Download MacArthur`s Occupation of Japan: A New Era for the

MacArthur’s Occupation of Japan: A New Era for the Japanese
Zach Moore
U.S. Foreign Relations
3/28/2012
The end of World War II and the unconditional surrender of Japan brought about an
enormous task for the allied powers, especially the United States. Following the Potsdam
Proclamation of July 26, 1945, the Allied nations under Supreme Commander General Douglas
MacArthur set out to rebuild the proud island nation of Japan. According to Russell Bines, the
occupation of Japan needed to accomplish four things.1 The first thing the United States wanted
to accomplish was to cripple Japan’s military to the extent where they could no longer attack
anyone. The next item on the agenda was to force Japan to pay war reparations for the people
that suffered from Japanese imperialism. Establishing a “peaceful and responsible” government
fell at third on the list. The establishment of a “peaceful and responsible” government essentially
meant the establishment of a U.S. type government, or a democratic government in principle.
Fourth, the United States wanted to reestablish the Japanese economy so that the crippled nation
could return to being self sufficient.2 Understanding Japanese ideology prior to World II makes it
easier to understand why the United States and MacArthur decided to commit such a large
operation. The United State’s occupation of Japan changed the way the government operated, the
economy functioned, and the way society interacted.
Understanding the occupation requires some background knowledge of how Japan
operated prior to the end of World War II. Prior to the occupation, Japan’s social system
contained a vertical integration. The vertical system featured loyalty to an individual’s superior.
Superiors in Japan expected unconditional obedience from the people under their rule.3 Japan’s
drive towards westernization during the late 1800’s highlighted the Meiji era. This era also
1
Russell Brines, MacArthur’s Japan(Philadelphia and New York: J.P. Lippincot Company, 1948), 44
Ibid, 44
3
Toshio Nishi, Unconditional Democracy: Education and Politics in Occupied Japan, 19451952(Stanford:Stanford University Press,1964), 15
2
featured a conflict of interest between those who wanted to continue westernization and those
who wanted to keep Japanese customs intact. The changes found during the westernization of
Japan also included the onset of Christianity even though the Meiji state heavily enforced
community religious views on the people.4 The increase in Western thought in Japan led the
government officials to change certain aspects of how the government would go forward in the
development of different aspects. The schools are one item the Japanese government set out to
remodel during the 1890’s. Government officials wanted schools to include military drills for the
“spirit of sacrifice.”5 Japanese women also suffered restrictions during this time period. The
government forbid Japanese women from cutting their hair too short and also severely hindered
the ability for women to participate politically.6 The shift in political restrictions directly
correlates with the issues that SCAP and MacArthur faced during occupation. Unfortunately,
Japan’s strive towards militarization and control of South-East Asia led the Japanese to take
large amounts of resources and to commit travesties against the forced labor. The military
leadership aspect of this played a large role in the United States’ efforts to restructure the
Japanese constitution.7
The end of the war resulted in a swift United States overhaul of the Japanese government.
Under the leadership of General MacArthur, the United States implemented a democratic form of
government that coincided with the political ideologies that existed in United State’s foreign
policy during the time of occupation. Washington did not give MacArthur any direct orders on
how to take care of the post-war restructuring of Japan’s constitution and the issue of what to do
4
Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 110
Ibid, 111
6
Ibid, 111
7
Conrad Totman, A History of Japan(Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 429
5
about the military leaders, but they did issue General MacArthur a broad scope of how to go
about the occupation in the SWNCC 228.8 The United States purged the Japanese government
following the war so that all of the “undesirable” leaders of Japan no longer controlled the
nation. The aspects that the American policymakers cleared out included the “right wing,” of the
government as well as the militarists and ultranationalists that caused the war.9 MacArthur and
SCAP at the onset of occupation convicted various individuals involved in the government of
war crimes. The Potsdam Declaration prior to the occupation of Japan outlined how the United
States would dispose of the officials in two ways.10 The first way set out to extinguish the people
that supported militarism and aggression; this included all the military hierarchy. Second, SCAP
was instructed to encourage people to support the democratic process, which included the
individual liberties of people. Interestingly, the outlines stated that the upholding of the Emperor
to any changes that occurred.11 MacArthur faced a daunting task of trying to clear out everyone
who led Japan down the path of war; everyone, but the Emperor.
