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CHAPTER 14
Managerial Communication
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
These will include:
•
Explain the major types of
managerial communication
and discuss managerial
communication preferences.
•
Outline the basic components
of the communication
process.
•
Describe how perceptual
processes influence
individual communication.
•
Explain the role of attribution
process, semantics, the
cultural context and
communication skills in
communication by
individuals.
•
Assess the usefulness of
centralised and decentralised
group communication
networks.
•
Distinguish between major
organisational
communication channels and
explain their role in managing
effectively.
•
Discuss the growing potential
of electronics in regard to
organisational
communication channels.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-1
I. The Nature of Managerial Communication
A. Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of
achieving common meanings.
B. Managers use two types of communication in their work:
1. Verbal communication is the written or oral use of words to communicate.
•
Written communication includes letters, memoranda, reports, newsletters,
policy manuals, and so on.
i. Disadvantages are that written messages are costly and, in many
instances, of poor quality.
ii. Advantages are that there remains a record of the communication,
delivery can be assured, and the writer has time to think the message
through.
• Oral communication usually takes place through face-to-face
conversations, meetings or on the telephone.
i. Disadvantages include the fact that the conversations may be time
consuming and difficult to end, and that additional time may have to
be spent to document what was said.
ii. Advantages are that oral communication is fast and provides
immediate feedback.
2. Nonverbal communication is communication by means of elements and
behaviours not coded into words.
T99: The Communication Process:
An illustration of the basic
components
• Kinesic behaviour includes body movements, such as gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements, and posture.
• Proxemics is the influence of proximity and space on communication;
for example, the influence of a large desk between manager and
employees.
• Paralanguage includes the vocal aspects of communication relating to
how something is said rather than to what is said.
• Object language is communication through use of material things,
including clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and architecture.
C. Studies indicate managers spend most of their time communicating, and they
prefer oral to written communication.
D. The communication process can be analysed into its basic components.
1. The sender is the initiator of the message.
2. Encoding is the process of translating the intended meaning into symbols.
• Symbols include words and gestures.
• The sender's choice of symbols depends on:
i. The sender's encoding skills.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-2
ii. Assessments of the intended receiver's ability to understand various
symbols.
iii. Judgments regarding appropriate use of certain symbols.
iv. Past experience in similar situations.
v. Job status and education.
vi. Emotional state at the time of the communication attempt.
T100: The Perception Process:
Selecting, organising, and
interpreting information.
3. The message is the encoding process outcome, which consists of verbal
and nonverbal symbols developed to convey meaning to the receiver.
• The medium is the method used to convey the message to the
intended receiver; for example, telephone, meeting, formal report.
• Factors to consider when selecting a medium include relative speed,
cost, intelligibility, convenience, timing, flow of communication,
feedback options, interpersonal dynamics, and documentation.
4. Decoding is the process of translating the symbols into the interpreted
message.
• In effective communication, the sender and receiver achieve a
common meaning.
• The receiver needs to consider the medium and context of the
message.
5. Noise is any factor in the communication process interfering with
exchanging messages and achieving common meaning.
6. Feedback is the basic response of the receiver to the interpreted message.
• During feedback, the receiver becomes the sender.
• Feedback provides preliminary information to the sender about the
success of the communication.
• In one-way communication the communication process does not allow
for feedback.
• Two-way communication results when the communication process
explicitly includes feedback.
II. Factors that Impede or Enhance Individual Communication
A. Perception is the process by which individuals acquire information from the
environment:
1.
The perceptual process is complex and involves three main stages.
• Selecting filters stimuli we encounter so only certain information
receives our attention.
• Organising patterns in the information from the selection stage.
• Interpreting attaches meaning to the information we have selected and
organised.
2. The perceptions of individuals are affected by factors such as experiences,
needs, personality, and education.
3. Distorted perceptions can cause communication problems for managers.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-3
•
T101: Perception Distortions: An
illustration
Stereotyping is the tendency to attribute characteristics to an individual
on the basis of an assessment of the group to which the individual
belongs.
• The halo effect is the tendency to use a general impression based on
one or a few characteristics of an individual, to judge other
characteristics of that same individual.
• Projection is the tendency of an individual to assume others share their
thoughts, feelings, and characteristics.
• Perceptual defence is the tendency to block out or distort information
one finds threatening or challenges one's beliefs.
• Self-serving bias is the tendency to perceive oneself as responsible for
successes and others as responsible for failures.
Teaching Idea:
An enjoyable exercise to show how B. Semantics is the study of the meanings and choice of words.
communication can be distorted is
to play the old telephone or
1. A semantic net is the network of words and word meanings a given individual
"gossip" game. Have two
has available for recall.
statements (make them crazy
things) typed up, and share them
2. Semantic blocks are the blockages or difficulties in communication arising
with two students at opposite ends
from word choices.
of the room. Have each of the
students whisper the message to a
• Semantic blocks arise because senders and receivers of messages have
neighbour and so on. Having two
different semantic nets.
messages going at the same time
• Professional jargon is language related to a specific profession but
makes the exercise even more
unfamiliar to others outside the profession.
confusing and fun!
• Organisation-specific language can be bewildering to newcomers but
can build organisational cohesiveness.
Teaching Idea:
Get examples of poor
communication such as letters and
memos to share with students.
Some can be quite humorous. (If
you don't have any ask your
Communications Department for
some.)
C. Managers must pay attention to the nonverbal as well as the verbal part of the
messages they send.
1. Nonverbal communication elements can reinforce the verbal message in four
ways:
• Repeating the verbal message; for example, pointing out a direction.
• Complementing, or adding to, the verbal message; for example, looking
embarrassed.
• Accenting, or emphasising, a verbal message; for example, pounding the
table.
• Regulating the verbal exchange; for example, nodding to signal another
person to start or stop speaking.
2. Nonverbal communication elements can substitute for the verbal message; for
example, using gestures to communicate without words.
3. Nonverbal communication elements can contradict the verbal message; for
example, looking angry while stating that one is not.
4. The importance of nonverbal communication is heightened in international
dealings.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-4
D. Listening and feedback skills are particularly important for managers because so
much of a manager's time is spent in oral communication
Organisations are learning that it pays to obtain feedback from employees. For
example, at the Chubb Group of Insurance Companies, focus groups were conducted
throughout the company to evaluate its recent instituted flexitime, job sharing and
telecommuting programs. As a result of the focus groups, the company learned that
employees wanted even more flexibility. Therefore, Chubb instituted a paid time-off
policy (PTO) as well as a snowy day child-care program. With the new PTO
Program, all of an employee’s time off, (including vacation, personal and sick days)
is lumped together into one sum. Moreover, the snowy day child-care program
allows parents to bring their five to twelve year old children to work when need
arises. The children are supervised by trained care-givers in training and conference
rooms where a variety of entertaining activities are available. These types of
programs facilitate recruiting and retention of higher performers and move Chubb
towards its goal of being an employer of choice. Retention of employees is also cost
effective to Chubb. For example, it estimated that it cost the company more than $3
million to replace 50 exempt employees (150 per cent of the salary per employee)
who left the company in 1992 and 1993 for child-care reasons. (“The Business
Argument for Flexibility”, HR Magazine, May 1996)
1. Listening skills can be developed.
Teaching Idea:
Pair students off and have them
practice listening actively.
