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MacArthur’s Occupation of Japan: A New Era for the Japanese Zach Moore U.S. Foreign Relations 3/28/2012 The end of World War II and the unconditional surrender of Japan brought about an enormous task for the allied powers, especially the United States. Following the Potsdam Proclamation of July 26, 1945, the Allied nations under Supreme Commander General Douglas MacArthur set out to rebuild the proud island nation of Japan. According to Russell Bines, the occupation of Japan needed to accomplish four things.1 The first thing the United States wanted to accomplish was to cripple Japan’s military to the extent where they could no longer attack anyone. The next item on the agenda was to force Japan to pay war reparations for the people that suffered from Japanese imperialism. Establishing a “peaceful and responsible” government fell at third on the list. The establishment of a “peaceful and responsible” government essentially meant the establishment of a U.S. type government, or a democratic government in principle. Fourth, the United States wanted to reestablish the Japanese economy so that the crippled nation could return to being self sufficient.2 Understanding Japanese ideology prior to World II makes it easier to understand why the United States and MacArthur decided to commit such a large operation. The United State’s occupation of Japan changed the way the government operated, the economy functioned, and the way society interacted. Understanding the occupation requires some background knowledge of how Japan operated prior to the end of World War II. Prior to the occupation, Japan’s social system contained a vertical integration. The vertical system featured loyalty to an individual’s superior. Superiors in Japan expected unconditional obedience from the people under their rule.3 Japan’s drive towards westernization during the late 1800’s highlighted the Meiji era. This era also 1 Russell Brines, MacArthur’s Japan(Philadelphia and New York: J.P. Lippincot Company, 1948), 44 Ibid, 44 3 Toshio Nishi, Unconditional Democracy: Education and Politics in Occupied Japan, 19451952(Stanford:Stanford University Press,1964), 15 2 featured a conflict of interest between those who wanted to continue westernization and those who wanted to keep Japanese customs intact. The changes found during the westernization of Japan also included the onset of Christianity even though the Meiji state heavily enforced community religious views on the people.4 The increase in Western thought in Japan led the government officials to change certain aspects of how the government would go forward in the development of different aspects. The schools are one item the Japanese government set out to remodel during the 1890’s. Government officials wanted schools to include military drills for the “spirit of sacrifice.”5 Japanese women also suffered restrictions during this time period. The government forbid Japanese women from cutting their hair too short and also severely hindered the ability for women to participate politically.6 The shift in political restrictions directly correlates with the issues that SCAP and MacArthur faced during occupation. Unfortunately, Japan’s strive towards militarization and control of South-East Asia led the Japanese to take large amounts of resources and to commit travesties against the forced labor. The military leadership aspect of this played a large role in the United States’ efforts to restructure the Japanese constitution.7 The end of the war resulted in a swift United States overhaul of the Japanese government. Under the leadership of General MacArthur, the United States implemented a democratic form of government that coincided with the political ideologies that existed in United State’s foreign policy during the time of occupation. Washington did not give MacArthur any direct orders on how to take care of the post-war restructuring of Japan’s constitution and the issue of what to do 4 Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 110 Ibid, 111 6 Ibid, 111 7 Conrad Totman, A History of Japan(Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 429 5 about the military leaders, but they did issue General MacArthur a broad scope of how to go about the occupation in the SWNCC 228.8 The United States purged the Japanese government following the war so that all of the “undesirable” leaders of Japan no longer controlled the nation. The aspects that the American policymakers cleared out included the “right wing,” of the government as well as the militarists and ultranationalists that caused the war.9 MacArthur and SCAP at the onset of occupation convicted various individuals involved in the government of war crimes. The Potsdam Declaration prior to the occupation of Japan outlined how the United States would dispose of the officials in two ways.10 The first way set out to extinguish the people that supported militarism and aggression; this included all the military hierarchy. Second, SCAP was instructed to encourage people to support the democratic process, which included the individual liberties of people. Interestingly, the outlines stated that the upholding of the Emperor to any changes that occurred.11 MacArthur faced a daunting task of trying to clear out everyone who led Japan down the path of war; everyone, but the Emperor. The Emperor played an important role in the restructuring of Japanese politics. General MacArthur let Hirohito remain as the Emperor because it was a symbol to the people. The people of Japan needed some form of spiritual guidance and the Emperor provided that block. Hirohito’s retention as Emperor and the fact that he did not get tried as a war criminal bothered the majority of Americans. According to a poll, 77% of Americans believed that Hirohito should 8 Howard Shconberger, Aftermath of War(Kent, Ohio, and London: Kent State University Press, 1989), 56 9 Nishi,3 10 William J. