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Abstract:
The Cold War (1947–91) has been a predominant factor in determining the
conduct of international affairs in post-Second World War period. It envisaged
an era of neither peace nor war between Soviet Union and her dozen allies on
the one hand and United States and a score of its allies on the other hand. It
was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and
economic competition existing after World War II (1939–1945), primarily
between the Soviet Union and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western
world, particularly the United States. Although the primary participants'
military forces never officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict
through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive
aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a nuclear
arms race, economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.
Introduction:
“A state of tension between countries in which each side adopts policies
designed to strengthen itself and weaken the older, line falling short of actual
hot war”. [1]
South American nationalisms, there will remain in the world only two Great
Powers capable of confronting each other – the United States and Soviet Russia.
The laws of both history and geography will compel these two powers to a trial
of strength, either military or in the fields of economics and ideology. These
same laws make it inevitable that both Powers should become enemies of
Europe. And it is equally certain that both these Powers will sooner or later find
it desirable to seek the support of the sole surviving great nation in Europe, the
German people. [2]
References:
[1] A Dictionary of Politics – by Florence Elliot and Michael Summerskill
Publish Year 1961, Penguin Reference Books – Revised Edition
[2] Hitler – The Testament of Adolf Hitler (1961 edn, n. pl.) - Page 107
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The term ‘Cold War’ was first used by Bernard Baruch, an American statesman
who in a speech to South Caroline legislature on April 16, 1947 said “Let us not
be deceived, we are today in the midst of a cold war”. [3]
The Cold War was a period of tension and hostility between the United States of
America and the Soviet Union from the mid-40s to the late 80s. It began with
the end of the Second World War. It was the result of a clash between
communism and capitalism, two opposing world-views. The Cold War was the
result of intransigent attitude of both sides. It was occurred in an atmosphere of
mutual distrust and suspicions between Western bloc and the Communist
regime. Both nourished by feeling that, if strong pressure could be exerted on
the opponent; then that regime would soon crumble down like a house of cards.
Definition of Cold War:
Scholars have assigned different meaning to the term ‘War’.
As Prof. Quincy Wright has observed “To some it is a plague which
ought to be eliminated, to some a mistake which should be avoided, to
others a crime which ought to be punished and to still outers it is an
anachronism which no longer serves any purpose. On the other hand there
are some who take a more respective attitude towards war and regard it as
an adventure which may be useful, a procedure which may be legitimate
and appropriate, or a condition of existence for which one must be
prepared”. [4]
The war as a vice which is against notions of morality and causes undue
bloodshed, the others regard it as a virtue because it results in the exaltation of
moral and spiritual virtues and contributes to the revitalization of the creative
forces in the nation.
References:
[3] Baruch - Public Years (New York, Halt, Rinehart and Winston, Year 1960)
[4] Quincy Wright - A Study of War – Volume 1, Page 3
In diplomatic terms there are three types of war:
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Hot War: this is actual warfare. All talks have failed and the armies are
fighting.
Warm War: this is where talks are still going on and there would always be a
chance of a peaceful outcome but armies, navies etc. are being fully mobilized
and war plans are being put into operation ready for the command to fight.
Cold War: this term is used to describe the relationship between America and
the Soviet Union 1945 to 1980. Neither side ever fought the other - the
consequences would be too appalling - but they did ‘fight’ for their beliefs using
client states who fought for their beliefs on their behalf e.g. South Vietnam was
anticommunist and was supplied by America during the war while North
Vietnam was pro-Communist and fought the south (and the Americans) using
weapons from communist Russia or communist China. In Afghanistan, the
Americans supplied the rebel Afghans after the Soviet Union invaded in 1979
while they never physically involved themselves thus avoiding a direct clash
with the Soviet Union.[5].
Causes of Cold War:
There were many causes of Cold Ware. These causes are described below:
Ideological Incompatibilities:
Cold War was rooted in ideological incompatibilities of USA and USSR. These
two super powers are so distrustful of one another for their different ideology.