Present them with some typical
managerial situations which
might arise in which the manager
would have to listen actively.
• Active listening is the process in which a listener actively participates by
attempting to grasp the facts and feelings being expressed by the speaker.
• Managers can follow guidelines for active listening:
i. Listen patiently and signal simple acceptance of what is being said.
ii. Try to understand feelings as well as cognitive content.
iii. Serve as a mirror and encourage the other person to continue talking.
iv. Allow time for discussion apart from more official business.
v.) Avoid confrontative questions or assertions.
vi. Encourage exposition of topics of interest to you.
vii. Listen for omissions.
viii.Give your honest opinion only if it is solicited.
ix. Listen instead of planning what you will say next.
x. Don't make judgments until all information has been conveyed.
2. Giving feedback is a continuous part of managing.
•
•
Most of the feedback a manager gives is given to subordinates.
There are guidelines for giving effective feedback to improve
performance:
i. Focus on relevant behaviours or outcomes, rather than on the
individual as a person.
ii. Deal with specific, observable behaviour, rather than dwelling on
generalities.
iii. Label perceptions, reactions, and opinions as such.
iv. Spell out what can be done to improve.
3. If a manager values feedback in theory, they must be able to receive it
graciously.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-5
T102: Centralised and
Decentralised Communication
Networks: Y, Wheel, Chain, Circle,
and All-Channel (Star). See Figure
14-4.
III.
• Paraphrase what is said (to check perceptions).
• Ask for clarification or examples about points that are unclear or with
which you disagree.
• Avoid reacting defensively.
Group Communication Networks
A. A communication network is the pattern of information flow among task group
members. Five major network structures have been identified.
1. The three centralised networks are structured so most messages must flow
through a pivotal person in the network.
•
In the wheel network, all messages must flow through the individual at
the centre of the wheel.
• In the chain network, some members can communicate with more than
one member of the network, but the individual in the centre of the chain
still tends to control messages.
• In the Y network, the member at the fork of the "Y" usually becomes the
central person in the network.
2. The two decentralised networks permit freer communication among various
members.
• In the circle network, each member can communicate with the individual
on either side.
• In the star network, each member can communicate with any other
member.
3. Some general differences have been found between centralised and
decentralised types of networks.
T103: Communication Patterns:
Diagrams of vertical-downward,
vertical-upward, and horizontal
communication
•
Effective performance is a function of network type and task type.
i. Centralised networks are usually faster and more accurate at
performing simple, routine tasks.
ii. Decentralised networks are usually faster and more accurate at
performing complex tasks.
iii. Group morale in decentralised networks is consistently higher than in
centralised ones, regardless of task.
IV.
Organisational Communication Channels
A. Communication channels are various patterns of organisational communication
flow representing potential established conduits through which managers and
other organisation members can send and receive information.
B. Vertical communication is communication involving a message exchange
between two or more levels of the organisational hierarchy.
1. Downward communication is vertical communication flowing from a higher
level to one or more lower organisational levels.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-6
• Most downward communication involves information in one of five
categories:
i. Job instructions related to specific tasks.
ii. Job rationales explaining the relationship between a task and other
organisational tasks.
iii. Organisational procedures and practices.
iv. Feedback on individual performance on assigned tasks.
v. Efforts to encourage a sense of mission and dedication to
organisational goals.
•
Downward communication is prone to distortion.
i. Faulty message transmission occurs because of sender carelessness,
poor communication skills, and difficulty in encoding a message for a
number of receivers.
ii. Over-use of one-way communication methods means managers get no
feedback.
iii. Filtering of communication occurs through withholding, screening, or
manipulating information to enhance personal power.
•
The effectiveness of downward communication can be increased by using
multiple channels, by repeating the message, and encouraging feedback.
2. Upward communication is the vertical flow of communication from a lower
organisation level to one or more higher levels.
• Forms of upward communication include individual and group meetings
with superiors, memos and reports, suggestion systems, grievance
procedures, and employee attitude surveys.
• The information disseminated through upward communication typically
pertains to:
i. Progress of current work projects.
ii. Serious unsolved problems and situations in which subordinates need
help from superiors.
iii. New developments arising within or affecting the work unit or
organisation.
iv. Suggestions for improvements and innovations.
v. Employee attitudes, morale, and efficiency.
•
•
Upward communication can be distorted.
i. Subordinates filter information they send upward.
ii. Managers do not expend enough effort to encourage upward
communication.
Management by wandering or walking around (MBWA) is a practice
where managers frequently tour areas they are responsible for, talk to
various employees, and encourage upward communication.
C. Horizontal communication is lateral or diagonal message exchange either within
work unit boundaries, involving peers reporting to the same supervisor, or across
work unit boundaries, involving individuals reporting to different supervisors.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-7
1. Horizontal communication can take the form of meetings, reports, memos,
telephone conversations, and face-to-face discussions.
2. Horizontal communication usually relates to:
• Task co-ordination.
• Problem solving.
• Information sharing.
• Conflict resolution.
• Peer support.
3. There are three impediments to necessary, work-related horizontal
communication:
• Rivalry, among individuals or work units, causes individuals to hide
information.
• Specialisation causes individuals to be concerned mainly about their own
unit's work and to have little appreciation for others' work and
communication needs.
• Motivation may be lacking when subordinate horizontal communication
is not encouraged or rewarded.
D. Informal communication, better known as the grapevine, is communication
taking place without regard to hierarchical or task requirements.
T104: Grapevine Chains: The
four configurations. See Figure
14-7.
1. Informal communication within organisations differs from formal
communication.
• Formal communication is vertical and horizontal communication
following paths specified by the official hierarchical organisation structure
and related task requirements.
• Formal communication relates to position in the organisation; informal
communication depends on personal relationships.
2. Grapevines can be configured in a number of ways: single-strand chain,
communication moves serially from Person A to B to C and so on.
• With the gossip chain, Person A seeks out and tells others.
• When following the probability chain, Person A spreads the message
randomly, as do Individuals F and D.
• In the cluster chain, the most predominant form, Person A tells three
selected individuals, and then one of these tells three others.
3. Grapevines have a number of characteristics:
• They are fast.