The Emperor played an important role in the restructuring of Japanese politics. General
MacArthur let Hirohito remain as the Emperor because it was a symbol to the people. The people
of Japan needed some form of spiritual guidance and the Emperor provided that block.
Hirohito’s retention as Emperor and the fact that he did not get tried as a war criminal bothered
the majority of Americans. According to a poll, 77% of Americans believed that Hirohito should
8
Howard Shconberger, Aftermath of War(Kent, Ohio, and London: Kent State University Press, 1989),
56
9
Nishi,3
10
William J. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation (New York: W.W.
Norton and Company, 1965), 83
11
Ibid, 84
not have retained his role as Emperor and should have been tried as a war criminal.12 The
“MacArthur Constitution” gave Japan the retention of its leader, but without the political
authority he once knew under the Meiji Constitution.13 The Meiji Constitution distinguished the
Emperor as a sacred ruler who descended from a line of unbroken rulers of Japan.14 The
Emperor’s post war status can be compared to that of the Queen of England; a popular figure
with no political power.
Following the end of imperial Japan, the United States set out to create a new Japanese
constitution, one where the Japanese people could enjoy the same kinds of freedoms as United
State’s citizens. The Motsumoto Draft that was constructed by Japanese officials infuriated
MacArthur because it did not contain anything that would seperate the Constitution from the
previous Meiji Constitution.15 The Motsumoto Draft’s failure to coincide with GHQ’s goals
prompted MacArthur to create the “MacArthur Draft”. The “MacArthur Draft did not get
implemented, but instead provided an outline that the Japanese were heavily advised to follow.
According to Toshio Nishi, General MacArthur wanted to implement the new constitution for
four reasons. The first reason was to eliminate the passive attitude toward government and to
create a positive attitude. The second reason was to give the Japanese a sharp awareness of their
rights under the new constitution. Third, the Japanese needed to eliminate the old concepts of
law and order under a totalitarian government. Finally, MacArthur wanted to address the
problems of living in a nondemocratic state and the positives of living in a free, democratic
12
Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000),
543
13
Brines, 85
14
Ibid, 85
15
Nishi, 116
state.16 The newly proposed constitution of Japan promised the people the following: freedom of
speech, the right to assemble, the freedom of religion, the right to education, and most
importantly, the new constitution prevented discrimination based on sex, race, creed, social
status, or family origin.17 Ironically, according to Gordon, the SCAP released many communists
prisoners in Japan and at the same time outlawed censorship. The United State’s policy during
this time gave indication that communism was a major concern, but they insisted on releasing
many communist supporters. According to Toshio Nishi, the only group that provided a
constitution even remotely close to the GHQ’s specifications was the Communist Party. 18
Atcheson told MacArthur, “The Communists and Social Democrats were the only ones who
considered the Emperor and sovereignty in our terms.”19 During that time period, however, the
United States officials could not say they supported what the Communisty party had proposed..
The issue over communism persisted throughout the United State’s occupation of Japan
from 1945-1952. Both the United States and the Japanese did not like Communism, especially
when it involved the Soviet Union. The statements made by an unnamed United States showed
how the mindset had changed from not caring whether the Japanese could protect the country
from a foreign threat. The official said, “We don’t owe the Japanese anything, not even a moral
obligation. We had the right- and the duty to disarm them after war.”20 Communism played an
important role in the United States’ decision to rebuild the Japanese military. Shigeru Yoshida
wrote that General MacArthur contacted him about setting up a National Police Reserve that
16
Ibid, 184
Gordon, 231
18
Nishi, 115
19
Ibid, 115
20
Sebald, 81
17
consisted of 75,000 men.21 Yoshida later mentions the exact reason why the United States
decided to go forward with the establishment of a police force. The reason the United States
decided to implement the police force was to combat the possible danger of a Communist threat
left by the United State’s departure for Korea.22 The United States departure for Korea left an
uneasy feeling for Yoshida Shigeru and General MacArthur and led them to work together to try
and establish a way for the Japanese to create a sense of security. The secret document NSC-68
outlined how the United States intended to undermine the Soviet Union’s efforts of expansion
and the Japanese islands played a significant role in stopping the spread of Communism.23
Educational reforms also played a role in the United State’s goal of establishing democratic
thinking throughout Japan.