These differences are: [6]
America
Free elections
Democratic
Capitalist
‘Survival of the fittest’
Richest world power
Personal freedom
Freedom of the media
Soviet Union
No elections or fixed
Autocratic / Dictatorship
Communist
Everybody helps everybody
Poor economic base
Society controlled by the NKVD
(secret police)
Total censorship
References:
[5] [6] www.historylearningsite.co.uk, a British Online about History
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Product of Mutual Antagonism:
Some scholars see Cold War as a product of mutual antagonism. They hold that
the mistrust and the consequent fears were the basis of this conflict. The mutual
fear and suspicion produced hostile interaction between two parties and both the
parties were not willing to take any initiative to reduce tension. No doubt, the
diplomacy of co-existence and the rise of neutral nations in Asia and Africa
contributed to the dampening of the Cold War, but it was kept alive by the fear
of capitalist world about the ultimate motives of Soviet expansion and the fear
of the communist countries that the imperialists were determined to destroy the
Marxland.
Mutual Misunderstanding:
According to Kegley and Wittkoff “this interpretation of the origin of the Cold
war is difficult to deny, given the perception that became accepted as dogma.”
[7]
Some scholars see the roots of Cold War in mutual misunderstanding. The
soviet suspicion of America was based on latter’s intervention in Russia in
1918-19, refusal to establish diplomatic relations till 1933; and the war-time
experience – viz., American refusal to inform the Soviet Union about Manhattan
project to develop atomic bomb.
Likewise USA nourished hostility towards Soviet Union because of increasing
indications of growing Soviet belligerence.
Origin of Cold War:
There is no enmity among the scholars regarding the date of Origin of Cold
War. Some scholars place it as far back as the Bolsheyik Revolution in 1917.
Desmond Domelly said: “The Cold War has its origins in the struggle for power
in the Central Asia between the riyal imperialism of Britain and Russia in the
Nineteenth Century. There was that strange period of history known as the
“Great Games” when names such as Samarkund and Bokhara were the
traditional doctrine of mutual suspicion – even before the Red Flag floated over
the winter palace on that cataclysmic day in 1917”. [8]
References:
[7] Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkoff – World Politics, Trend’s and Transformation,
Page 42
[8] Desmond Domelly - Struggle for the World
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Fredrick L. Schuman says that: “At all events, what we have seen the ‘Cold
War’ did not begin in 1945, in the aftermath of World War II and of the Yalta
and of the Potsdam conferences. In a broader sense it began with the second
Russian Revolution of 1917 … within ten months after Russia’s October
Revolution, Soviet Union and the West were at war”. [9]
View of Soviet Bloc about Cold War:
The Cold War in Soviet bloc was officially regarded as a unilateral attack by
“Capitalism” and “Imperialism” of the socialist countries, and where ‘socialist
warriors’ were regarded as anti-communist “hawks”. Some official Soviet versions
of the cold war would attribute the origin of cold war in Churchill’s Fulton speech
of 5 March 1946, wherein he said: “If the Western democracies stand together in
strict adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter, there influence for
furthering those principles will be immense and no one is likely to molest them. If,
however, they become divided or fail in their duty and if these all important years
are allowed to slip away, then indeed catastrophe may overwhelm us all.”
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939-41) which is responsible for Cold War:
Soviet relations with the West further deteriorated when, one week prior to the start of the
World War II, the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which
included a secret agreement to split Poland and Eastern Europe between the two states.[10]
Beginning one week later, in September 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union divided Poland
and the rest of Eastern Europe through invasions of the countries ceded to each under the
Pact. [11]
The impact of Allies against the Axis (1941-45) in Cold War:
During their joint war effort, which began thereafter in 1941, the Soviets suspected that the
British and the Americans had conspired to allow the Soviets to bear the brunt of the fighting
against Nazi Germany. According to this view, the Western Allies had deliberately delayed
opening a second anti-German front in order to step in at the last moment and shape the peace
settlement. Thus, Soviet perceptions of the West left a strong undercurrent of tension and
hostility between the Allied powers. [12]
References:
[9] The Cold War: Retrospect and Prospect : Fredrick L. Schumann
[10] Day, Alan J.; East, Roger; Thomas, Richard. A Political and Economic Dictionary of
Eastern Europe, pg. 405
[11] Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin's Cold War, New York : Manchester University Press,
1995, ISBN
[12] Gaddis, John Lewis (1990). Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States. An
Interpretative History. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0075572583.