• The data produced range from 50 to 90 per cent accurate.
4. Grapevines are most harmful when they carry false rumours and gossip.
5. Grapevines can serve positive organisational purposes:
• They may serve to transmit organisational rules, values, and morals.
• They may serve to disseminate organisational traditions and history.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-8
•
They may help to reinforce formal messages, to test new proposals, and to
obtain feedback about employees' feelings and ideas.
• They may help to foster innovation by facilitating communication among
various organisational parts.
E. Multiple communication channels may be used to promote innovation, according
to Rosabeth Moss Kanter.
T105: Communication Impacts
the Innovation Process: Positive
effects of using multiple
communication channels.
Teaching Idea:
If possible logistically,
demonstrate to your students how
e-mail works. Discuss the
benefits and drawbacks of such a
system
1. Vertical communication channels can be used to encourage innovation in four
key ways:
• By signalling, organisational expectations for innovation.
• By fostering upward communication of innovative ideas.
• By encouraging managers in the chain of command to act as sponsors in
funding, protecting, and testing potential innovations in their
developmental stages.
• By facilitating extensive use of horizontal communication channels in the
organisation.
2. Horizontal communication channels can be used to encourage innovation:
•
•
•
•
By connecting potential recognisors of opportunities for innovation.
By linking different areas of expertise.
By building coalitions of individuals who can help develop innovations or
support their implementation
By emphasising boundary-spanning, the creating of roles within the
organisation interfacing with important elements outside the organisation.
F. Electronic advances provide managers with new methods and channels of
communication.
1. An electronic mail system is a system allowing high-speed exchange of
written messages through computerised text processing and communication
networks.
•
Electronic mail systems have three characteristics.
i. They are asynchronous; that is, message sending and receiving take
place serially, rather than simultaneously
ii. They are fast, taking seconds to transmit.
iii. They are text-based (convey only written text.)
•
Electronic mail systems have advantages:
i. They save time
ii. They lead to exchanges of information among managers who
previously did not communicate.
iii. They can facilitate both vertical and horizontal communication.
•
Electronic mail also has disadvantages:
i. It eliminates nonverbal cues which serve as aids in face-to-face
communications.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-9
ii. It leads to an excess of irrelevant mail.
2. Video teleconferencing is the holding of meetings with individuals in two or
more locations by means of closed-circuit television.
•
Teleconferencing usually has three general characteristics:
i. It is synchronous, meaning senders and receivers can engage in
simultaneous communication of the type associated with face-to-face
conversation.
ii. It is fast.
iii. It allows oral and nonverbal written message exchange.
•
•
Initial costs for equipment are high, but travel costs can be reduced.
Adoption of teleconferencing has been slow because of start-up costs, lack
of spontaneity, and reduced nonverbal communication.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-10
LEARNING OBJECTIVES REVISITED
1. Explain the major types of managerial communication and discuss managerial communication preferences.
Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of achieving common meanings.
Managers use two types of communication in their work: Verbal communication is the written or oral use of
words to communicate. Written communication includes letters, memoranda, reports, newsletters, policy
manuals, and so forth. Oral communication usually takes place through face-to-face conversations, meetings, or
on the telephone. Nonverbal communication is communication by means of elements and behaviours not coded
into words. Kinesic behaviour includes body movements, such as gestures, facial expressions, eye movements,
and posture. Proxemics is the influence of proximity and space on communication; for example, the influence of
a large desk between manager and employees. Paralanguage includes the vocal aspects of communication
relating to how something is said rather what is said. An object language is communication through the use of
material things, including clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and even architecture. Studies indicate managers spend
most of their time communicating, and that they prefer oral to written communication.
2. Outline the basic components of the communication process.
The communication process can be analysed into its basic components. The sender initiates the message.
Encoding is the process of translating the intended meaning into symbols. Symbols include words and gestures.
The message is the encoding process outcome, which consists of verbal and nonverbal symbols developed to
convey meaning to the receiver. The medium is the method used to convey the message to the intended receiver;
examples are telephone calls, meetings, formal reports. Decoding is the process of translating the symbols into
the interpreted message. Noise is any factor in the communication process interfering with exchanging messages
and achieving common meaning. Feedback is the basic response of the receiver to the interpreted message.
3. Describe how perceptual processes influence individual communication.
Perception is the process individuals use to acquire information from the environment. The perceptions of
individuals are affected by factors such as experiences, needs, personality, and education. Distorted perceptions
can cause communication problems for managers. Stereotyping is the tendency to attribute characteristics to an
individual on the basis of an assessment of the group to which the individual belongs. The halo effect is the
tendency to use a general impression based on one or a few characteristics of an individual to judge other
characteristics of that same individual. Projection is the tendency of an individual to assume others share their
thoughts, feelings, and characteristics. Perceptual defence is the tendency to block out or distort information one
finds threatening or challenging to one's beliefs. Self-serving bias is the tendency to perceive oneself as
responsible for successes and others as responsible for failures.
4. Explain the role of semantics, verbal and non-verbal consistency, and communication skills in communication by
Individuals.
Semantic blocks are blockages or difficulties in communication arising from word choices. Semantic blocks
arise because senders and receivers of messages have different semantic nets. Professional jargon is language
related to a specific profession but unfamiliar to others outside the profession. Organisation-specific language can
bewilder newcomers but can build organisational cohesiveness.
5. Assess the usefulness of centralised and decentralised group communication networks.
A communication network is the pattern of information flow among task group members. Five major network
structures have been identified. The three centralised networks are structured so most messages must flow
through a pivotal person in the network. In the wheel network, all messages must flow through the individual at
the centre of the wheel. In the chain network, some members can communicate with more than one member of
the network, but the individual in the centre of the chain still tends to control the messages. In the Y network, the
member at the fork of the "Y" usually becomes the central person in the network. The two decentralised networks
permit freer communication among the various members. In the circle network, each member can communicate
with the individual on either side. In the star network, each member can communicate with any other member.
Some general differences have been found between centralised and decentralised types of networks. Effective
performance is a function of type of network and type of tasks undertaken. Centralised networks were usually
faster and more accurate at performing simple, routine tasks. Decentralised networks were usually faster and
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-11
more accurate at performing complex tasks. Group morale in decentralised networks was consistently higher than
in the centralised, regardless of task assignment.
6. Distinguish between major organisational communication channels and explain how multiple communication
channels can be used to promote innovation.
Multiple communication channels may be used to promote innovation, according to Rosabeth Moss Kanter.
