who are getting married. An overwhelming majority of today's couples, however, choose to marry in a traditional religious ceremony. The Wedding Ceremony. There are several customs Americans follow when a man and a woman have a traditional wedding. One of the oldest customs is for the bride to wear "something old, something new, something borrowed and something blue." When the bride enters the church or synagogue, everyone stands up. The processional music starts and the bride walks down the aisle, accompanied by her father. At the end of the aisle, she meets the groom and the officiate (priest, minister, or rabbi) who makes some introductory remarks on marriage. He asks if the couple marries freely, and they answer affirmatively. The bride and groom join hands and declare their vows. After they say their "I do's," the groom puts the wedding ring on his bride's finger and he kisses her. Then the officiate gives the couple his blessings-they are now officially married. The bride and groom come back down the aisle, followed by their attendance and families. This completes the ceremony. Outside the church or synagogue, the guests rush up to congratulate the couple and wish them well. The Wedding Reception. After the wedding ceremony, there is usually a reception at a hotel, restaurant, or private club. The wedding reception is a festive celebration that gives family and friends an opportunity to share the joy of the bride and groom. As with any other special occasion, there is food, drink, and music to make everyone relaxed and happy. Dancing. If there is dancing at the wedding party, the first dance is reserved for the bride and groom. After the bride dances with her new husband, the rest of the bridal party joins in and the guests may follow. Music During the formal dancing is soft and romantic. Once the main meal is completed and the cake is cut, the musicians can pick up the tempo. Cutting the Cake. One of the wedding's most precious and memorable moments is the cutting of the wedding cake. The bride and groom together make the first cup, his hand over hers. She takes the first bite of cake and offers him the second. This act of sharing symbolizes their lifetime of sharing ahead. Tossing the Bouquet. At the end of the celebration, all the unmarried women gather for the tossing of the bouquet. Traditionally, the bride turns her back to the women and tosses the bouquet over her shoulder. Today she may face them. Supposedly, the one who catches it will be the next married. Taking Leave. After the bouquet is thrown, the bride and groom leave the reception to begin their honeymoon. The guests throw rice at the couple as they leave the party. They drive off in the groom's car, which is often decorated with streamers and flowers. Modern couples may or may not choose to follow the traditional customs mentioned above, but (here is one thing they all have in common: they want their marriage to be successful and their wedding to be as lovely and memorable as they can make it. 5.21 American Press. Because of the great size of the USA, local newspapers are more important than local ones. Only the New York Times, the Chicago, the Tribune, the Wall Street Journal are read all over the country. But there are other newspapers that have a wide interest and influence; they include the Washington Post, the popular Daily News, the Baltimore Sun, the Philadelphia Inquirer and others. The USA press plays an important part in the business of government; the press conference is an American invention. In the 20th century newspapers have ranged from tabloids featuring pictures and sensational news to, “responsible journals”. There pages are varied and include columns devoted to news, editorials, letters to the editor, business and finance, sport entertainment, art, music, books, fashion, food, society and others. As the great newspaper chains and news agencies grew, American’s press lost its individualistic character; many features are common to newspapers all over the country, which therefore have a uniform appearance. Although there are no separate Sunday papers as there are in G.B., US daily papers do have special Sunday additions. Many of these are remarkable in size; the New York Times Sunday edition regularly has over 200 pages, and has had 946. Almost all American newspapers carries comic strips, usually at least a page of them. In contrast to daily newspaper, many magazines in the USA are national and even international. Those which the widest circulations are Time, Reader’s Digest, TV Guide, Woman’s day, Better homes and Gardens, Family circle, the National Geographic magazine. 5.22 Women’s Issues in American Politics. The role of women's issues on the political agenda of contemporary America is a product both of the changing politics of the women's movement and the general character of the American policy environment in the 1990s. The climate for the promotion of women's issues in American politics at the opening of the 1990s could thus be said to be mixed. Although the overall picture remained bleak for reasons which had as much to do with the economic state of the country as with the political strengths of the women's movement, there were reasons for guarded optimism. Two factors in particular gave the advocates of women’s interests and the feminist movement reason for believing that the tide of opinion had turned. First, there was increasing evidence of greater equality of access for women to education. Over the period 1960—1980 the percentage of women with a college degree in the United States more than doubled from 6 to 13 percent and this trend seemed set to continue. Of particular interest in 1990 was the increased access which women were getting to graduate education, especially to the law schools and medical schools which constituted the key channels to America's professional elite Secondly, while the women's organizations, like other participants in the liberal civil rights coalition, had found little sympathy in the federal government during the Reagan Presidency, they had participated in the spectacular and symbolic defeat of the 1987 Bork nomination to the Supreme Court. And although President Bush's veto of the Civil Rights Act of 1990 effectively killed legislation which would have made it easier for women to sue their employers for discrimination (and would have allowed extensive damages to be awarded where discrimination was proved) as with child-care legislation, the 1990 midterm elections produced a better political context for the successful reintroduction the legislation. While it would be impossible in an essay of this length to do justice to all of these themes, the outlines of the story can be told here. 6 My University. My future profession. 