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Fail to reach a firm consensus in wartime conferences responsible for Cold
War:
The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be
drawn, following the war. Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and
maintenance of post-war security. The western Allies desired a security system in which
democratic governments were established as widely as possible, permitting countries to
peacefully resolve differences through international organizations. Following Russian
historical experiences with frequent invasions and the immense death toll (estimated at
27 million) and destruction the Soviet Union sustained during World War II, the Soviet
Union sought to increase security by controlling the internal affairs of countries that bordered
it. In April 1945, both Churchill and new American President Harry S. Truman opposed,
among other things, the Soviets' decision to prop up the Lublin government, the Sovietcontrolled rival to the Polish government-in-exile, whose relations with the Soviets were
severed.
At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Allies failed to reach a firm consensus on the
framework for post-war settlement in Europe. Following the Allied victory in May, the
Soviets effectively occupied Eastern Europe, while strong US and Western allied forces
remained in Western Europe. [13]
At the Potsdam Conference, which started in late July after Germany's surrender, serious
differences emerged over the future development of Germany and eastern Europe between
USA and USSR. [14]
Phases of Cold War:
The evolution of the cold war passed through various phases which are as
under:
First Phase 1945-53:
Truman Doctrine (1947):
The United States resorted to direct military action during this phase through
Truman Doctrine of March 1947. By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman's
advisers urged him to take immediate steps to counter the Soviet Union's
influence, citing Stalin's efforts (amid post-war confusion and collapse) to
undermine the US by encouraging rivalries among capitalists that could
precipitate another war. Truman delivered a speech and unveiled the Truman
Doctrine, which framed the conflict as a contest between free peoples and
totalitarian regimes (USSR).[15]
References:
[13] [15] Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press.
ISBN 1594200629.
[14] Byrd, Peter (2003). "Cold War (entire chapter)". in McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair.
The concise Oxford dictionary of politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192802763.
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“Truman pronounced that, the peoples of a number of countries of the world
have recently had totalitarian regimes forced upon them against their will. The
Government of the United States has made frequent protest over Poland,
Bulgaria and Romania… U.S. would help free people to maintain their free
institutions and their natural integrity against aggressive movements that seek to
impose upon them to maintain their free institutions and their national integrity
against aggressive movements that seek to improve upon them totalitarian
regimes.”
Marshall Plan (1947):
In June 1947, in accordance with the Truman Doctrine, the United States
enacted the Marshall Plan, a pledge of economic assistance for all European
countries willing to participate, including the Soviet Union. The plan's aim was
to rebuild the democratic and economic systems of Europe and to counter
perceived threats to Europe's balance of power, such as communist parties
seizing control through revolutions or elections. The plan also stated that
European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery. In early
1947, Britain, France and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an
agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically selfsufficient Germany. Stalin (USSR) believed that economic integration with the
West would allow Eastern Bloc countries to escape Soviet control. And for this
Stalin therefore prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan
aid. By this way Cold War arose between USA and USSR. [16]
Berlin Blockade and airlift (1948):
During this phase the German problem also greatly contributed to tension
between the two blocks. USSR instituted the Berlin Blockade, one of the first
major crises of the Cold War, preventing food, materials and supplies from
arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift",
supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions. [17]
NATO beginnings (1949):
Soviet Union retaliated by imposing blockage of Berlin which the western
powers sought to nullify by signing the National Security Act Amendment of
1949 with guests in the Oval Office. Britain, France, the United States, Canada and
eight other western European countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949,
establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). That August, Stalin ordered the
detonation of the first Soviet atomic device.
