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Final Exam Study Guide Spring 2003 FAMR 380 The final exam is worth 65 points, but will have about 72 questions /points possible. ====================================================== STUDY THESE CONCEPTS ! Descriptive statistics Measures of center Measures of spread/variability Measures of association / correlation Inferential statistics Statistical significance Hypothesis testing Parametric and non-parametric tests Internal validity External validity Experimental research Non-experimental / Correlational research Quasi-experimental research Independent variables Dependent Confounding variables Sampling Probability vs. Non-probability Random Scale of measurement Reliability Review reading assignments, class notes, powerpoint presentations & handouts. ========================================================== About 72 of the following questions will be on your final exam. The final exam is worth 65 points. Most of the questions are multiple choice, although there are several short answer questions. Please select the one best answer to the multiple choice questions. 1. Knowledge of research methods may be useful in A. understanding and evaluating research results reported in the media. B. many occupations. C. conducting research. D. all of the above 2. Which one of the following scales of measurement lacks numeric properties? A. nominal B. ordinal C. interval D. ratio 3. ___________________ is the process of locating, obtaining, reading, and evaluating the research literature in your area of interest. 4. ______________ guarantees to not disclose any data in individual form, even if you know which participants completed which surveys. The researcher knows what the person said, but ethical principles require the researcher to not tell anyone ever. Data are reported in group form only. A. B. C. D. Double blind Confidentiality Experimenter bias Anonymity 5. A teacher writes the results of a test on the board. Seven students received A's, 10 students received B's, 18 students received C's, 4 students received D's, and 1 student received an F. In statistical terms, this is a A. measure of central tendency. B. measure of variability. C. frequency distribution. D. correlation table. 6. Which one of the following would be an appropriate measure of central tendency to summarize ordinal data? A. mean B. median C. correlation D. any one of the above would be appropriate 7. An automobile repair shop reports that half of the automobiles they repair have a resale value below $8,000. In this example, the $8,000 represents which measure of central tendency? A. mean C. median 8. A teacher writes the results of a test on the board7 students received A's, 10 students received B's, 18 students received C's, 4 students received D's, and 1 student received an F. The grade of C would represent which measure of central tendency? A. mean C. median 9. B. median D. all of the above Which one of the following measures how much scores differ from each other? A. mean C. standard deviation 11. B. mode D. standard deviation Which one of the following would be an appropriate measure of central tendency to summarize interval data? A. mean C. mode 10. B. mode D. standard deviation B. median D. central tendency The range and the standard deviation are both A. measures of variability. B. descriptive statistics. C. useful ways to summarize data. D. all of the above 12. The standard deviation would be an appropriate measure of variability only if the variable is measured on a(n) _____ scale. A. nominal C. interval 13. All correlation coefficients A. are positive. C. range from –1.00 to +1.00. 14. B. ordinal D. all of the above B. are negative. D. use ordinal data. A negative value of r means that A. there is no relationship between the two variables. B. those who score high on one variable tend to score low on the other. C. those who score high on one variable tend to score high on the other. D. there was a mistake in calculating the value of r. 15. __________ does not equal causation. 16. _____________ guarantees that there will be no way for the participants’ names to be associated with their answers or their survey. The researcher does not know whose responses are from which person. A. B. C. D. 17. Double blind Confidentiality Experimenter bias Anonymity What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics? Descriptive statistics ________, whereas inferential statistics ________. A. use ratio data; use nominal data B. use nominal data; use ratio data C. summarize data; determine the probability that results are due to chance D. determine the probability that results are due to chance; summarize data 18. Inferential statistics allow us to arrive at conclusions about the _____ on the basis of _____ data. A. population; sample B. sample; population C. independent variable; dependent variable D. dependent variable; independent variable 19. _______________ We seek evidence that confirms our view of the world and we may not look for conflicting results. A. B. C. D. 20. Confirmation bias Pilot test Placebo effect Test-retest reliability The statement that the independent variable had no effect or there is no difference between the variables or groups is called the ________ hypothesis. A. null C. practical B. research D. significant 21. The null hypothesis is rejected whenever A. past studies prove it to be wrong. B. there is a low probability that the obtained results could be due to random error. C. there is a high probability that the obtained results could be due to random error. D. the researcher is convinced that the variable is ineffective in causing changes in behavior. 