6.1 My University I am very happy that I study at this University. It is one of the finest country’s higher educational institutions. Many famous people have graduated from my University. Studying at our University gives a solid background in all spheres of knowledge and prepares for practical work. Our University is quite large but not very old. It was founded in the beginning of the 20th century. In 1915, during the World War I the University of Warsaw was evacuated here. First it had only three faculties, but later in became the largest University in the region and it gave birth to other Institutions in the region. Nowadays it is a large school where more than 18000 students are currently enrolled. The course of study at my University lasts five years. There are many faculties at my University. Here are some of them: the faculty of banking and finance and, the faculty of management, the faculty of business law and the faculty of accounting. Our University is large and we have several buildings. One of the buildings is for lectures and seminars only. There are many large halls there so that students of 3-4 groups together can fit in there. We have two other buildings for library, computer centre, gym, and other facilities. Many students from my group want to do their own research work in the future and these facilities will certainly help them. There are several cafes at the University. The food there is tasty and very affordable. There are also several dormitories or hostel buildings where students from other cities countries live. I don’t live in a dormitory – I rent an apartment. 6.2 Pavlodar State University The Toraigyrov Pavlodar state university was founded in 1996, on the basis of Pavlodar industrial institute, which in its turn, was founded in 1960. There were only 400 students who studied at 3 faculties. The lessons were conducted by 16 teachers, and only one of them had an academic status of docent. Today the Toraigyrov Pavlodar state university is a multiplediscipline higher educational institution, which realizes educational programs along 2 specialties of doctorate, 17 specialties of post-graduate course, 34 specialties of graduate school and 114 specialties of higher professional training, including 54 specialties of baccalaureate and 21 secondary professional education specialties. More than 15 thousand students study at the university. There are many faculties at our university: the faculty of Finance and Economics, Faculty of Philology, Journalism and Art, History and law faculty, faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Information Technologies, the faculty of metallurgy, machine building and transport, the faculty of foreign languages, Biology and Chemistry faculty, Power Engineering faculty, Architecture and Construction Engineering faculty, Distance Learning Faculty. Many famous people of our country have graduated from PSU, the former Prime-Minister of the Republic D. Akhmetov, the Senate deputy S. Esimhanov, V. Bobrov, S. Aliguzhinov, N. Chmyh and others. The university has a well-developed material and technical basis: 6 educational buildings, a scientific library with 6 reading halls, 4 subscription departments and 1 million specimen book resources, a museum complex consisting of 6 museums: museum of Science History of Pavlodar oblast; museum of Kazakh ethnography; museum of Technics History; geological museum; archeological Museum named after A.Margulan; PSU History Museum, plenty of laboratories, including modern computer classes, professional graphics workstation for architecture and design, media library and Internet-café. The educational process is realized by the teaching staff of the university: 46 professors, 156 candidates, 52 doctors of science and 94 dotsents work at 40 departments and 12 scientific practical centers. 6.3 World of jobs We spend great part of our lives at our jobs, so choosing a right career is one of the most important decisions you will make in your life. Many students finish high school and begin college without a clear idea of what they want to do in future. Part of the problem is the size of the job market itself. With so many kinds of jobs (2000) how can you tell which will interest you? Some of occupations are already overcrowded. In old industries there may be little need for new workers, while new and growing industries will offer jobs now and in the future. Therefore, it is extremely important to explore your choice of occupations from every angle, collect as much information as you can. But above all you must evaluate yourself. Find out where your interests and talents lie. Postponing a decision is an error people make. "I'll get started tomorrow or next week, or next year," many people think. These people refuse to face the problem, hoping it will go away. But if you don't take the first step now, how can you plan for the future, how can you take the right way? Such people miss many opportunities. First start with yourself, make a list of your interests, talents and abilities. Most people have a lot of these, but at the beginning they are undeveloped and may not seem outstanding. By concentrating on a few, or on one you may surprise yourself at how good you can get. The interest inventory that follows covers the major fields in which most people find careers: science, art, social service, business, sales and so on. Sometimes we say that someone we know is 'a square peg in a round hole'. This means that person we are talking about is not suited for the job he is doing. Unfortunately, many people in the world are 'square pegs'. But to be a 'square peg' is not a real problem, a real problem for millions of people is to be unemployed. 6.4 Problems of unemployment of young people I think that the problem of youth employment is very actual and must be solved as quick as possible. Most of young people in Russia nowadays get higher education chiefly because it is in basion now. They all go to institutes or universities and even academies. But the quality of education nowadays leaves much to be desired. As a result the country will have a lot of specialists especially doctors, managers and lowers. But their quality will be very low. It is one problem. The other problem is that of finding working places for such a great number of specialists. The Federal Government should do something about this problem. Creating those places for young people is the burning question now. There must be a lot of new plants, factories, hospitals and other enterprises to give jobs to all the graduates. But there is one more problem when people who leave one or institutions are not satisfied with the working conditions and work as other specialists. As a result they have only their diplomas but they do not work according to their professions. And it is also very bad. The government should provide good working conditions for some spheres, which are not popular (for example give more money and so on). In Russia young people are still a little suppressed, they have complexes but abroad the life is quite different. Young people begin to work very early from the point of view of age, get more and more experience out of their work and have more possibilities to realize themselves. 