References:
[16] [17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War
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Chinese Civil War (1949):
It is one of the significant cause for arising cold war between USA and USSR.
In 1949, Mao's People's Liberation Army defeated Chiang's US-backed
Kuomintang Nationalist Government in China, and the Soviet Union promptly
created an alliance with the newly formed People's Republic of China. The
Nationalist Government recants treated to the island of Taiwan. Confronted with
the Communist takeover of mainland China and the end of the US atomic
monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and
expand the containment policy.
Korean War (1950):
The Korean War occurred during this period. This war provided a major
confrontation between USA and Soviet Union. This war proved a major
confrontation between USA and Soviet Union. During the Moscow Conferences
held in December 1945, the Ministers of Russia, America and Britain had
agreed to form a joint commission comprising the representatives of the
America’s military regime of South Korea and those of a pro-Soviet military
regime of North Korea. Majority of Koreans were in favor of complete
independence. The Russian proposal was to hold talks with those groups or
parties which would accept the mandate acceding to a decision of the Moscow
conference. But America was opposed to this proposal. The joint commission of
America and USSR formed in March 1946 could not succeed and the phase
continued. Lastly, the Korean issue was referred to U.N. But in June 1950,
North Korea suddenly invaded South Korea. However, this war was brought to
a close by an armistice concluded in July 1953. America launched intensified
propaganda against Communism, spending millions of dollars on it. This period
was marked by subversive activities by the power blocs against each other.
Soviet Union also exploded the atom bomb and entered a nuclear race with
USA.
United States concluded security treaty (1950):
US officials moved thereafter to expand containment into Asia, Africa, and
Latin America, in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often
led by Communist parties financed by the USSR, fighting against the restoration
of Europe's colonial empires in South-East Asia and elsewhere. For this
purpose, in the early 1950s , US formalized a series of alliances with Japan,
Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS) thereby
guaranteeing the United States a number of long-term military bases. [18]
References:
[18] www.polsis.uq.edu.au
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The Second Phase (1954-57):
The second phase witnessed the continuation of America’s policy, and military
and economic aid against Soviet Union. This period was marked by subversive
activities by the power blocs against each other. Soviet Union also exploded the
atom bomb and entered a nuclear race with USA.
SEATO (1954), MEDO (1955):
During the third phase which lasted from 1953 to 1957, the United States
continued its policy of military and economic offensive against the Soviet bloc.
Two new US sponsored treaties emerged. One was South-East Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO) and the Middle East Defense Organization (MEDO).
The emergence of these two new treaties forged new defense links with NATO.
America also endeavoured to enhance its area of influence in the Middle East by
extending the Truman Doctrine to the region. The United States succeeded in
establishing number of military based territory and entered into defense treaties
with 43 countries. During this period, USA got entangled in Vietnam War
which turned out to be a climax of Cold War.
Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution (1955):
The Soviet Union during this period didn’t lag behind. Russian concluded
WARSAW TREATY with East European powers to counteract NATO. It entered
into defense treaties with 12 states. Even the American bid of counter-revolution in
Hungary has foiled.
Partition of Germany (1955):
This period was also marked by the permanency of the Potsdam partition of
Germany. The division of Germany into two – German Democratic Republic
(GDR) in Soviet bloc and Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in American
bloc occurred during this period. Both the USA and Soviet Union exploded
hydrogen bomb simultaneously during this period.
First step towards détente (1955):
During this period both the powers talked as if war was imminent but in deeds
both acted with increasing caution and restraint. However this phase was
marked by the healthy trend that a dialogue between the two powers was
initiated. This marked the beginning of a new phase characterized by the spirit
of negotiations. This phase also witnessed the first step towards détente in the
form of submit meeting at Geneva (1955) when the two rivals held mutual
discussions on world problems.
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Third Phase (1958-64):
The Fourth phase that lasted from 1957-62 was marked by two extreme trends.
On the one hand the principles of co-existence were pronounced and on the
other hand the world saw the most dangerous Cuban Missile crisis which
virtually brought the entire mankind on the brink of the third war.