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1965), 83 11 Ibid, 84 not have retained his role as Emperor and should have been tried as a war criminal.12 The “MacArthur Constitution” gave Japan the retention of its leader, but without the political authority he once knew under the Meiji Constitution.13 The Meiji Constitution distinguished the Emperor as a sacred ruler who descended from a line of unbroken rulers of Japan.14 The Emperor’s post war status can be compared to that of the Queen of England; a popular figure with no political power. Following the end of imperial Japan, the United States set out to create a new Japanese constitution, one where the Japanese people could enjoy the same kinds of freedoms as United State’s citizens. The Motsumoto Draft that was constructed by Japanese officials infuriated MacArthur because it did not contain anything that would seperate the Constitution from the previous Meiji Constitution.15 The Motsumoto Draft’s failure to coincide with GHQ’s goals prompted MacArthur to create the “MacArthur Draft”. The “MacArthur Draft did not get implemented, but instead provided an outline that the Japanese were heavily advised to follow. According to Toshio Nishi, General MacArthur wanted to implement the new constitution for four reasons. The first reason was to eliminate the passive attitude toward government and to create a positive attitude. The second reason was to give the Japanese a sharp awareness of their rights under the new constitution. Third, the Japanese needed to eliminate the old concepts of law and order under a totalitarian government. Finally, MacArthur wanted to address the problems of living in a nondemocratic state and the positives of living in a free, democratic 12 Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000), 543 13 Brines, 85 14 Ibid, 85 15 Nishi, 116 state.16 The newly proposed constitution of Japan promised the people the following: freedom of speech, the right to assemble, the freedom of religion, the right to education, and most importantly, the new constitution prevented discrimination based on sex, race, creed, social status, or family origin.17 Ironically, according to Gordon, the SCAP released many communists prisoners in Japan and at the same time outlawed censorship. The United State’s policy during this time gave indication that communism was a major concern, but they insisted on releasing many communist supporters. According to Toshio Nishi, the only group that provided a constitution even remotely close to the GHQ’s specifications was the Communist Party. 18 Atcheson told MacArthur, “The Communists and Social Democrats were the only ones who considered the Emperor and sovereignty in our terms.”19 During that time period, however, the United States officials could not say they supported what the Communisty party had proposed.. The issue over communism persisted throughout the United State’s occupation of Japan from 1945-1952. Both the United States and the Japanese did not like Communism, especially when it involved the Soviet Union. The statements made by an unnamed United States showed how the mindset had changed from not caring whether the Japanese could protect the country from a foreign threat. The official said, “We don’t owe the Japanese anything, not even a moral obligation. We had the right- and the duty to disarm them after war.”20 Communism played an important role in the United States’ decision to rebuild the Japanese military. Shigeru Yoshida wrote that General MacArthur contacted him about setting up a National Police Reserve that 16 Ibid, 184 Gordon, 231 18 Nishi, 115 19 Ibid, 115 20 Sebald, 81 17 consisted of 75,000 men.21 Yoshida later mentions the exact reason why the United States decided to go forward with the establishment of a police force. The reason the United States decided to implement the police force was to combat the possible danger of a Communist threat left by the United State’s departure for Korea.22 The United States departure for Korea left an uneasy feeling for Yoshida Shigeru and General MacArthur and led them to work together to try and establish a way for the Japanese to create a sense of security. The secret document NSC-68 outlined how the United States intended to undermine the Soviet Union’s efforts of expansion and the Japanese islands played a significant role in stopping the spread of Communism.23 Educational reforms also played a role in the United State’s goal of establishing democratic thinking throughout Japan. The Japanese cabinet under Prime Minister Higashikuni did not interpret the freedom of speech aspect, initially, in the context that SCAP intended. “Peace Preservation Law” determined how the Japanese leaders wanted the citizens of Japan to interpret freedom of speech.24 Although MacArthur and SCAP tried to shift Japan’s post war political policies away from the previous institution, Japan reverted back to old customs in the instance of how to interpret the meaning of documents. The fear of the Japanese mindset and anxiety of a Japanese imperial “reemergence” compelled the United States to commence a sweeping educational reform so that the old imperialist views and, according to MacArthur, the old religious views of the emperor as a divine being .The issue surrounding the emperor played an important part in the reform of education.25 21 Shigeru Yoshida, The Yoshida Memoirs (Kingswood and Surrey: William Press Ltd,1961), 182 Ibid, 182 23 Walter LaFeber, The Clash: U.S.