6.5 I have a dream There are a lot of noble and important professions. One can hardly make up his mind which to choose. I want to be a doctor. I began to think of my future profession when I was 12. You see, my father is a doctor. He is a qualified and experienced surgeon in emergency surgical department of a military clinic. I like my daddy's profession and I am eager to get a medical education and work at a hospital. Day by day my father takes care of his clinic patients and I know, he treats them well. He is very attentive. Every morning he comes to the wards asking about complaints. He wants all people to be able-bodied and he tries to make his in-patients well again. Now there are a lot of wounded soldiers and officers from Chechnya and Bosnia. To operate on them and sometimes simply save their lives is his main task. After each operation he takes care of them. Day by day he helps them to recover and he is very happy and proud when he says, "My in-patient is quite recovered today and he is off. Sometimes he advises them to go to sanatoriums or mineral resorts after leaving the hospital. He instructs them in detail what they can and can't do and eat after their operations. 6.6 What makes a good journalist? What makes a good journalist? Many things. But first of all, a deep and genuine interest in people. A person who has no interest in other people will never make a good journalist. So if you are not very interested in other people and think that most people are a bit of nuisance and you prefer not to have anything more to do with them than is necessary, journalism is not for you. Hand in hand with this interest in people, should go qualities of sympathy, open-mindedness and an inquiring mind. Sympathy: so that you can see the other side of an issue even you disagree with the person who holds it. Open-mindedness: so that you do not make hasty ill-informed judgements. Inquiring-mind: so that you can really get to the bottom of the thing you are asking about. So these are the basic qualities for a journalist, but the officially required qualifications are very different. Obviously a journalist must be well enough educated to be able to write fairly clearly in whatever language it is he hopes to work in. What about the rest of the educational qualifications for a journalist? Often it is the pupil who was fairly good at five or six subjects, and not brilliant at just one, who makes the best journalist. These sorts of people are rather balanced for the sort of life a journalist leads. But of course, nobody can say exactly what the best qualifications for a career in journalism are. They will vary enormously according to the individual. 6.7 Computer engineer I am very proud to study at the faculty of information systems and want to tell a few words about my speciality. I was always good at mathematics and physics. My parents bought me a computer and since then I knew that I would become a specialist in computer technologies – a computer engineer. Computer industry is developing so fast, that it comprises all spheres of professional life. No business now is possible without computers. Computer control of automated production opens new horizons for the cheap and quality production of goods. Computer engineering is a general field. It deals with both electric and electronic industries. Engineers in the field of electric and electronic engineering are concerned with all aspects of electrical communications, from fundamental questions such as “What is information?” to the highly practical, such as the design of telephone systems. In designing communication systems, engineers rely on various branches of advanced mathematics, such as linear systems theory, linear algebra, differential equations, and probability theory. Engineers work on control systems which are used extensively in automated manufacturing and in robotics. The field of computer science is closely related to computer engineering; however, the task of making computers more “intelligent” (artificial intelligence), through creation of sophisticated programs or development of higher level machine languages or other means. One current trend in computer engineering is miniaturization, to fit greater and greater numbers of circuit elements onto smaller and smaller chips. Another trend is increasing the speed of computer operations through the use of parallel processors and superconducting materials. So, as you see, there are a lot of employment opportunities in my field. I don’t worry about finding a job. The most important thing for me is now to study well and to graduate from the University successfully. 6.8 Lawyer I am a fourth year student of Pavlodar State University. I study at the Law Faculty. In a year I’ll graduate from the University and become a professional lawyer. To become a good lawyer one must know much. So at the University we are taught various general and special subject: Roman Law, Labour Law, Family Law, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Civil Law, Criminal Law, Law of Procedure, etc. The profession of a lawyer is quite diversified. The graduates of our faculty can work as investigators, judges, defence counsels, legal consultants. I’d like to be a judge and to work at a People’s Court. My friends will work at the Procurator’s Office, Militia, Legal Aid Offices. I think that now the profession is one of the most important in the law-governed state which we are creating now. Lawyers have to solve many problems that still exist in our society. The duty of lawyers is not only to punish people for various crimes: hooliganism, stealing, murder, traffic violation and so on but they must do their best to prevent crimes, to fight against evil in our society. They should help those people who committed an error to find the right road in their life. The lawyers protect the rights and legal interests of citizens, institutions and organizations. All the citizens are equal before the law. Judges are elected for a term of 5 years. Not only professional lawyers but the representatives of the population hear all criminal and civil cases having equal authority. The defendants are guaranteed the right to defense. In our country justice is exercised on the principles of equality of citizens before the law and the court, regardless of social position, property or official standing, nationality or race. The court’s mission is not just to meter out punishment, but rather to educate people in the spirit of strict observance of all laws, of labour discipline, appreciation of their duty to the state and society, respect for the rights and integrity of fellow citizens and of the norms of behaviour. Proceedings of all courts are open. All people before the court are presumed innocent, until the court, having observed all procedural guarantees, finds them guilty. Only then is the sentence pronounced. An appeal can be made against the ruling to a higher court, right up to the Supreme Court. 