Vertical communication channels can be used to encourage innovation in four key ways: by signalling
expectations for innovation; by fostering upward communication of innovative ideas; by encouraging sponsors in
funding, protecting, and testing potential innovations in their developmental stages; by facilitating extensive use
of horizontal communication channels in the organisation. Horizontal communication channels can be used to
encourage innovation by connecting potential recognisers of opportunities for innovation; by linking different
areas of expertise; by building coalitions of individuals who can help develop innovations or support their
implementation; by emphasising boundary-spanning, the creating of roles within the organisation that inter-face
with important elements outside the organisation.
7. Discuss the growing potential of electronics in regard to organisational communication channels
An electronic mail system is a mail system allowing high-speed exchange of written messages through
computerised text-processing and communication networks. Electronic mail systems have three characteristics:
They are asynchronous; that is, message sending and receiving take place serially, rather than simultaneously.
They are fast, taking seconds to transmit. They are text- based, conveying only written text. Electronic mail
systems have advantages: They save time. They lead to exchanges of information among managers who
managers in the chain of command to act as previously did not communicate. They can facilitate both vertical and
horizontal communication. Electronic mail systems also have disadvantages: They eliminate the nonverbal cues
serving as aids in face-to-face communication. They lead to an excess of irrelevant mail. Video teleconferencing
is the holding of meetings with individuals in two or more locations by means of closed-circuit television.
Teleconferencing usually has three general characteristics: It is synchronous, meaning that senders and receivers
can engage in simultaneous communication of the type associated with face-to-face conversation. It is fast. And
it usually allows oral and nonverbal, as well as written message exchange. Initial costs for equipment are high,
but travel costs can be reduced. Adoption of teleconferencing has been slow because of start-up costs, lack of
spontaneity, and reduced nonverbal communication.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-12
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-13
ENRICHMENT MODULE
COMMUNICATIONS IN SOUTH KOREA
HELEN DERESKY
The communication process in any
society is intricately intertwined
with its culture. The values, norms,
and attitudes of a culture underlie
the communication process in a
country or subculture of a country.
To understand communication in
South Korea, it is necessary to have
some understanding of the culture or
national character.
Below is a
summary of the major cultural
variables prevailing in South Korea,
followed by a description of the
nature of communication that one
would expect to encounter when
interacting with South Koreans.
South Korea is a very collectivist
society, which means that the goals
of the group, family, company, or
society as a whole are usually more
important to its members than
individual achievement. Although
greatly influenced by Western
culture, Koreans are still also very
much bound by tradition to the
Confucian teachings of spiritualism
and collectivism.
The Korean
people have undergone great
changes, but the priorities of family,
respect for authority, formality,
class, and rank are still strong.
South Koreans are aggressive and
hard working, but remain emotional,
friendly, hospitable and kind.
Generally, they do not subscribe to
participative management. Personal
relations are important, and
connections are vital for business
introductions and transactions.
Business is based on honour and
trust, so most contracts are verbal.
While achievement and competence
are important to Koreans, a driving
force in relationships is the priority
of "saving face" for themselves and
others.
"Face" represents self-
image, social or professional
reputation.
Thus,
praise
predominates, and honest criticism
is rare.
The
above-mentioned
cultural
characteristics greatly influence the
communication process of South
Koreans. Koreans take great care
not to disturb a person's kibun,
meaning inner feelings or mood.
Maintaining the kibun of all parties
is foremost in business transactions,
taking priority over accuracy or any
other considerations. Damaging the
kibun would probably cut off
business relationships.
Hence,
Koreans often say "yes," meaning
only that they have heard you, rather
than offending you by saying "no".
Closely connected with the concept
of the kibun is the importance that
Koreans attach to hierarchy, rank,
and class. Each person's status must
be carefully adhered to in
interpersonal relationships and
communication. The communication
process in a firm is vertical, topdown,
and
highly
implicit.
Management ranks are clearly
defined and communication is
tightly structured. "Going over a
superior's head" is not tolerated. In
this context, formality and protocol
are adhered to in acknowledging the
relative status of people through
rituals of introduction and bowing.
Comments and nonverbal cues for
giving praise and expressing
humility are part of their complex
system of establishing relative status
before getting down to business.
Foreigners must realise that subtle
flattery
and
general
polite
conversation
must
precede
negotiations to avoid conveying
impatience, which would doom the
relationship.
The importance of nonverbal
communication—kinetics—in
Korea cannot be overemphasised.
Whereas Westerners are very direct
and get straight to the point in
business dealings, in Korea the
ability to read people's faces is a
necessary skill for doing business.
For example, one should watch
closely for clues such as a lowering
of the eyes to signal nonacceptance
of a question or order. When verbal
and nonverbal signals are not
congruent, which is often the case in
Korea, always react to the
nonverbal.
The highly implicit
nature of Korean communication
can be understood through the
phrase uishin jonshin. This means
“from my heart to your heart” and
symbolises the nonverbal, almost
telepathic way of communicating
that is natural to Koreans. There are
frequent problems with foreigners
because Koreans assume that the
other person is on the same
wavelength and is receiving the
message as intended. Related to this
is the paralanguage, which is
unfamiliar to Westerners.
For
example, Koreans speak loudly
when
emphasising
a
Point.
Westerners often misunderstand this
and interpret a loud voice as
signifying anger. In addition, when
considering proxemics—the amount
of personal space with which we
feel comfortable—one needs to
remember that Koreans utilise a
smaller amount of personal space in
their everyday interactions than
Westerners. Backing away from a
Korean when conversing would be
taken as a rebuff. Thus, there are
many cultural variables that can
cause "noise" and interfere with
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-14
effective communication. (See the
Slides for this module.)
The
following is a list of general hints or
"to-do’s" crucial to communicating
with Koreans:
Do communicate face-to-face
whenever possible.
This is
necessary for observing nonverbal
cues which are frequently different
from cues given by mail or over the
telephone.
Do be conscious of your own
nonverbal cues. Koreans will be
very sensitive to them. Be patient
and subtle.
Do establish a climate of trust to
foster the personal relationships
integral to doing business in Korea.
Do learn some Korean and the
protocol necessary for correctly
dealing with formalities, greetings,
etiquette, and business.
It is obvious that culture greatly
affects communication and that
managers hoping for successful
relationships and interactions in the
global arena must do their
homework prior to an international
assignment or business dealings.
Nonverbal
expressions,
in
particular, are innate cultural
"display rules." Understanding
display rules and interpreting
conflicting
information
are
prerequisites
to
effective
management.
Sources
De Mente, B., 1989, Korean
Etiquette and Ethics in Business,
NTC Business Books, Lincolnwood.
Harris, P.R., and Moran, T. R.,
1987, Managing Cultural
Differences Gulf Publishers,
Houston, pp. 41-44.
Suh, Nam-Won, 1972,"Management
and Its Environment in Korea," in
Management in an International
Context, Massie and Luytjes, eds.
Harper and Row, New York, pp.