Berlin Crisis (1961) and U-2 Incident: Beginning years of this period
witnessed the prevalence of the spirit of coexistence between USA and USSR.
There had been mutual exchanges of cultural and political delegates. Even the
heads of governments of both the countries visited each other’s country. Both
the powers having agreed for Paris Summit was a clear indication that the cold
war attitude had obliterated. But their congenial spirit was marred by the U-2
incident.
However, the damage incurred by the U-2 incident was repaired to some extent
by the General Summit of 1960 and on Vietnam meeting between Khrushchev
and President Kennedy in 1961. The Berlin crisis of 1961 following USSR
threat to unilaterally, terminate American access to Berlin and to make peace
with East Germany also gave a setback to efforts at improvement of relations
between the two countries. The crisis arose due to erection of miles long Berlin
Partition wall by Soviet Union to check the fleeing refugees from East Berlin to
West Berlin.
Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev ouster:
The Soviet Union formed an alliance with Fidel Castro-led Cuba after the
Cuban Revolution in 1959. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy responded to
the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade. The Cuban
Missile Crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. It
further demonstrated the concept of mutually assured destruction, that neither
nuclear power was prepared to use nuclear weapons fearing total destruction via
nuclear retaliation. The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the
nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the
Cold War's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come into
force in 1961.
In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, but allowed
him a peaceful retirement. Accused of rudeness and incompetence, he was also
credited with ruining Soviet agriculture and bringing the world to the brink of
nuclear war. Khrushchev had become an international embarrassment when he
authorised construction of the Berlin Wall, a public humiliation for MarxismLeninism.
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Fourth Phase (1966-75):
Futility of Nuclear Weapons:
The fourth phase which commenced from 1966 was marked by a deep
appreciation of the futility of nuclear weapons. There was a worldwide concern
demanding ban on nuclear weapons. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of
1968 was also made possible due to good offices of both the superpowers.
The signing of partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1967 was regarded as a
landmark in easing the Cold War. This Treaty envisaged provisions for limited
ban on all nuclear tests in the atmosphere including territorial water and High
seas.
In pursuance of the recommendations made by the General Assembly, United
States, Soviet Union and Great Britain adopted the nuclear non-Proliferation
Treaty. The provisions of this treaty implied that the countries equipped with
nuclear capabilities were not to transfer their nuclear weapons or control over
them to any non-nuclear power or to provide know how in producing these
weapons.
Cooperative interaction between Super Powers:
During this period the co-operative interaction became more common place
than hostile relations. In simple words the relations between USA and USSR
became quite normal and visits, cultural exchanges, trade agreements and cooperative technological ventures replaced threats, warnings and confrontation.
This change took place on account of a realization of a necessarily to avoid
suicidal war and awareness that co-operation between the two was in their
mutual interests.
SALT I:
The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks refers to two rounds of bilateral talks
and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the
Soviet Union - the Cold War superpowers - on the issue of armament control.
There was a rounds of talk and agreement: SALT I .
The SALT I ever negotiations started in Helsinki, Finland, in 1970. This was
held during Apollo 12's flight - four months after astronauts from Apollo 11 had
returned safely home. Primarily focused on limiting the two countries' stocks of
nuclear weapons, the treaty then led to START (Strategic Arms Reduction
Treaty). [19]
References:
[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks
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Fifth Phase (1976-Onwards):
The fifth phase is commencing from 1969 to present. The incidents which are
accountable for this phase are given below:
Firstly, the treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms signed between
US and USSR lapsed in October 1977. However, after prolonged series of
negotiation, a treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the
limitation of strategic offensive arms during the period up to 31st December
1985 was signed in Vienna on 18 June 1979 by American President Carter and
Leonid Brezhnev, the President of Soviet Union.