6.9 Economist I’m a student at the Faculty of Economics. In the near future I’ll graduate from the University and become a professional economist. I’m sure that the profession of an economist is one the most important nowadays in view of the situation in our Republic. What makes a good economist? Whatever he does, an economist should have a thorough training in economic theory, mathematics and statistics and our University offers such training. At the University we are taught various general and special subjects, such as Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, Management, Accounting, Marketing, Advertising, Money and Banking, Economic Theory, Econometrics, Statistics, Computer Science, Philosophy, Business Ethics, Foreign Languages, etc. An economist needs some knowledge of the world outside his own country because both business and government are deeply involved in the world economy. Some knowledge of political and economic history will help him to expect changes and always look for basic long-run forces under the surface of things. The profession of an economist is quite diversified. The graduates of our Faculty work at educational institutions, various research centers and laboratories, in industry, business, banks, etc. You may continue your studies at the Post-graduate Courses or Doctorate if you have a desire and abilities to become a scientist or a professor. Scientist in the field of economics creates new theories and models, test their hypotheses and carry out economic researches. Being employed in industry and business, our graduates work as managers, as an executive manager, a sales manager, a financial manager. Some of us work as accountants. An accountant is one of the most prestigious and widely required professions of an economist in any society. You shouldn’t mix an accountant and with a book-keeper. While a bookkeeper is mostly involved in calculations, like balance sheets, income statements, invoices, an accountant is responsible for designing the financial policy of a company. Some of us work at the banks, at the Stock Exchange as brokers, others work for the government or are employed by various agencies and by military services. Knowing the economic laws of the development of the society, economists can solve many problems facing our Republic and I hope I’ll manage to make my contribution to this process. 6.10 Chemist When I was little I dreamed to be a pilot. But life is changing and we are changing too. Now I understand clearly that I can be useful in an absolutely different sphere. My favourite subject at school was chemistry and I liked to conduct chemical experiments. Civilization is the sum of numerous items, and one of the most important of them is chemistry. Chemistry is widely used in machinebuilding and power engineering, agriculture, health service, medicine and consumer goods production. Chemistry enables man to melt metals from ores and minerals. Without chemistry modern metallurgy is impossible. Chemistry makes more and more wonderful substances from animal and vegetable and mineral materials. Thousands and thousands of man-made substances possess very important and useful properties of great utility for the life and work of man. Chemistry is a faithful helper of the farmer. The output of mineral fertilizers, chemical pest killers and herbicides has been increased. It can be said that no branch of the modern economy can exist without chemical processes, methods and materials. The chemical industry produces new types of building materials, fabrics and clothes, medicines and dyestuffs – in short, everything necessary for industry, agriculture, and for man’s cultural and home needs. Chemists are always on the look-out for new laws of nature, trying to penetrate deeper into the mysteries of matter, to clear the way to technological progress. We study the chemical technology of organic and inorganic substances, but there are different independent branches of this science: electrochemistry, radiochemistry, biochemistry, cosmo chemistry and many others. Every year hundreds of young chemists graduate from the chemical departments and go to work to all parts of our country. 6.11 Historian I’m in my third year of the History Faculty. I must say that I’m very interested in the subjects which I have chosen of all humanities as my future speciality. History was my favourite subject at school. I was fond of reading historical novels describing life, culture and political events in different countries of the world. History is a process of developing nature and society. History as a science studies the past of mankind in all its variety and concreteness. There are many historical subjects in our program: Ancient History, The Middle Ages, the History of Kazakhstan, Modern and Contemporary History, etc. History helps people understand and explain the processes going on in various aspects of human life. It also helps foresee the course of events in future. Historians study and describe the historic events taking place in different epochs and in different countries. Their descriptions and analyses should be strictly objective and scientific. As for me I’m deeply interested in the history of my native land. The profession of a historian is quite diversified. The graduates of our Faculty can work as teachers and research workers at secondary and higher schools, different museums and archives. Many of them have become well-known scientists or chosen public activity as their career. Whether I shall make a good teacher or become successful in some other field of social life remains to be seen. But I’m sure that my knowledge received at the University will help me succeed in my future work. 7 Sphere of economics in Kazakhstan and in English Speaking Countries 7.1 Economy of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, the largest of the former Soviet republics in territory, excluding Russia, possesses enormous fossil fuel reserves as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also is a large agricultural - livestock and grain - producer. Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a growing machine-building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defense items. The breakup of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse in demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products resulted in a short-term contraction of the economy, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994. In 1995-97, the pace of the government program of economic reform and privatization quickened, resulting in a substantial shifting of assets into the private sector. Kazakhstan enjoyed double-digit growth in 2000-01 - and a solid 9.5% in 2002 - thanks largely to its booming energy sector, but also to economic reform, good harvests, and foreign investment. The opening of the Caspian Consortium pipeline in 2001, from western Kazakhstan's Tengiz oilfield to the Black Sea, substantially raised export capacity. The country has embarked upon an industrial policy designed to diversify the economy away from overdependence on the oil sector, by developing light industry. Additionally, the policy aims to reduce the influence of foreign investment and foreign personnel; the government has engaged in several disputes with foreign oil companies over the terms of production agreements, and tensions continue. Kazakhstan, a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, is an economic development leader in Central Asia. It maintains a special relationship with Russia, and China has invested billions to access its hydrocarbon resources. In August 2007, President Nursultan Nazarbayev's Nur Otan party won all of the seats in the lower house of parliament. The parliament approved constitutional reforms that increase its role in governance and abolish presidential term limits. Energy and commodities have driven economic growth, and oil output is projected to grow from 1.45 million barrels a day in 2007 to 3.5 million barrels a day in 2020. Despite Eurasia's highest levels of foreign direct investment in 2007, resource nationalism and corruption exacerbate investor uncertainty. 