201-225.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-15
CASE NOTES
Striving for Excellence
This looks using organisational culture as a tool of communication. Cultural symbols like the tie, uniforms are
powerful communicators, conveying a desired message. Electronic means of communication does increase the
effectiveness of communication however, the down-side is that messages can be deleted if not read, this does not
help in increasing the effectiveness of communication channels. It also highlights the disadvantages of using
technology to communicate. Tool box was aimed at effective communication and minimise paper waste, however,
employees down the line had a different exception of it which resulted in lower commitment. Any form of innovative
communication needs to be supported by the culture of that organisation, whereby employees endorse their
acceptance by contributing towards its implementation and improvement.
Gaining the Edge: The Twelve Step Program
1. Which of the above questions does not refer in some way to the communication process?
Question 2 does not refer to the communication process.
2. Explain how the communication process underpins each of the factors at the core of the twelve questions?
Except Question 2, all the other questions centre around the issue of perception of the individual about the
workplace. Further, the 12 questions centre around the communication process in terms of the individual reading
the questions being the receiver and the receiver’s perception of the workplace. The receiver’s perception of the
workplace is dependent on the sender’s response to the receiver’s opinion, work performance etc.
Case in Point: Horizon Pacific Television
1. Comment on the communication process in this case?
This is a classic example of how organisations perceive communication as a taken for granted process. The
management TVNZ should have communicated their decision to their employees directly and not through a third
party like the media. This attitude of the top management shows the lack of trust in its employees. Students can
discuss issues of perception and stereotyping here. Students can also give similar examples from their own lives
where communication could have eased a problem situation.
2.
Suggest ways TVNZ could have improved the process and outcome for the staff.
Any restructure in an organisation results in low productivity, a feeling of insecurity and threat amongst
employees. Therefore, such changes need to be planned carefully and communicated to the employees
effectively. In TVNZ, change could have started from the bottom of the hierarchy where employees get involved
in implementing the change process, secondly, the human resources department should take the responsibility to
communicate this change effectively, written forms of communication like memos and e-mails could have eased
the situation. Rumours should have been clarified and nipped in the bud by the management, this has led to
misperception of the situation by the employees.
Cross Roads: The cost of poor communication
Reflection points
1. Analyse both the situations using the components of the communication process to structure your answer?
The communications process consists of the sender receiver and the process of feed back which is the most
important aspect of the communication process. Here the main problem arose when there was a miscommunication between the sender and the receiver. It was fundamentally case of Semantics. In this case, the
sender was the mate and the receiver was the leader operator. Here, the mate should have checked with the leader
operator whether he had listened to his instructions clearly, on the other hand, the leader operator should have
checked with his mate whether the quantity stated was correct. This has been a bungle in the oral communication.
On the other hand, there has also been an oversight in the written communication process. Here, it shows the
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-16
importance of perception in the communication process. It was taken for granted by the wharfies that the ship that
arrived was the one that was expected.
Students can give examples from their own personal experience that included feedback and perception issues in
the communication process.
Further, barriers to communication can also be identified by the students with examples.
2. What factors or barriers impeded the communication?
Feedback and Perception were the two main barriers that impeded the communication process. Students can read
the section on factors impeding or enhancing individual communication and discuss in groups.
3. How could the communication have been improved?
Some of the ways that the communication process can be improved is to ensure the feedback mechanism is a part
of the communication process. Listening skills of the leader operator has to be developed. Minimise semantic
problems in the workplace.
Managing the e challenge: Big Cookie is watching you
1. In what ways are communications theories by passed when the internet is being used?
In many ways the internet does not support the communication theories. For instance, communication can occur
or may not occur between the sender and the receiver, this cannot be found out due to the lack of feedback.
Psychological barriers to communication like stereotype, projection, halo effect will not effecting the process of
communication. One of the main problems with internet communication is the lack of privacy which of
individuals. The Internet Communication enables access to anyone’s private details.
The Reflective Practitioner
The Managing Director’s Journal
This highlights the role of leadership in the communication process. An effective leader is one who communicates
well with his or her employees. Leaders need to constantly communicate down the line in the organisation. These
days technology has made the communication process very effective, however, a personal communication with each
and every employee in the organisation tends to create a culture of respect and trust between the leader and
subordinate. In Autoliv, communication is expressive and people are given the freedom to express themselves clearly
and emotionally. There is also feedback mechanisms put in place which will enhance the effectiveness in the
communication process.
The Subordinate’s Log
The role of the manager in the workplace is to partly act as a filter of communication both up and down the
organisation. The manager also act like a linking pin between the CEO and the subordinates, in other words, he
constantly communicates with the CEO and lets him know what he is supposed to know. Difficult decisions made by
the top management were softened by the middle manager when being put across to the employees. Therefore, the
middle manager needs to have effective communication skills.
On the Rim—In Hong Kong
1. Consider how the international or regional organisation might utilise a web site as a means for communication,
internally, with its customers.
Today communication through the internet is considered as one of the most effective means of communication by
organisations. The marketing function is slowly taking an on-line approach with companies having their own
website. This website approach ensures that all members in the organisation are well informed about their
customers and the services and products that are being offered by their organisation. With intense globalisation
international or regional organisations, a website gives an identity to the company, and employees can have
information about their company without any barriers. The website is essentially a centralised communication
channel where employees can draw information as and when they like.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-17
SOLUTIONS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW
In Chapter 14, the discussion focuses on the application of the concepts presented at a theoretical level, by
developing examples to help students use the concepts properly. Many of these questions can be used for five
minute exercises, having two students or a group conduct a public conversation about a topic, and having the rest of
the class apply the concepts in the question to the conversation. Students tend to have fun with these concepts,
especially if the concepts are new to them..
1. Explain the major types of communication
managers
use
and
discuss
managerial
communication preferences.
For a familiar
organisation, identify examples of each type.
Classify the nonverbal communication examples
in terms of kinesic behaviour, proxemics,
paralanguage, and object language.
Communication is the exchange of messages
between people for the purpose of achieving
common meanings. Managers use two types of
communication in their work: Verbal communication
is the written or oral use of words to communicate.
Written communication includes letters, memoranda,
reports, newsletters, policy manuals, and so forth.
Oral communication usually takes place through
face-to-face conversations, meetings, or on the
telephone.
Nonverbal
communication
is
communication by means of elements and
behaviours not coded into words. Kinesic behaviour
includes body movements, such as gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements, and posture.
Proxemics is the influence of proximity and space on
communication; for example, the influence of a large
desk between manager and employees.
Paralanguage includes the vocal aspects of
communication relating to how something is said
rather what is said. An object language is
communication through the use of material things,
including clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and even
architecture. Studies indicate managers spend most
of their time communicating, and that they prefer
oral to written communication.