22. Results are generally said to be statistically significant when there is a ________ probability of occurring if the population means are actually equal. A. high C. specifiable 23. B. low D. none of the above If we say we have statistically significant results, we mean the results are A. very important. B. meaningless. C. likely to be due to chance differences between the groups. D. likely to be due to true differences between the groups. 24. How does sample size affect determinations of statistical significance? The ________ the sample, the ________. A. larger; greater probability that the variable has an effect B. smaller; greater probability that the variable has an effect C. larger; the more confident you can be in your decision to reject or retain the null hypothesis D. smaller; the more confident you can be in your decision to reject or retain the null hypothesis 25. Your lab group must choose a significance test to determine if the mean scores of two groups are significantly different. The appropriate test is A. t-test. C. Chi-square. 26. A. B. C. D. 27. B. Mann-Whitney U. D. analysis of variance. Chi square is a non-parametric test compares the frequencies in each cell is used with nominal data all of the above A nonsignificant result may be caused by a A. low sample size. B. C. D. E. very cautious significance level. weak manipulation of independent variables. true null hypothesis. all of the above 28. The t-test is used for which type of data? A. nominal C. interval 29. B. ordinal D. all of the above With correlational research, your main interest is to uncover clear causal connections between variables. re-create the real world as closely as possible in the laboratory. find out whether two or more variables covary and to establish the direction of any observed relationship. D. all of the above A. B. C. A. B. C. D. 30. The main difference between non-experimental/correlational and experimental research is that in experimental research you do not manipulate independent variables. measure more than one dependent variable. do not manipulate more than two independent variables. manipulate independent variables and look for changes in the dependent variable. 31. A. B. C. D. In an experiment, internal validity means that changes in your independent variable caused observed changes in your dependent variable. that most extraneous variables have not been identified and controlled. the independent variable is strongly manipulated none of the above 32. A researcher studied the effectiveness of two different approaches that small groups use in making decisions. The researcher randomly assigned 20 groups of two participants to use a cooperative approach and 20 groups of two people to use a competitive approach. The researcher measured the degree of satisfaction with the final decision that each group member reported after the group had reached its final decision. The members of the groups who used the cooperative approach reported more satisfaction than did those who used the competitive approach. What is the research design used in this study? A. Experimental B. Correlational C. Quasi-experimental D. Cross-sectional 33. A problem with self-report measures is that A. you cannot be certain that subjects are giving accurate accounts of events. B. they are difficult to administer. C. they tend to confuse subjects. D. all of the above 34. The “representativeness” of a given sample refers to the degree to which the _______________ exhibits the same distribution characteristics as the ___________. A. sample…elements B. sampling frame…population C. elements…sample D. population…parameter E. sample…population 35. In ________ sampling, each member of the population has an equal chance of appearing in your sample. A. stratified B. cluster C. matched D. simple random 36. 37. A hypothesis is A. A statement that defines how a variable is measured B. A tentative statement of expected relations between variables C. A theory D. A fact You conduct a quasi-experiment to assess the impact of raising the speed limit from 55 to 65 miles per hour. You find that there are more accidents in the six-month period following the change than in the six months before the change. Although it is tempting to say that raising the speed limit caused higher accident rates, you must be careful because A. you did not actually manipulate an independent variable. B. drivers may have exceeded the 65-mile-per-hour speed limit. C. other variables (for example, cheaper gasoline or season of the year during which the change was instituted) may also be affecting accident rates. D. none of the above 38. To ensure internal validity of a pretest–posttest study, you must A. include a large sample of subjects. B. include a control group that is not exposed to your treatment. C. conduct your research in your subjects' natural environment. D. all of the above 39. Which research design best allows one to say that one variable caused a change in the other variable? A. correlational B. quasi-experimental C. experimental D. either a or b 40. that: A. B. C. D. The results of the study support the hypothesis. The study proves the hypothesis to be true. The study proves the hypothesis to be false. The results of the study are null in regard to the hypothesis. 