7.2 Business Freedom The overall freedom to conduct a business is restricted by Kazakhstan's regulatory environment. Starting a business takes an average of 21 days, compared to the world average of 38 days. Obtaining a business license requires more than the world average of 18 procedures, and fees are high. Bankruptcy proceedings can be burdensome and lengthy. Trade Freedom Kazakhstan's average tariff rate was 1.9 percent in 2004. Liberalization has progressed, but services market access barriers, import licensing requirements, non-transparent regulations and standards, opaque government procurement, weak enforcement of intellectual property rights, and customs inefficiency and complexity still add to the cost of trade. Ten points were deducted from Kazakhstan's trade freedom score to account for non-tariff barriers. Fiscal Freedom Kazakhstan has a low income tax rate and a moderate corporate tax rate. The flat income tax rate is 10 percent, and the standard corporate tax rate is 30 percent. Other taxes include a value-added tax (VAT) and a vehicle tax. In the most recent year, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 26.8 percent. Partly to compensate for increased social spending, an export tax on oil was imposed in May 2008. Government Size Total government expenditures, including consumption and transfer payments, are low. In the most recent year, government spending equaled 20.4 percent of GDP. As a result of gradual privatization, much of the economy is now in private hands. Budgetary targets were revised in May 2008 to allow for increases in social spending. Monetary Freedom Inflation is relatively high, averaging 9.9 percent between 2005 and 2007. The market sets most prices, but the government retains the right to control prices, influences them through state-owned enterprises and manufacturing subsidies, and has made little progress in promoting competition in agriculture. Ten points were deducted from Kazakhstan's monetary freedom score to account for policies that distort domestic prices. Investment Freedom The government plays a large role in overseeing foreign investment. Screening of foreign investment proposals is often non-transparent, arbitrary, and slow. With the exception of investments in oil production or mining, rules on local content and local sources of financing vary from contract to contract. An investor may be obligated to train local specialists and contribute to the social development of the region. An unclear legal code, legislative favoritism toward Kazakh companies, and government interference in commercial operations further deter investment. Subject to restrictions, foreign exchange accounts may be held by residents and nonresidents. Most capital transactions, payments, and transfers are subject to government approval, quantitative limits, and strict documentary requirements. The Investment Law of 2003 weakened protections related to expropriation and compensation and provides no clear guidance for either process. Land ownership is restricted. Financial Freedom Kazakhstan's banking system is Central Asia's most developed. All banks must meet international standards. There are about 30 banks, down from 130 at the end of 1995. Kazkommertsbank, Turan-Alem Bank, and the state-owned Halyk Bank dominate the market. Foreign banks may not have branches but may establish subsidiaries, joint ventures, and representative offices. There are three state-owned banks (a development bank, an export'import bank, and a housing finance bank), two development funds, and a number of microfinance institutions. Capital markets are underdeveloped, though the bond market has been growing. The insurance sector is small, and foreign companies are limited to joint ventures with local companies. Labor Freedom Kazakhstan's flexible labor regulations generally enhance employment and productivity growth. The non-salary cost of employing a worker is moderate, and dismissing a redundant employee is not costly. Regulations on the number of work hours can be rigid. 7.3 Tourism in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is located right in the heart of Eurasia, where ancient meets modern and oriental traditions coexist with Western culture. We are sure that the centuries-old Kazakh culture and the unique nature of the region will enchant you. A trip to Kazakhstan will be a truly wonderful experience, a time that you will treasure forever. Recently, Kazakhstan has become increasingly popular among tourists from all around the world. Local travel companies have been quick to respond to this phenomenon by increasing the range of services they offer, attracting even more travelers. Many of these tourists come from Germany, the UK, Japan, South Korea and China. These travelers have already experienced the touring routes of Kazakhstan, and we believe that it's high time to follow their example. Today, Kazakhstan offers virtually all types of travel services educational and entertainment tours, ethnic and eco-tourism, just to name a few. Numerous touring routes cover the country's entire territory. For example, you can't afford to miss the Golden Ring of Southern Kazakhstan. Some of the World's earliest cities flourished in this fertile oasis, located on the southern steppe, at the frontier between nomads and ancient settlements. A system of caravan routes connecting China with the Near East and Europe used to cross through this land. The Great Silk Road, or Zhibek Zholy in the Kazakh language, emerged as a major trade route as early as the 3rd century BC. A significant part of this road now belongs to the territory of Kazakhstan. Cities such as Turkestan (Yasi), Taraz (Talas) and Otrar are located along this ancient route, and in the past they used to be major settlements along the path of the caravans. Southern Kazakhstan also hosts the world famous space port, Baykonur. It is quite possible that in the near future, not only the local people, but also tourists from abroad will be able to get one step closer to space and feel its fascinating aura, if not by joining a rocket launch, then by witnessing it from a nearby location. There is a proposal to create at Baikonur an entertainment complex with