2. Outline the basic components of the
communication process. Identify these in a
conversation you witness.
The communication process can be analysed into its
basic components. The sender initiates the message.
Encoding is the process of translating the intended
meaning into symbols. Symbols include words and
gestures. The message is the encoding process
outcome, which consists of verbal and nonverbal
symbols developed to convey meaning to the
receiver. The medium is the method used to convey
the message to the intended receiver; examples are
telephone calls, meetings, formal reports. Decoding
is the process of translating the symbols into the
interpreted message. Noise is any factor in the
communication process interfering with exchanging
messages and achieving common meaning.
Feedback is the basic response of the receiver to the
interpreted message.
3. Delineate several common tendencies to
distort perceptions. Give an example of how each
could adversely affect communication.
Perception is the process individuals use to acquire
information from the environment. The perceptions
of individuals are affected by factors such as
experiences, needs, personality, and education.
Distorted perceptions can cause communication
problems for managers. Stereotyping is the tendency
to attribute characteristics to an individual on the
basis of an assessment of the group to which the
individual belongs. The halo effect is the tendency to
use a general impression based on one or a few
characteristics of an individual to judge other
characteristics of that same individual. Projection is
the tendency of an individual to assume others share
their thoughts, feelings, and characteristics.
Perceptual defence is the tendency to block out or
distort information one finds threatening or
challenging to one's beliefs. Self-serving bias is the
tendency to perceive oneself as responsible for
successes and others as responsible for failures.
4. Describe attribution theory, including
fundamental attribution error and the concept of
self-serving bias. Identify an example of the
fundamental attribution error based on a situation
you have witnessed.
Attribution theory attempts to explain how
individuals make judgements or attributions about the
causes of another’s or their own behaviour. People
make casual judgements that are either
predispositional (attributed to internal causes such as
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-18
personality traits.) or situational (attributed to
external causes). To make such judgements we
consider: 1. Consensus 2. Consistency. 3.
Distinctiveness.
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to
underestimate the importance of situational influences
and to overestimate the importance of
predispositional influences in explaining behaviour.
The self-serving bias is the tendency to perceive
oneself as responsible for successes and others as
responsible for failures.
5. Explain the notion of semantic blocks. List
some words used at your college or university
which might cause semantic blocks to outsiders
unfamiliar with the terminology.
Semantic blocks are blockages or difficulties in
communication arising from word choices.
Semantic blocks arise because senders and receivers
of messages have different semantic nets.
Professional jargon is language related to a specific
profession but unfamiliar to others outside the
profession.
Organisation-specific language can
bewilder newcomers but can build organisational
cohesiveness.
6. Differentiate between high-context cultures and
low-context cultures in terms of the emphasis in
the communication process. How could you use
the high/low context concept to help you supervise
more effectively?
In high context cultures countries such as Mexico,
Japan and India, the emphasis in the communication
process is on establishing and strengthening
relationships in the course of exchanging
information. In low context cultures, in such
countries as the US, Canada, Germany and Australia,
the emphasis in the communication process is on
exchanging information and less on building
relationships.
While knowing an individual’s
country can provide some clues about its cultural
context, there can be variations within countries as
well.
7. Outline the major types of centralised and
decentralised group communication networks.
Explain the conditions under which centralised
and decentralised networks are likely to result in
the best performance. Evaluate how well suited
they appear to be for the situations involved.
A communication network is the pattern of
information flow among task group members.
Five major network structures have been identified.
The three centralised networks are structured so
most messages must flow through a pivotal person
in the network. In the wheel network, all messages
must flow through the individual at the centre of the
wheel. In the chain network, some members can
communicate with more than one member of the
network, but the individual in the centre of the chain
still tends to control the messages. In the Y network,
the
member at the fork of the "Y" usually
becomes the central person in the network. The
two
decentralised
networks
permit
freer
communication among the various members. In the
circle network, each member can communicate with
the individual on either side. In the star network,
each member can communicate
with any other
member. Some general differences have been found
between centralised and decentralised types of
networks. Effective performance is a function
of
type of network and type of tasks undertaken.
Centralised networks were usually faster and more
accurate at performing simple, routine tasks.
Decentralised networks were usually faster and more
accurate at performing complex tasks. Group morale
in decentralised networks was consistently higher
than in the centralised, regardless of task assignment.
8. Differentiate between vertical and horizontal
communication.
Identify the major methods
used in your institution for downward
communication from chief administrators to
students and for upward communication from
students to chief administrators.
What
mechanisms exist for horizontal communication
among students?
Vertical communication is communication involving
a message exchange between two or more levels of
the hierarchy. Downward communication is vertical
communication flowing from a higher level to one or
more lower levels in the organisation. Upward
communication
is
the
vertical
flow of
communication from a lower level to one or more
higher levels in the organisation.
Horizontal
communication is lateral or diagonal message
exchange either within work unit boundaries,
involving peers reporting to the same supervisor, or
across work unit boundaries, involving individuals
reporting to different supervisors.
9. Assess the implications of the grapevine.
What evidence points to the existence of a
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-19
student grapevine in your department at your
institution?
Informal communication, better known as "the
grapevine," is communication taking place without
regard to hierarchical or task requirements.
Grapevines are most harmful when they carry false
rumours and gossip. Grapevines can serve positive
purposes. They may serve to transmit rules, values,
and morals.
They may serve to disseminate
organisational traditions and history. They may help
to reinforce formal messages, to test new proposals,
and to obtain feedback about employees' feelings
and ideas. They may help to foster innovation by
facilitating
communication
among
various
organisation parts.
10.
How can managers use electronic mail
systems and video teleconferencing to advantage
in communicating? What potential problems
exist with these methods?
An electronic mail system is a mail system allowing
high-speed exchange of written messages through
computerised text-processing and communication
networks.
Electronic mail systems have three
characteristics: They are asynchronous; that is,
message sending and receiving take place serially,
rather than simultaneously. They are fast, taking
seconds to transmit. They are text- based, conveying
only written text. Electronic mail systems have
advantages: They save time.
They lead to
exchanges of information among managers who
managers in the chain of command to act as
previously did not communicate. They can facilitate
both vertical and horizontal communication.
Electronic mail systems also have disadvantages:
They eliminate the nonverbal cues serving as aids in
face-to-face communication. They lead to an excess
of irrelevant mail. Video teleconferencing is the
holding of meetings with individuals in two or more
locations by means of closed-circuit television.
Teleconferencing usually has three general
characteristics: It is synchronous, meaning that
senders and receivers can engage in simultaneous
communication of the type associated with face-toface conversation. It is fast. And it usually allows
oral and nonverbal, as well as written message
exchange. Initial costs for equipment are high, but
travel costs can be reduced.