41. A. B. C. D. 42. When the results of a study are consistent with one's hypothesis it is correct to say In the reference section of an APA-style manuscript, you list any articles or books you read, whether or not they were cited in the text. any articles you thought about reading, as well as those you actually read. only those articles and books actually cited in the body of your manuscript. all articles relevant to your research topic, whether or not you cited them in the body of your manuscript. A researcher wants to know whether college students start saving more money for postcollege life as they near the end of the college careers. The researcher surveys a random sample of 1,000 undergraduate students enrolled in 100 different four-year colleges. Each student was asked to report (a) how many credits he or she had earned towards their degree and (b) how much money he or she put into a savings account, CD, money market or other investment each month. The researcher plans to use statistical techniques to determine whether the number of credits earned predicts the monthly mount of money saved. This is an example of a __________ study. A. Qualitative B. Descriptive C. Correlational D. Experimental 43. Another group of students was interested in whether consumers preferred butter or margarine. Half the subjects were given butter to taste first and half were given margarine to taste first. Why did the student researchers counter-balance the presentation of the food samples? A. Because not counter-balancing would be unethical. B. To control for any possible confounds between preference and the order in which samples were presented. C. To manipulate the subject variable. D. There was no important research reason, the students complicated their experiment needlessly. 44. When two individuals observe the same behaviors at the same time, independently code and score them, and evaluate their percent agreement, this yields a measure of ______________. A. External validity B. Alternate or parallel forms reliability C. Inter-rater reliability D. Concurrent validity E. All of the above 45. You would do the following to increase ________________ . Don’t measure something with one item only. Write clear, well_written questions on survey Standardize survey administration procedures Treat all participants alike Create testing situation free of distractions Write clear instructions Enter survey data carefully to avoid errors 46. Which of the following should be most influential in acceptance of claims made by others? A. B. C. D. Whether or not the individual is an authority in the area. The claim is based on the person's opinion or belief. Whether or not there is scientific evidence to support or refute the claim. Whether or not scientific terms are used to substantiate the claims 47. Please list if the following probability levels are statistically significant or not .001 ________ .18 ________ .5 ________ .04 _________ 48. An operational definition refers to A. the specific method used to measure or manipulate a variable. B. a measure of the reliability of a variable. C. the only possible way of measuring a variable. D. all of the above 49. Ice cream sales increase when daily temperatures rise. This is an example of a ____ relationship. A. positive B. negative C. curvilinear D. zero 50. When the results of a study can be generalized to other populations and settings, the study is said to have _______ validity. A. inferential B. external C. internal D. reliable 51. Categorizing automobiles as American made or foreign made would be an example of a(n) _____ scale. A. nominal B. ordinal C. interval D. ratio 52. What two problems arise when interpreting results obtained using the nonexperimental method? A. B. C. D. second-variable problem and third-variable problem third-variable problem and direction of cause and effect direction of cause and effect and second-variable problem none of the above 53. Suppose a study shows there is a strong, positive relationship between learning disabilities in children and presence of food allergies. If this is so, we may conclude that A. if a child overcomes his or her disabilities, the food allergies should disappear. B. if the allergy-related foods are removed from a child's diet, the disabilities should disappear. C. a child diagnosed as having a learning disability is very likely to have food allergies. D. a child diagnosed as having a learning disability is not likely to have food allergies. 54. Variables are said to be ________if their effects cannot be separated. A. extraneous B. confused C. confounded D. none of the above 55. Which one of the following represents a critical difference between the nonexperimental and experimental methods? A. Nonexperimental methods involve operational definitions; experimental methods do not. B. Experimental methods involve operational definitions; nonexperimental methods do not. C. Nonexperimental methods involve the manipulation of variables; experimental methods do not. D. Experimental methods involve the manipulation of variables; nonexperimental methods do not. 56. A measure is valid if it produces data that are repeatable. measures what you intend it to measure. produces data that agree with your hypotheses. produces data that make sense. A. B. C. D. 57. In which section of the research report would you describe the practical application of the research results? A. introduction C. results 58. B. method D. discussion A(n) ________ measure produces similar results when administered under identical conditions. A. valid B. accurate C. continuous D. reliable 59. A. B. C. D. According to ethical guidelines for research, information obtained about a research participant during a study is open to review by the Human Subjects Committee. should remain confidential if possible. is confidential unless otherwise agreed to by the subject. is public information. 60. Dr. Kramer found that the average number of miles driven decreases as the price of gasoline increases. This relationship can best be described as a _______ relationship. A. positive C. curvilinear B. negative D. zero 61. Experimental control is accomplished by A. B. C. D. treating participants in all groups alike except for the independent variable. using a control group as a standard to measure against. using careful operational definitions. paying attention to the sensitivities of the participants. 