-Japanese relations throughout History (New York and London: W.W. Norton and Company,1997),283 24 Nishi, 147 25 Ibid, 149 22 General MacArthur disliked the Japanese mentality at the time because he felt that the Japanese practiced a racial superiority in situations that involvedJapanese culture.26 The SCAP forced the military educators out of the education system and set up a foundation that would teach young students and adult students alike how to live in a democratic world. According to Russell Brines, the SCAP wanted to establish elementary and middle schools throughout the major communities of Japan.27 The Japanese newspapers and reports that the public received also received an overhaul. According to Russell Brines, Japanese reporting during the American occupation lacked any professionalism and the Japanese newspaper writers occasionally filled the news with material with intent to discredit the occupation forces.28 The United States occupation forces quickly set out to quiet the reports and eventually set up the press code to prevent the spread of propaganda.29 The United States wanted to try and prevent Japanese citizens of any occupation from trying to undermine the SCAP’s occupation goals, but the newspapers were especially important to censor due to the fact that Japanese newspaper companies could mass produce and therefore could have affected the thoughts of civilians around Japan. A direct quote from the press code said, “There shall be no destructive criticism of the Allied Forces of Occupation and nothing which might invite mistrust or resentment of these troops.”30 The SCAP seemed to contradict itself during this time period, because in one situation he SCAP wanted to implement the right of freedom of the press into Japan’s new constitution, but at the same time SCAP wanted to censor and prevent any press reports that endangered the United State’s occupation 26 Ibid, 149 Brines, 245 28 Ibid, 246 29 Ibid, 247 30 Ibid, 247 27 job. Following the changing of the constitution and the Japanese government, effects of the new policies trickled down to both the economy and the social aspects of post war Japan. The economy of post war Japan was in shambles due to inflation and food shortages. The Japanese lacked much of the needed food to operate as a nation due to the shortage of rice and other foods that usually supported the nation. Yoshida states in his memoir that the reason food shortages existed was due to the fact that much of the nation’s food stores ended up in the black market instead of going out to the places where the food would have properly been distributed.31 The nutrition problem persisted throughout the occupation, and in 1947 the average Japanese person only took in 1,000 calories.32 The food shortages had much to deal with the monetary condition in occupation Japan. Inflation during the occupation period remained extremely high and the SCAP had to do something to reverse Japan’s economic woes so Japan could become more self sufficient. NSC – 13/2 proved to be the document that outlined Japanese economic goals. The document stated that no peace treaty would be signed until Japan had become economically stable33 The document listed four goals the United States wished to accomplish for the Japanese. First, cut away any obstacles that inhibit Japanese trade. Second the Japanese needed to accelerate “private enterprise.” Third, the Japanese needed to raise and maintain a high production so that export levels could be increased. Finally, the end of inflation through balanced budgets.34 The United States occupation forces realized the only way that security could be ensured in the Pacific was if Japan stayed on maintained stable economic base. 31 Yoshida, 204 Lafeber, 272 33 Ibid, 274 34 Ibid, 274 32 The Zaibatsu, large Japanese corporations that included the likes of Mitsubishi and Nissan, played an important role over the issue of what to do about the Japanese economy because General MacArthur hated them and believed they should be disbanded altogether. The Zaibatsu to an extent were reimplemented in Japan along with the security force. Both the security force and the Zaibatsu did not have the power they held prior to the end of World War II. Max W. Bishop mentioned to George Atcheson that GHQ’s removal of the Zaibatsu directly contributed to the economic disaster in Japan.35 Secretary of the Army Kenneth Royal also gave his opinion on why the Zaibatsu should be reestablished, but Royal further elaborated. Royal basically said that the breaking up of the Zaibatsu had been the following: un-American, the Zaibatsu program had been carried too far by SCAP, dissolution of Zaibatsu interfered with the economic recovery of Japan, and finally, private citizens should investigate MacArthur’s Zaibatsu program.36 The Japanese economy needed all the help it could get from professional Japanese business men, but MacArthurs removal of them essentially created a wall against economic development.37 Land reform also played a large role in how the occupation of Japan would be viewed by future historians. Occupation officials wanted to change the Japanese land system because it showed signs of the Japanese feudal system, gave strength to the militarists of the nations and also severely weakened Japan’s economy.38 Land reform in Japan had never been considered before so the proposal that the Diet received proved to be revolutionary in terms of Japan’s advancement. According to Yoshida had the GHQ implemented their plan for the land reform 35 Nishi, 71 Ibid, 72 37 Sebald,87 38 Yoshida, 196 36 Japan agricultural production would have been hurt.39 The Minister of Agriculture Mr. Wada held responsibility for all negotiations that took place regarding the land reform and finally on September 7, 1946 the bill was passed by the Diet.40 Some of the important provisions implemented included all agricultural land that belonged to landholders that did not live in the district where the land was located, had to be transferred to the tenants that took care of the land. Also, the placed a limit on the amount of land an individual could hold to one cho, roughly equivalent to one hundred acres of land.41 Women of Japan prior to the occupation faced a life of social norms that did not fit in with democratic views. The Japanese military used the women as “comfort girls” so that the men could get the sexual release that the military believed was needed.42 McClellan goes on to mention in his article that the militirization of Japan led to a larger divide in gender roles of men and women of Japan.43 Japanese women were to have children and support the family while the brave men were off fighting. The occupation policies changed the way Japanese women