Adoption of
teleconferencing has been slow because of start-up
costs, lack of spontaneity, and reduced nonverbal
communication.
1. Explain how nonverbal communication can
reinforce or substitute for a verbal message and
how it can contradict a verbal message. Give an
example illustrating each situation.
Nonverbal communication elements can reinforce
the verbal message in four ways: repeating the verbal
message (for example, pointing out a direction);
complementing, or adding to, the verbal message
(for example, looking embarrassed); accenting, or
emphasising, a verbal message (for example,
pounding the table); regulating the verbal exchange
(for example, nodding to signal another to start or
stop speaking). Nonverbal communication elements
can substitute for the verbal message (for example,
using gestures to communicate without words).
Nonverbal communication elements can contradict
the verbal message (for example, looking angry
while stating one is not). The importance of
nonverbal communication is heightened in
international dealings.
2. Explain how vertical and horizontal
communication channels might be used to foster
innovation in an organisation.
How could
communication be used to promote innovation in
a campus organisation to which you belong?
Multiple communication channels may be used to
promote innovation, according to Rosabeth Moss
Kanter. Vertical communication channels can be
used to encourage innovation in four key ways: by
signalling
expectations
for
innovation; by
fostering upward communication of innovative
ideas; by encouraging sponsors in funding,
protecting, and testing potential innovations in their
developmental stages; by facilitating extensive use of
horizontal communication channels in the
organisation. Horizontal communication channels
can be used to encourage innovation by connecting
potential recognisers of opportunities for innovation;
by linking different areas of expertise; by building
coalitions of individuals who can help develop
innovations or support their implementation; by
emphasising boundary-spanning, the creating of
roles within the organisation that inter-face with
important elements outside the organisation.
EXTRA QUESTIONS (not in text)
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-20
EXERCISES FOR MANAGING IN THE 21st CENTURY
EXERCISE 1
SKILL BUILDING EXERCISE: LISTENING SELF-INVENTORY
Overview
Students are asked to complete this exercise in a two part process. In the first pass, they are asked to respond to the
statements with yes or no. In the second pass, they are to determine their satisfaction of the response given in the
first pass and record, a "+" if happy with their answer or a "-" if not satisfied with their answer.
Objective
To provide students the insight into how well they listen.
Suggested Time Schedule
Introduction
Classifying statements
Class discussion
Total
5 minutes
15 minutes
15 minutes
35 minutes
Operating Suggestions
After the group discussion and before the class discussion, you may want to state that this story is deliberately
ambiguous and that many of the questions can be answered in different ways. Avoid prolonged debates on which
statements are true, false, or unknown. Instead, focus on conflict within groups. Which items promoted
disagreement? Why did you disagree? How did you try to resolve these disagreements?
Solutions*
1. No. Individuals have a finite listening capacity. The more conversations you try to hear, the less fully you
will be able to listen to each.
2. No. A yes answer indicates a greater concern for facts and information than for interpretation and limits the
communication process.
3. No. Invariably, you get caught. When you do, people not only feel angry that you were not listening but also
feel deceived. Telling someone up front that you are unable to listen at this time is the lesser of two
evils.
4. Yes. As much as 65 to 93 per cent of the meaning of a message is transmitted non-verbally. If you answer no
to
this question, you are missing most of the message.
5. No. You are probably evaluating incomplete information.
6. No. Diverting attention is a "leave-taking" behaviour, a sign that you wish to end the conversation. Better to
state openly that you need to be excused.
7. No. Evaluative feedback that is excessive or comes too early in the conversation can lead a speaker to make
changes in the message, often trying to make it more palatable.
8. No.
If you are properly sequencing your listening behaviour, it is virtually impossible to respond immediately.
You must hear all of a message, take time to process the message, and formulate your response before you
speak.
9. No. Again, this is improper sequencing. Wait for full and complete information.
10. No. This is another example of improper sequencing. You cannot be listening carefully if you are busy
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-21
planning what you are going to say.
11. No. Many times we become so conscious of how someone said something that we miss what was said.
12. Yes. Whenever you are not completely sure, solicit feedback. Nothing is more dangerous than proceeding with
a conversation when you are not sure what the other person said.
13. Yes. Most of us do not make a serious effort to understand others' view.
14. No. A yes answer indicates self-protectiveness in listening. We tend to protect ourselves from messages that
may hurt, disappoint, or anger us.
15. Yes. We should be listening for feedback.
Scoring
To score the listening self-inventory, multiply the number of correct answers by 7.
A score of 91-105 signifies that the person has good listening habits.
A score of 77-90 indicates that listening could be improved.
A score of 76 or below indicates that the person is a poor listener and needs to work on that skill.
Adapted from: Ethel C. Glenn and Elliot A. Pood, "Listening Self-Inventory," Supervisory Management, January
1989, pp 12-15.
EXERCISE 2
MANAGEMENT EXERCISE: A QUESTION OF INFERENCES
Overview
Students work as a group classifying statements as to whether they are true (T), false (F), or unknown (U).
Objective
To demonstrate how ambiguous information is interpreted differently by different people.
Suggested Time Schedule
Introduction and individual completion of true-false statements
Formation of groups and group discussion of true-false statements
Class discussion
Total
10 minutes
10 minutes
10 minutes
30 minutes
Operating Suggestions
After the group discussion and before the class discussion, you may want to state that this story is deliberately
ambiguous and that many of the questions can be answered in different ways. Avoid prolonged debates on which
statements are true, false, or unknown. Instead, focus on conflict within groups. Which items promoted
disagreement? Why did you disagree? How did you try to resolve these disagreements?
Solutions*
1. ? Do you know that the businessman and the owner are one and the same?
2. ? Was there necessarily a robbery involved here? Perhaps the man was the rent collector, or the owner's
son—they sometimes demand money.
3. F An easy one to keep up the test-taker’s morale.
4. ? Was the owner a man?
5. ? May seen unlikely, but the story does not definitely preclude it.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-22
6. T
7. ?
8. ?
9. ?
10. ?
11. ?
12. ?
13. F
14. ?
The story says that the owner opened the cash register.
We don't know who scooped up the contents of the cash register or that the man necessarily ran away.
The dependent clause is doubtful the cash register may or may not have contained money.
Again, a robber?
Could the man merely have appeared at a door or a window without actually entering the store?
Stores generally keep lights on during the day.
Could not the man who appeared have been the owner?
The story says that the man who appeared demanded money.
Are the businessman and the owner one and the same-or two different people? The same goes for the
owner and the man who appeared.
15. ? "Dashed?" Could he not have "sped away" on roller skates or in a car? And we know that he actually left
the store? We don't even know that he entered it.