62. By using random assignment, the researcher ensures that A. one group is different from the other. B. participants are manipulated at random. C. any extraneous variable is just as likely to affect one group as it is to affect the other. D. all of the above 63. Which one of the following statements would be appropriate for the method section of a research report? A. Past research shows men generally talk more than women. B. For men the average time talking was 10.7 minutes; for women the average was 7.4 minutes. C. While the three men and three women discussed the issue, the experimenter measured time spent talking by starting and stopping stopwatches. D. Contrary to popular belief, in groups of mixed gender, men talk more than women, interrupt more than women, and are more likely to direct discussion topics. 64. A statistically significant difference between sample means leads us to A. accept that the observed differences between sample means were not due to chance. B. conclude that the means represent a single underlying population. C. accept that the observed differences were due mainly to chance fluctuations in the data. D. none of the above 65. A. B. C. D. A measure is reliable if it results in similar scores for the same person. contains a large amount of true score. contains little measurement error. all of the above 66. Every test score is thought to have two components. In a score from a reliable test, which component should be relatively low? A. validity C. true score B. reliability D. measurement error 67. In general, a probability level of ________ has been established as the minimum criterion for statistical significance. A. 5 B. 1 C. .05 D. .01 68. You are constructing a test of knowledge of research methods. In doing so, you use your textbook for this class to devise 100 true-false questions on various aspects of research methods. Without conducting any research, you can be most certain of the ____ validity of this test. A. construct C. criterion B. face D. divergent 69. Face validity refers to whether or not the measure A. B. C. D. yields the same score for the same participant across different circumstances. correlates positively with other measures of the same variable. correlates negatively with other measures of the same variable. appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. 70. When a measure relates consistently to other measures of the same concept it shows ____ validity. A. convergent B. divergent C. face D. internal 71. When increases in the values of one variable are associated with increases in the values of a second variable, what type of relationship is present? A. positive C. negative B. no relationship D. curvilinear 72. A food critic rates restaurants according to the quality of food, service, and atmosphere. She assigns four forks for excellent, three for good, two for fair, and one for poor. This measure is an example of a(n) _____ scale. A. nominal B. ordinal C. interval D. ratio 73. What is a major distinction between quantitative and qualitative descriptive methods? Quantitative techniques use ____, whereas qualitative techniques involve _____. A. B. C. D. correlational methods; experimental methods experimental methods; correlational methods numerical descriptions; verbal descriptions verbal descriptions; numerical descriptions 74. A person who tries to present himself or herself in a positive way on a questionnaire is showing a ________ response set. A. social psychological C. social acquiescence B. social desirability D. none of the above 75. _____ indicates the amount of deviation in results obtained from a sample compared to the true population value. A. Reliability C. Confidence interval B. Validity D. Sampling error 76. Probability sampling techniques are most important for A. B. C. D. generalization of results to a population. selecting participants for experiments. obtaining significant results. internal validity. 77. Which one of the following is a probability sampling technique? A. simple random sampling C. haphazard/convenience sampling B. quota sampling D. matched random assignment 78. A researcher investigated the relationship between test length and grades in a Western Civilization course. After randomly assigning students to groups, she found that students who took longer exams received better grades than did students who took shorter exams. The independent variable was A. test grades. B. gender of the students. C. class size. D. length of test. 79. In the above question, the dependent variable was A. C. test grades. gender of the students. B. D. class size. length of test. 80. In general, the lower the response rate for a survey, the A. B. C. D. more likely biases exist to distort the findings. less likely biases exist to distort the findings. more confidence one has in generalizing the results. more confidence one has that respondents are telling the truth. 81. Closed-ended questions A. B. C. D. give a fixed number of response alternatives. are difficult to code. give more information than open-ended questions. are a good way to find out what people think. 82. Open-ended questions are more _____ than close-ended questions. A. B. C. D. time consuming to code expensive to analyze useful when one needs to know what people are thinking all of the above 83. When a confound is discovered in an experiment A. B. C. D. internal validity can be assumed. external validity can be assumed. internal validity is challenged. external validity is challenged. 