modern hotels and service facilities, similar to that existing at Cape Canaveral. Facilities would include a mini-mission control center which would simulate spacecraft launch, a planetarium, a museum of space development, a shopping network, restaurants, as well as 'cosmic cafes' for young people. In addition, the region provides unique climatic conditions for recreation, rehabilitation, hunting, mountain climbing, skiing and iceskating. Western Kazakhstan is situated in a quite unique fashion on the border line between the European and Asian continents, in the basins of the Caspian Sea and Volga and Ural rivers. Here one can find the second lowest land area on our planet, the Karaghiye Depression (some 132 meters below sea level), as well as impressive chalk cliffs. There are rich hunting grounds and a number of good fishing spots, as well as areas suitable for water sports. The ancient ruins of Mangyshlak and Ustyurt, as well as memorials related to Kazakh history, are of significant scientific importance. One of the major resting spots in this region used to be Aktau. From here, one may observe not only the Karaghiye Depression, but also rocky cliffs and picturesque canyons, rich in mineral springs. You will be able to visit necropolises and underground mosques built by the indigenous stonemasons of old. The shores of the Caspian Sea offer numerous beaches. The sea dashing itself upon the cliffs, sandy beaches, and stony seabed. Extreme tourists will appreciate the rock climbing and sailing opportunities. Whether you like touring by car or on a bicycle, or prefer waterbased activities, you will love a vacation spent in Northern Kazakhstan, with its landscapes and climate. One of the most popular resorts for both the locals and guests of the country is the so-called "Kazakh Switzerland", a place called "Borovoye". A true gem of Kazakhstan, located between the cities of Astana and Kokshetau, this resort town has a population of some 5,000 people. It offers a rich variety of restaurants, bars, shops and discos. Central Kazakhstan is the location of one of the world's largest lakes, Balkhash, the unique Karkarala mountain forest oasis, as well as numerous places of interest representing archaeological and ethnographic sites. Eastern Kazakhstan bears the Altai Mountain range and its foothill forest regions, as well as the Irtysh River, and lakes Zaysan, Markakol, Alakol and Sauskan. Kazakhstan is becoming increasingly recognized and respected on the international political scene, and it is no surprise that Almaty and Astana have become host to a growing number of various regional and international meetings and symposia. More and more business tourists have become interested in visiting the country, and you may find yourself becoming one of them. Speaking of extreme and ecological tourism, there's more than enough space for these activities. Admirers of exoticism and adventure, bored by comfort and hotel accommodations, may stay in Kazakh traditional tent homes, yurts, and study the local customs, lifestyle and traditions. The list of services in this sector is continuously being enriched with new offers. Recently, traditional mountain trekking tours and wildlife reserve visits were diversified with another type of extreme touring hunting with birds of prey. An ancient hunting tradition which originated in Central Asia is becoming popular again. The charm of Kazakhstan - this is what you are going to feel from the moment you arrive. Have a nice holiday and an exciting trip. 7.4 Economy of the UK The United Kingdom is a major developed capitalist economy. The United Kingdom is also a member of the G8, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, and the European Union. The UK was the first country in the world to industrialize in the 18th and 19th centuries, and for much of the 19th century possessed a predominant role in the global economy. However, by the late 19th century, the Second Industrial Revolution in the United States meant the US had begun to challenge Britain's role as the leader of the global economy. The extensive war efforts of both World Wars in the 20th century and the dismantlement of the British Empire also weakened the UK economy in global terms, and by that time Britain had been superseded by the United States as the chief player in the global economy. At the start of the 21st century however, the UK still possesses a significant role in the global economy, due to its large Gross Domestic Product and the financial importance that its capital, London, possesses in the world. The United Kingdom is one of the world's most globalize countries. The capital, London (see Economy of London), is a major financial centre for international business and commerce and is one of three "command centers" for the global economy (along with New York City and Tokyo). The British economy is made up (in descending order of size) of the economies of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. In 1973, the UK acceded to the European Economic Community which is now known as the European Union after the ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with less than 2% of the labour force (477,000[24] out of a total workforce of 31,598,000, 3rd quarter of 2007) . It contributes around 2% of GDP. Around two-thirds of the production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops.[citation needed] The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, oilseed rape, maize for animal feeds, potatoes and sugar beet. New crops are also emerging, such as linseed for oil and hemp for fibre production. The main livestock which are raised are cattle, chickens (the UK is the second largest poultry producer in Europe after France) and sheep.[citation needed] Agriculture is subsidised by the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy. The UK retains a significant, although vastly reduced, fishing industry. Its fleets, based in towns such as Kingston upon Hull, Grimsby, Fleetwood, Great Yarmouth, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Lowestoft, bring home fish ranging from sole to herring. The Blue Book 2006 (page 110) reports that the "Agriculture hunting, forestry and fishing" added gross value of £10,323 million (at 2006 prices) to the UK economy in 2004. 