These answers are based on the 'Haney Test of Uncritical Inferences," Communication and Interpersonal Relations,
4th ed. by William V. Haney, Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1979, pp. 250-259.
Variations
Several modifications of this exercise maybe interesting. To make the information more ambiguous (and to heighten
disagreements), photocopy the questions and have the students work on the exercise with their textbooks closed.
Read the story aloud once. Then follow the procedure just outlined.
Another modification is to create groups that are more or less homogeneous. For example, create groups on the basis
of gender (one fourth of the groups all women, one fourth all men, and one half mixed gender). This can lead to a
discussion of the advantages versus the disadvantages of diversity in the workplace (for example, challenging of
assumptions in diverse groups versus the possibilities of mis-communication). Given the increasing diversity in the
workplace, how can managers effectively communicate with people who may not share their frame of reference.
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 1: SHORT INTERACTIVE
RECOGNISING THE BREAKDOWN OF COMMUNICATIONS
This exercise is used to demonstrate how meanings are changed as they are repetitively transmitted from one
individual to another. It begins by explaining to the class that you will whisper a message into the ear of one student
who will then transmit the exact same message into the ear of his/her neighbour.
A typical message might be:
THE BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE WHITE FENCE
BY THE BROWN HOUSE NEXT TO THE BLUE POND.
(This message should be recorded on the board or flip chart and concealed from view before you commence
transmitting it from one student to another.)
This will be repeated until every member of the class (all students in small classes-a representative number in large
classes) has had a message transmitted to them. The last member of the class to receive a message should write it on
the board. The instructor should then expose the message which was previously written on the board or flip chart.
The two versions of the message are then compared. The differences illustrate the loss of integrity of a message as it
is passed verbally among managers.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-23
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE 2: EXPERIENTIAL
THE COLLEGE NEWSPAPER
Objective
To investigate the various ways an information item can be communicated.
Experience
1. Students obtain a news item from their local college or university newspaper and paraphrase it.
2. They will then investigate the story to determine whether it was reported accurately, and paraphrase what
the source of the story reports to them.
3. Finally, they will compare the two versions and using the text model of the communication process, will
attempt to develop an understanding of why differences exist, between the source's report and the newspaper's
news story.
Material
Copies of the college newspaper, writing materials, the text.
Procedure 1
The class should separate into groups of 5 or 6. Someone in the group should obtain a copy of the current college
newspaper (or copies not older than two weeks).
Procedure 2
The group should peruse the newspaper for a story about a person, or some event on campus, or within a reasonable
distance of campus. Each student in the group should paraphrase the article after reading it, then put the paraphrase
away for later use.
Procedure 3
Based on the article, the group should interview the person or people associated with the situation (any method will
do-personal interview, telephone call, even letter) regarding what that person recalls of the information given to the
newspaper. Following this, each student in the group should again paraphrase what she or he has heard and put the
paraphrase away for future reference.
Procedure 4
The group should reconvene approximately one day later and share paraphrases. Compare what you have found with
the communication model presented in the text and identify where changes in the original message might have
occurred. Based on your evaluation of the process and the sources of the various differences, prepare a group report
as outlined below.
Group Questions
What were the differences between the version given by the newspaper and that given by the source? What were the
differences between the newspaper and source reports and the students’ paraphrases? Were there any common errors
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-24
made? If so, why? Can you identify any barriers or noise factors that might lead to an explanation of the various
differences as compared with the text model of a more effective communication process?
Group Reports
Groups should construct a written report (4 to 6 pages), which will be given to the course instructor. This report will
discuss (1) the differences between the newspaper report and the source report and what might have contributed to
those differences; (2) the differences between the newspaper and source reports and the students' paraphrases (in
general terms) and what might have contributed to these; and (3) what must happen to make this communication
process more effective.
Class Questions
1. What are all the elements that contributed to the wide variety of differences between the original information
source (or activity) and the several paraphrases?
2. What lessons can be learned that would apply to managers when they are communicating with subordinates?
3. What lessons can be learned that would apply to subordinates when they are communicating with their
managers?
4. What personal lessons have been learned in this exercise?
Conclusion
The course instructor will read all the group reports, comment on them, and return them to the groups as soon as
possible. When the reports have been returned, the instructor should lead a discussion about the several aspects of
the communication process that were discovered in this exercise and the implications they have in everyday
communication between managers, subordinates, and others related to the organisation (suppliers, customers, etc.).
Reinforcement
What did I learn from this experience? How will I use this knowledge in the future?
Teaching Notes
Operating Suggestions
This exercise is designed to show the difficulties in communication by demonstrating the disparity between what
someone has said (or done) and how others have related it. Divide the class into groups of 5 or 6, and have each
group find a recent article in the college newspaper (or local newspaper) about someone the group can easily talk to.
Members of the group should read the article, and each person should paraphrase it (in writing) for themselves, and
then attempt to interview the person in the article. The group should ask this person to relate the event or interview
as they recall it (avoid asking whether or not the person is happy with or agrees with the published article). Again,
each member of the group should paraphrase what they have heard (in writing). After a one-day hiatus, the group
should reconvene and compare the various versions to discover the disparity, and to speculate on why they are
different. Groups should look specifically at the issues of noise interference or barriers that explain the differences.
The group should then construct a 4-to-6-page report, which summarises the group's findings, and an analysis of
those findings. Review these reports and give each group feedback as soon as possible. Use the general outcomes
from these reports as the basis for an in-class discussion to define the roles of noise interference and barrier
interpretations in altering the communication process. This discussion should then be expanded to show how normal
lines of communication are subject to the same problems and how managers must be aware of such problems if they
hope to create effective communication within their organisations.
Timing for the exercise should approximate the following:
20 minutes to find an appropriate newspaper article (as a group) and individual paraphrasing (outside class)
1 hour travel and interview time (outside class)
1 1/2 hours to summarise group findings and prepare a report for instructor (in or outside class)
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-25
30 minutes for in-class discussion
Discussion
The point of the exercise is not to exemplify the ignorance of newspaper journalists, but to illustrate the complexity
of the communication process. Students will not only see discrepancies between the newspaper account and the
interviewee's version; but they will also see discrepancies between the various paraphrases within the group itself-of
both the newspaper article and the interview. Each group should come to the conclusion that communication is
complex, but they should also come to some understanding of the need for controlling communication (noise and
barrier issues) to increase effectiveness. After you give groups individual feedback, discuss the findings of the
various groups, but also attempt to relate that to other organisational activities and their outcomes. Finally, talk
about the role of managers in the process and their dependence upon good communication to perform at a high level,
which assures the high level of performance of those who are dependent upon them.
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-26
IRM t/a Bartol et al: Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 3e © 2001 McGraw-Hill Book Co Aust Pty Ltd, page 14-27