84. When a confounding variable is present in an experiment, one cannot tell whether the results were due to the A. B. C. D. independent variable or the dependent variable. independent variable or the confounding variable. dependent variable or the interval variable. dependent variable or the participant variable. 85. Matched pairs random assignment is used when A. it is too expensive to use simple random assignment. B. an investigator wants to "match" participants on two variables. C. a researcher wants to ensure that independent groups are equivalent on some participant characteristic. D. a nonexperimental design restricts the population of participants. 86. A researcher has children watch 30 minutes of violent television and then measures their aggressiveness. The researcher concludes that television violence causes aggressiveness. A problem here is that A. there is no control group. B. the aggression measure is unreliable. C. the researcher should have had the children watch at least 60 minutes of violent television. D. all of the above 87. A researcher pretests a group of participants to determine their attitudes toward the use of alternative energy sources to replace crude oil. The researcher then initiates a program to convince them that they should invest in such alternatives. During this time the price of gasoline rises $.50 per gallon. At the end of the program, the researcher retests and finds that the participants are much more positive in their attitudes. What threat to internal validity most likely accounts for this change? A. history C. testing E. statistical regression B. maturation D. instrument decay 88. A researcher wants to examine the effect of room temperature on task performance. She places one group of participants in a room that is 54°F, a second group in a room that is 72°F, and a third in a room that is 90°F. She then measures the amount of time it takes each group to complete an identical task. This design would best represent a(n) _______ design. A. independent groups C. cross-sectional B. repeated measures D. random time series 89. Random assignment of half of the participants to group one and the other half to group two is an example of A. B. C. D. matched random assignment. simple random assignment. simple random sampling. repeated measures. 90. A ________ journal contains articles in which reference citations are provided. It is published by a professional organization and written by a researcher. A. scholarly B. substantive news/general interest C. popular D. sensational 91. A. B. C. D. A basic strategy for conducting library research involves finding research articles relevant to your research interest. using the reference sections for articles you read to track down other articles. using the databases and indexes on the library’s webpage to identify current articles. all of the above 92. Responses by participants to interviews and questionnaires are _______ measures. A. behavioral C. self-report B. valid D. physiological 93. Experimenter bias effects can occur when the experimenter A. B. C. D. unintentionally treats participants differently. must interpret participant behaviors when recording the dependent variable. knows the participants' group assignments. all of the above 94. What is the advantage of the pretest in the nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design? A. The pretest accustoms the participants to the procedures of the study. B. Participants who experience a pretest generally score higher on a posttest. C. When groups are not equivalent, we can look at changes from pretest to posttest scores. D. If the pretest scores are different, we can stop the study immediately without wasting time or money continuing the study. 95. A restaurant company is interested in examining the effect of increasing the price of hamburgers on their sales. During the first six months of the year they measure the number of hamburgers sold each day. They then increase the price and record the number of hamburgers sold each day for the last six months of the year. What type of design is used in this study? A. B. C. D. non-experimental quasi-experimental experimental correlational 96. What is the difference between true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs? A. True experimental designs use random assignment, whereas quasi-experimental designs do not. B. True experimental designs use control groups, whereas quasi-experimental designs do not. C. Quasi-experimental designs use random assignment, whereas experimental designs do not. D. Quasi-experimental designs use control groups, whereas experimental designs do not. 97. The hypothesis stating that sample means are drawn from the same population is the ________ hypothesis. A. alternative B. equivalence C. sampling error D. null 98. The degree to which your research results extend beyond your study and can be generalized to other populations and settings refers to A. internal validity. B. external validity. C. general validity. D. none of the above 99. What is the range of probability? ___ to ____ 100. What are the measures of center? 101. What are the measures of spread / variability? 102. From which scale(s) of measurement data can frequency distributions be compiled? 103. Which scale of measurement data can be used with parametric statistical tests? 104. Which specific test of significance do you use with two nominal variables? 105. What is the range of correlations? _______________ 106. Closer to which numbers would indicate a strong correlation? ____________ 107. Closer to which number would indicate no correlation? __________ 108. Which test would you use to compare means between two groups? 