7.5 Banking Industry The Banking Industry was once a simple and reliable business that took deposits from investors at a lower interest rate and loaned it out to borrowers at a higher rate. However deregulation and technology led to a revolution in the Banking Industry that saw it transformed. Banks have become global industrial powerhouses that have created ever more complex products that use risk and securitisation in models that only PhD students can understand. Through technology development, banking services have become available 24 hours a day, 365 days a week, through ATMs, at online banking, and in electronically enabled exchanges where everything from stocks to currency futures contracts can be traded . The Banking Industry at its core provides access to credit. In the lenders case, this includes access to their own savings and investments, and interest payments on those amounts. In the case of borrowers, it includes access to loans for the creditworthy, at a competitive interest rate. Banking services include transactional services, such as verification of account details, account balance details and the transfer of funds, as well as advisory services, that help individuals and institutions to properly plan and manage their finances. Online banking channels have become key in the last 10 years. The collapse of the Banking Industry in the Financial Crisis, however, means that some of the more extreme risk-taking and complex security activities that banks increasingly engaged in since 2000 will be limited and carefully watched, to ensure that there is not another banking system meltdown in the future. Mortgage Banking Mortgage banking has been encompassing for the publicity or promotion of the various mortgage loans to investors as well as individuals in the mortgage business. Online Banking Online banking services have developed the banking practices easier worldwide. Small Business Banking Banking in the small business sector plays an important role. Find various banking services available for small businesses. Stock Trading Stock trading is the process of buying or selling of shares on a stock exchange, where investors are represented by stock brokers. A company that floats its stocks is called a public company and is listed on a stock exchange. Stock trading can be done either physically or virtually (online). Stock Trading: Approaches There are two main approaches to stock trading: Active approach: This is the more common of the two approaches. The decision to buy stocks involves analyzing the company, reviewing the historical share price trends and understanding the current forecasts. Active investors are guided by the growth and intrinsic value of the stocks. This approach is mostly applied by the investment managers who manage mutual funds, pension funds and separately managed individual accounts. Passive approach: This approach is opted for by investors who prefer lowrisk, high-yielding stocks and invest money in them mainly for their retirement accounts. This approach assumes the efficiency of markets in the longer term. It is, however, not synonymous with the strategy of ‘buy-andhold.’ Rather, it implies buying at low prices and selling when the stocks have reached a high price level. Benefits of Stock Trading Here are some benefits of stock trading: -Buying and selling stocks offers better returns than other financial instruments. -Stock trading can be done on a full time or part time basis. -Online stock trading can be used as a form of home-based income generation for housewives, the elderly and the physically challenged. -Stock trading offers scope for diversification across companies, geographies and sectors. Disadvantages of Stock Trading Some disadvantages of stock trading are: -Leverage in stock trading is much lower than that in forex trading or futures trading. -Traders may have to wait a long time for the price of a stock to rise. Inability to short curtails their profits. Stock trading takes place via brokers, who are registered with stock exchanges. Stock traders can choose between full service brokers and discount brokers. 7.6 Finance, Financing Finance is a branch of economics that deals with the management of funds, financial resources and other assets. In broader terms, finance is raising or investing money either as equity or debt. Finance is a wideranging term which includes funding, investments, trading and risk management (through various types of insurance policies). Finance: Financial Assets Finance involves investment of funds in financial assets, such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds and private equities for income generation. Financial institutions like banks play a major role in funding these financial assets. Investment in financial assets is generally extensive so it must be protected by risk management and risk transference organizations like insurance companies. Finance: Types Personal finance focuses on the extent of funds that are required by a person or a family. This further includes protection from mishap, transfer of assets through inheritance and the impact of tax policy on personal finance. Personal finance also includes financial planning and access to credit. Corporate finance: This type of finance uses the principles of finance to help corporate raise funding and to help investors earn good returns from meeting those funding needs, usually with the help of corporate bankers or financiers. The objective of corporate finance is to maximize the valuation of financial assets, while striking a balance between the risks and profitability potential of the assets. Corporate finance takes into account the valuation of financial assets primarily for tax assessments and business analysis. Corporate houses focus on making either long-term capital investments or managing working capital for the short term. It also involves finding short- and longterm funding for corporations. While short-term funding can be obtained from banks’ line of credit, funds for the long term can be acquired by issuing equity or bonds. For investors who want updates and advice on any financial matters such as savings, investment, retirement planning, portfolio management and asset management, it is best to seek financial advice from a trustworthy financial advisor. 7.7 Economy of the USA The United States has the world’s largest economy, produced roughly $15 trillion worth of goods and services in 2008, making it easily the largest in the world. A central feature of the U.S. economy is the economic freedom afforded to the private sector by allowing the private sector to make the majority of economic decisions in determining the direction and scale of what the U.S. economy produces. This is enhanced by relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement, as well as a court system that generally protects property rights and enforces contracts. The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is fortunate to have a moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent, and the Great Lakes— five large, inland lakes along the U.S. border with Canada—provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's 50 individual states together in a single economic unit. The main industries of the USA are petroleum, steel, motor vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, culture, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber and mining. Labor mobility has also been important to the capacity of the American economy to adapt to changing conditions. When immigrants flooded labor markets on the East Coast, many workers moved inland, often to farmland waiting to be tilled. Similarly, economic opportunities in industrial, northern cities attracted black Americans from southern farms in the first half of the 20th century. In the United