had lived by allowing them to freely give signs of affection and to experience love. According to McClellan the Japanese men and women both exhibited public displays of affection that had never before been seen in Japan.44 The sudden downfall of old social norms led to the swift implementation of a democratic form of government and understanding. The occupation helped free Japanese women of the bonds previously experienced in the previous system. The occupation of Japan for women did have dark spots. The Recreation and Amusement Association 39 Ibid, 199 Ibid, 201 41 Ibid, 201 40 42 43 44 Mark Mclelland basically resembled the “comfort women” system that the Japanese military had in place during the war. Japanese women forced into prostitution by the economic crisis had to service hundreds of occupation soldiers in the first few weeks of occupation. One report from a memorandum describes five hundred United States military men waiting in line at the R.A.A.45 The situation regarding the United States military and the R.A.A. presents a black eye and occupation history and worked to undermine what the SCAP wanted to accomplish. The United States occupation of Japan lasted from 1945-1952. During that period the United States implemented many policies to recreate the nation of Japan. The occupation of Japan featured both successful and stagnant policies. The United States severely limited Japan’s economy in the first few years by restricting trade and the removal of many Zaibatsu hurt the Japanese by creating rapid inflation. The United Stated did provide millions of dollars in aid to the Japanese, which helped keep Japan’s economy from completely collapsing. The occupation also contained some contradictions to situations that eventually occurred in United States foreign relations history. The land reform instituted by General MacArthur directly contradicts the United States denounced in the situation of Arbenz and Guatemala. Also, the situation of rape by the United States military members presented a situation that could have severely undermined the goals of the occupation. However, the occupation featured many positives for Japan. The Japanese gained rights which they did not previously have prior to the United States occupation. Women, for instance, gained the right to participate in government and freely participate in society. The occupation also led to peace between the United States and Japan that currently exists today. The majority of the Japanese people embraced MacArthur and his occupation forces 45 veteran’s today and also enjoyed the benefits of democracy.46 Overall, the institution of a new constitution under General MacArthur and SCAP undoubtedly interconnected the political, economic, and social aspects of a new Japan .in both beneficial and impeding ways. Historiography on the subject features interesting contrasts between authors that wrote prior to the 1970’s and the authors who started writing during the 1970’s. Many secret documents did not get released until around 1976 and helped historians shed some light on the subject. The first historian I’d like to present is Russel Brines. Brines published his book in 1948 so the occupation had not ended yet. One thing that makes it difficult to read Brines is his the fact he does not hide his sentiments towards the Asian culture almost as if he is biased against them. At one point in Brines’ book he generalizes all “orientals” as lacking the urgency of time.47 Brines was not the only one who held some false views during the time period. William Sebald believed the United States military did nothing wrong and contributed a great deal to the Japanese people. Sebald never mentioned the rapes that occurred by occupation forces in Japan. Nashi and Schonberger both wrote on the occupation of Japan after 1976 and thus they had more factual information to go on. Both authors seemed to try their best to remained unbiased for their respective countries. Nishi’s writings were particularly excellent because he showed how the United States both succeeded and failed in the post war occupation of Japan. The occupation of Japan in comparison to the readings we have done in class presents a strong case that when American interests are involved, the United States is more than willing to cross a few boundaries. The issue over land reform showed how the United States officials readily implemented policies they eventually would condemn because of business reasons. The 46 47 Dear MacArthur Brines, 78 Dulles brothers also had a role in both rulings. Another significant thing about Japan in United States foreign relations is that the defeated nation gave the United States an opportunity to develop a stronghold in the Pacific against the advance of Communism. Bibliography Bisson, T.A. Prospects for Democracy in Japan. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1949. Bix, Herbert P. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000. Brines, Russell. MacArthur's Japan. Philladelphia and New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1948. Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. LaFeber, Walter. The Clash: U.S. Japanese Relations Throughout History. New York and London: W.W. Norton and Company, 1997. McLelland, Mark ""Kissing is a symbol of democracy!": Dating, Democracy, and Romance in Occupied Japan, 1945-1952." Journal of the History of Sexuality 19, no. 3 (2010): 508-535. http://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed April 4, 2012). Nishi, Toshio. Unconditional Democracy:Education and Politics in Occupied Japan 1945-1952. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964. Schonberger, Howard B. Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 19451952. Kent and London: The Kent State University Press, 1989. Sebald, William J. With MacArthur in Japan. New York: W.W Norton and Company, 1965. Totman, Conrad. A History of Japan. Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 2000. Yoshida, Shigeru. The Yoshida Memoirs. Kingswood and Surrey: Windmill Press Ltd, 1961.