109. The larger the standard deviation the ____________ A. More B. Less variability there is among the scores. 110. In the expression p = .05. , the p stands for _________________ 111. In the expression p = .21 , the .21 indicates _____________________________________ 112. An investigator wants to see whether packaging information affects the way people rate breakfast cereal. The same cereal is put in three packages: (a) a brown box that says, "To start your day off with a smile"; (b) a yellow box that says, "For extra energy all day"; and (c) a white box that says, "Fortified with B complex and iron." In this study the A. B. C. D. kind of cereal is confounded with color of the box. package information is confounded with color of the box. package information is confounded with kind of cereal. package information is confounded with color blindness. 113. A sporting goods manufacturer wants to know if youthful consumers prefer sleeping bags filled with polyester or down. The manufacturer arranges for boy scout and girl scout troops in a nearby county to volunteer to test sleeping bags for all camping events held in the year 2002. Each participating boy scout will be given a down-filled bag and each participating girl scout will be given a polyester-filled bag. At the end of the year, all participants will be surveyed and asked to rate how much they liked the sleeping bag they were given. In this example, the type of sleeping bag is a/an _________ variable. A. Independent B. Dependent C. Subject D. Confounding 114. In the sleeping bag example given above, the rating of how much each scout likes the sleeping bag is a/an __________ variable. A. Independent B. Dependent C. Subject D. Confounding Independent 115. What variables are confounded in this study? ____________ A. down-filled and polyester-filled sleeping bags B. male and female C. gender and type of sleeping bag D. scouts and the manufacturer 116. The time to be concerned about internal validity is A.when you conduct your statistical tests. C. B.during the design phase of your research. D. 117. after you have run your study. all of the above The external validity of a given study result refers to its: A. truthfulness B. ability to measure the underlying construct accurately C. generalizability D. all of the above E. none of the above 118. Your research methods instructor asks you to distribute a survey on beach activities to a sample of college students. To save time, you go to the cafeteria and distribute the surveys among the students who are there. This sampling method is called ________ sampling. A. simple random C. cluster B. B. convenience/ haphazard D. D. quota 119. After completing a study of the effects of high density (apartment) living versus singlefamily living on the well-being of families, you have found that the two samples have different mean levels of well-being. Thus, you do a test of significance. Your test of significance determines how likely it is that the observed difference in means is due just to ___________________________. 120. The ________ of a correlation coefficient tells you about the direction of a relationship, whereas the ________ tells you about the degree of association. A. magnitude; sign B. value; magnitude C. sign; magnitude D. none of the above 121. What are three things you do to read a journal article of a research study critically? 122. Dr. Ames conducts a correlational study of the relationship between maternal age and attachment. He finds that the two variables are significantly related. Dr. Ames can safely conclude that the two variables are A. causally related. B. causally related but the direction of causality is not clear. C. related in some way, but no causal inference should be made. D. none of the above A. B. 123. The third-variable problem means that a correlational study with fewer than three variables is invalid. if two predictor variables are shown to be important predictors of the value of the criterion variable, then there is probably a third important predictor variable as well. C. D. in a correlational study there may be a third, unmeasured variable that actually causes changes in the other variables. none of the above 124. When you cannot manipulate independent variables or want to observe naturally occurring variables, the strategy of choice is a(n). A. experimental strategy. B. simulation. C. correlational strategy. D. none of the above 125. A group of marketing students wanted to investigate attitudes toward TV advertising among American college students. To do this, they obtained a list of all students enrolled in Marketing 101 and chose a random sample of 100 out of the 400 students enrolled in this class. Each of the 100 students was asked: "Do you agree or disagree that having commercials on TV is a fair price to pay for being able to watch TV?" Of the 100 students in the sample, 82 said they "agreed." The researchers announced the results of the study by saying "82% of American college students are in favor of TV commercials." a) What is the population in this example? b) Present two different reasons why the announced result is misleading. 126. The term ________ refers to the degree to which your research design evaluates the hypotheses that it was intended to evaluate. A. internal validity B. external validity C. internal consistency D. reliability A. 128. A) B) C) D) 130. A. B. C. D. 127. Scores that lie far from the others in a distribution are called deviants. B. distant scores. C. outlaws. D. outliers. A distribution contains the following scores: 1,2,2,3,2,5,4,1,4,3. Its mean is A. 2. 5. B. 2. 7. C. 2. D. 4. 