States, the corporation has emerged as an association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise governed by a complex set of rules and customs. Brought on by the process of mass production, corporations, such as General Electric, have been instrumental in shaping the United States. Through the stock market, American banks and investors have grown their economy by investing and withdrawing capital from profitable corporations. Today in the era of globalization American investors and corporations have influence all over the world. The American government has also been instrumental in investing in the economy, in areas such as providing cheap electricity (such as from the Hoover Dam), and military contracts in times of war. While consumers and producers make most decisions that mold the economy, government has a powerful effect on the U.S. economy in at least four areas, as the government uses a Capitalist system. Strong government regulation in the U.S. economy started in the early 1900s with the rise of the Progressive Movement; prior to this the government promoted economic growth through protective tariffs and subsidies to industry, built infrastructure, and established banking policies, including the gold standard, to encourage savings and investment in productive enterprises. On June 26 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand. 7.8 California Economy California is the most populated state in the United States. It is located in the far west bordered by Oregon, Nevada, and across the Colorado River, Arizona, Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The state owns a more productive economy. Agriculture in the state is gradually yielding to the industry as the core of the economy. The state is considered as a major centre for the United States for its motion picture? Television film, and related entertainment industries, especially in Hollywood and Burbank. Social indicators of California Economy The state constitutes a total geographical area of 163,969 sq. mil: total acres forested 40.2 mil. The total population of the state in July 2004 was calculated at 35,893,799 in comparison to 35,484,453 in July 2003. The net change of the population for 2002-2003 was 1.4%. The population density of the state was 227.5 per Sq Mi. With regards to the racial distribution (2000) there were 59.5% white, 6.7 % black. Business and Economy of California The economy of California plays a very significant role in the United States. The state’s economy has a dominant force in the economy of the US. According to data given by the California’s gross state product is $ 1.543 trillion (“accelerated estimates for 2004 were completed and released in June 2005”) Among the various sectors of the economy, the Chief industries include agriculture, tourism, apparel, electronics, telecommunication and entertainment. The chief manufacturing goods of the state are electronic and electrical equipment, computers, industrial machinery, transportation equipment, and instruments, foods. The chief farm products include milk and cream, grapes, cotton, flowers, oranges, rice, nursery products, hay, tomatoes, lettuce, almonds and asparagus. The major livestock as of Jan 2004. 7.9 Tourism in the USA Tourism in the United States is a large industry that serves millions of international and domestic tourists yearly. Tourists visit the US to see natural wonders, cities, historic landmarks and entertainment venues. Americans seek similar attractions, as well as recreation and vacation areas. Tourism in the United States grew rapidly in the form of urban tourism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. By the 1850s, tourism in the United States was well-established both as a cultural activity and as an industry. New York, Chicago, Washington, D.C. and San Francisco, all major US cities, attracted a large number of tourists by the 1890s. By 1915, city touring had marked significant shifts in the way Americans perceived, organized and moved around in urban environments. Democratization of travel occurred during the early twentieth century when the automobile revolutionized travel. Similarly air travel revolutionized travel during 1945–1969, contributing greatly to tourism in the United States. By 2007 the number of international tourists had climbed to over 56 million people who spent $122.7 billion dollars, setting an all time record. The travel and tourism industry in the United States was among the first commercial casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks, a series of terrorist attacks on the US. Terrorists used four commercial airliners as weapons of destruction, all of which were destroyed in the attacks with 3,000 casualties. In the US, tourism is either the first, second or third largest employer in 29 states, employing 7.3 million in 2004, to take care of 1.19 billion trips tourists took in the US in 2005. As of 2007, there are 2,462 registered National Historic Landmarks (NHL) recognized by the United States government. As of 2008, the most visited tourist attraction in the US is Times Square in Manhattan, New York City which attracts approximately 35 million visitors yearly. Today, a wide range of tourist attractions exist in the United States such as amusement parks, festivals, gambling, golf courses, historical buildings and landmarks, hotels, museums, galleries, outdoor recreation, spas, restaurants and sports. In 2008, the most visited tourist sites in the US were: Times Square, Magic Kingdom , Disneyland Park, Salt Lake Temple Salt Lake City, Fisherman's Wharf/Golden Gate Area San Francisco, Niagara Falls, Universal Studios Hollywood, Grand Canyon and so on. Landmarks As of 2007, there are 2,462 registered National Historic Landmarks (NHL) recognized by the United States government. The majority of these are located in New York, California, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Each major US city has thousands of landmarks. For example, New York City has 23,000 landmarks designated by the Landmarks Preservation Commission. These landmarks include various individual buildings, interiors, historic districts, and scenic sites which define the culture and character of New York City. Natural wonders The Grand Canyon is one of the most well known landmarks in the US. Other landmarks include Mount Rushmore, the Appalachians, the Rocky Mountains, and Stone Mountain. Literature 1 Alexeyeva Т.К., Darskaja V.G., Lisetskaja L.А. «English for Business». – Moscow, 1998. – P.180. 2 Arnold, Dave. Home Schools Run By Well-Meaning Amateurs. National Education Association. – London, 2005. – P.130. 3 America's Best Graduate Schools 2008: Top Engineering Schools. – Moscow, 2007. – P.100. 4 Bureau, U. C. The 2009 Statistical Abstract. Retrieved from National Data Book. – New York, 2009. – P.157. 5 Broder, David S. College affordability about future. Burlington Free Press (and other column subscribers). – New York, 2008. – P.178. 6 Broder, David S. Can D.C. Schools Be Fixed? 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