Secondly, the Russian intervention in Afghan crisis added a new dimension to
the process of determine and reactivated the forces of Cold War. In Mat 1978
Kabul and Moscow signed various agreements of mutual interest. In December
1978 a treaty of friendship and corporation was signed between Soviet Union
and Afghanistan. Developments took dramatic turn on 16 September 1978 when
Hafizullah Amin replaced. Gradually the relation between USSR and
Afghanistan became deteriorated for supporting Afghanistan by USA. During
December 1979, approximately 75,000 Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in
order to support the Marxist government formed by ex-Prime-minister Nur
Muhammad Taraki, assassinated that September by one of his party rivals. As a
result, US President Jimmy Carter withdrew the SALT II treaty from the Senate,
imposed embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, demanded
a significant increase in military spending, and further announced that the
United States would boycott the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics. He
described the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan as "the most serious threat to
the peace since the Second World War".
Thirdly, Increase of relationship between China and USA, which became a
matter of worry for Soviet Union.
Implication of Cold War:
Undermining the Chances of Attaining the Goal of one World:
Cold War greatly undermined the chances of attaining the goal of one world. On
account of mutual rivalry the two superpowers were not willing to trust each
other and often took opposite stands at the United Nations. This often resulted
in blocking entry of certain members to the United Nations. It is well known
that United States did not permit People\s Republic of China to take its seat in
the United Nation only because China was a camp follower of Soviet Union.
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This prevented the United Nation from attaining universal character and
jeopardized the chances of evolving one world.
Motion of Mad Race for Armaments:
In the first instance it gave rise to a fear psychosis which resulted in mad race
for the manufacture of more sophisticated armaments. Both the power blocs
tried to acquire more and more sophisticated weapons.
Formation of Various Alliances:
Cold War led to the formation of various alliances during the peace times. Both
the blocs formed alliances and counter alliances to counter-balance the growing
power of the opponent. Some of the alliances which were thus formed include
NATO, SEATO, CENTO, Warsaw Pact etc. The existence of these4 alliances
added to world tension.
Attainment of Independence of Several Countries Decided by the Super
Powers:
A large number of nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America after attainment of
independence decided to keep away from the military alliances sponsored and
supported by the two super powers.
Rendering UN Ineffective:
Cold war rendered the UN ineffective because both the Superpowers tried to
oppose the actions proposed by the opponent. Thus, Soviet Union exercised its
veto to prevent action in Greece, Triests etc. because she distrusted the western
powers. Likewise United States made use of its veto power on the question of
Red Chinas membership of United Nations.
Conclusion:
In conclusion we can say that, Cold War left deep impact on all the countries –
developed as well as developing. In the case of developed countries this impact
was chiefly economic in character in the case of developing countries. It
adversely affected the social and political development of the developing world.
This is turn produced political instability and enhanced changes of superpower
intervention in their affairs.
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References:
[1] A Dictionary of Politics – by Florence Elliot and Michael Summerskill
Publish Year 1961, Penguin Reference Books – Revised Edition
[2] Hitler – The Testament of Adolf Hitler (1961 edn, n. pl.) - Page 107
[3] Baruch - Public Years (New York, Halt, Rinehart and Winston, Year 1960)
[4] Quincy Wright - A Study of War – Volume 1, Page 3
[5] [6] www.historylearningsite.co.uk, a British Online about History
[7] Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Wittkoff – World Politics, Trend’s and
Transformation, Page 42
[8] Desmond Domelly - Struggle for the World
[9] The Cold War: Retrospect and Prospect : Fredrick L. Schumann
[10] Day, Alan J.; East, Roger; Thomas, Richard. A Political and Economic
Dictionary of Eastern Europe, pg. 405
[11] Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin's Cold War, New York : Manchester
University Press, 1995, ISBN
[12] Gaddis, John Lewis (1990). Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States.
An Interpretative History. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0075572583.
[13] [15] Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin
Press. ISBN 1594200629.
[14] Byrd, Peter (2003). "Cold War (entire chapter)". in McLean, Iain;
McMillan, Alistair. The concise Oxford dictionary of politics. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0192802763.
[16] [17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War
[18] www.polsis.uq.edu.au
[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks
[20] http://www.buzzle.com/articles/causes-and-effects-of-the-cold-war.html
[21] www.politicalscience.org
[22] books.google.com