129. In a distribution with an even number of scores, the median is determined by finding the most frequent score in the top half of the distribution and averaging it with the most frequent score in the bottom half of the distribution. finding the arithmetic average of the entire distribution and dividing it in half. averaging the middle pair of scores. finding the most frequent score. A limitation of the median is that it is difficult to calculate. does not take into account the magnitudes of the scores above and below it. cannot be used with interval data. all of the above 131. The measure of center that takes the most information into account is the A. median. B. mode. C. standard deviation. D. mean. 132. A sample consisting of participants who are not representative of the population is a(n) ________ sample. A. biased B. nonrandom C. stratified D. unbalanced 133. For data measured on a interval scale, you would use the _____ as measure of spread. A) standard deviation B) range C) frequency D) all of the above 134. A set of mutually exclusive categories, together with a count of the number of data values falling into each category, is termed a A) sorted list. B) cumulative distribution. C) frequency distribution. D) scatterplot. 135. The most popular measure of spread is the A) standard deviation. B) variance. C) interquartile range. 136. The two categories of statistics are A) Inferential and nonparametric C) B) Parametric and correlational D) range. Descriptive and inferential D) Inferential and convenience 137. The probability that an observed difference between means is due to chance refers to ________ significance. A) practical B) internal C) statistical D) external 138. A probability level of ________ has been established as the minimum criterion for statistical significance. A) .5 B) 1 C) .05 D) .1 Instructions for items #.... 139 - 142 Please indicate whether each statement from the introduction section of a research report is A a research question, B a hypothesis, C a statement about the “problem” related to a research topic, D a justification of the importance of a study. 139. _____ To our knowledge, this is the first study of cohabitation to include observed marital behavior and objective information about dyadic processes related to marital development. 140. _____ Is premarital cohabitation related to marital communication? 141. _____ Spouses with multiple cohabitation experiences will demonstrate the least adaptive behavior compared to couples with a single or no cohabitation experience. 142. _____ One of the most dramatic demographic changes in the last 40 years is the increase in cohabitation. In 1996, there were approximately 4 million unmarried opposite-sex couples living together, seven times that of 1970 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998). 143. When the results of an experiment are consistent with a prediction developed from a theory, we conclude that the theory is A. B. C. D. proven true. supported by the results. less likely to be true. neither supported nor challenged by the results. 144. Which section of a research article includes a description of what was done in the past and why the present study is being conducted? A. B. C. D. E. abstract introduction method results discussion 145. Which section of a research article summarizes the hypothesis, procedure, and results, usually in 150 words or less? A. abstract C. method B. introduction D. results 146. Which section of a research article includes a description of exactly how the study was designed and conducted? A. introduction C. results B. method D. discussion 147. Which section of a research article includes a description of the findings using statistical language? A. abstract C. method B. D. introduction results E. discussion 148. Which section of a research article includes an interpretation and alternative explanations for the findings? A. introduction C. results B. method D. discussion 149. An operational definition of the variable "anxiety" might be A. B. C. D. a physiological measure of sweating. the score on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. the number of "um's" and "ah's" in a person's speech. all of the above 150. Two researchers tested the hypothesis that college students' grades and happiness are related. One researcher operationally defined happiness as the number of hours spent at leisure activities. The other researcher defined happiness as the amount of achievement one feels as measured on a 10-point scale. Which of the following statements is accurate? A. Because their hypotheses are identical, the two researchers should obtain similar results. B. The only valid definition is the number of hours spent at leisure activities because it is the only objective measure. C. The difference in operational definitions of happiness could lead to quite different results. D. Only the study that measured happiness through achievement can prove that happiness is caused by good grades. 151. Which is NOT a random way of choosing a sample of 10 people from a population of 100? A. B. C. D. drawing lots using a table of random numbers asking for 10 volunteers picking 10 names from a jar containing all 100 names 152. A design that has two conditions with different participants in each condition is a(n) ______ design. A. independent groups C. longitudinal B. D. repeated measures random time series 153. Circle which is correct – accept or reject and true or false True state Data results are by chance (Null is True or False?) Data indicates something significant is happening (Null is true or false?) There is nothing happening here except chance variation (accept or reject the null?) No error Type II error Data indicates something significant is happening (accept or reject the null?) Type I error No error Your decision