The Japanese cabinet under Prime Minister Higashikuni did not interpret the freedom of
speech aspect, initially, in the context that SCAP intended. “Peace Preservation Law” determined
how the Japanese leaders wanted the citizens of Japan to interpret freedom of speech.24 Although
MacArthur and SCAP tried to shift Japan’s post war political policies away from the previous
institution, Japan reverted back to old customs in the instance of how to interpret the meaning of
documents. The fear of the Japanese mindset and anxiety of a Japanese imperial “reemergence”
compelled the United States to commence a sweeping educational reform so that the old
imperialist views and, according to MacArthur, the old religious views of the emperor as a divine
being .The issue surrounding the emperor played an important part in the reform of education.25
21
Shigeru Yoshida, The Yoshida Memoirs (Kingswood and Surrey: William Press Ltd,1961), 182
Ibid, 182
23
Walter LaFeber, The Clash: U.S.-Japanese relations throughout History (New York and London: W.W.
Norton and Company,1997),283
24
Nishi, 147
25
Ibid, 149
22
General MacArthur disliked the Japanese mentality at the time because he felt that the Japanese
practiced a racial superiority in situations that involvedJapanese culture.26 The SCAP forced the
military educators out of the education system and set up a foundation that would teach young
students and adult students alike how to live in a democratic world. According to Russell Brines,
the SCAP wanted to establish elementary and middle schools throughout the major communities
of Japan.27
The Japanese newspapers and reports that the public received also received an overhaul.
According to Russell Brines, Japanese reporting during the American occupation lacked any
professionalism and the Japanese newspaper writers occasionally filled the news with material
with intent to discredit the occupation forces.28 The United States occupation forces quickly set
out to quiet the reports and eventually set up the press code to prevent the spread of
propaganda.29 The United States wanted to try and prevent Japanese citizens of any occupation
from trying to undermine the SCAP’s occupation goals, but the newspapers were especially
important to censor due to the fact that Japanese newspaper companies could mass produce and
therefore could have affected the thoughts of civilians around Japan. A direct quote from the
press code said, “There shall be no destructive criticism of the Allied Forces of Occupation and
nothing which might invite mistrust or resentment of these troops.”30 The SCAP seemed to
contradict itself during this time period, because in one situation he SCAP wanted to implement
the right of freedom of the press into Japan’s new constitution, but at the same time SCAP
wanted to censor and prevent any press reports that endangered the United State’s occupation
26
Ibid, 149
Brines, 245
28
Ibid, 246
29
Ibid, 247
30
Ibid, 247
27
job. Following the changing of the constitution and the Japanese government, effects of the new
policies trickled down to both the economy and the social aspects of post war Japan.
The economy of post war Japan was in shambles due to inflation and food shortages. The
Japanese lacked much of the needed food to operate as a nation due to the shortage of rice and
other foods that usually supported the nation. Yoshida states in his memoir that the reason food
shortages existed was due to the fact that much of the nation’s food stores ended up in the black
market instead of going out to the places where the food would have properly been distributed.31
The nutrition problem persisted throughout the occupation, and in 1947 the average Japanese
person only took in 1,000 calories.32 The food shortages had much to deal with the monetary
condition in occupation Japan. Inflation during the occupation period remained extremely high
and the SCAP had to do something to reverse Japan’s economic woes so Japan could become
more self sufficient. NSC – 13/2 proved to be the document that outlined Japanese economic
goals. The document stated that no peace treaty would be signed until Japan had become
economically stable33 The document listed four goals the United States wished to accomplish for
the Japanese. First, cut away any obstacles that inhibit Japanese trade. Second the Japanese
needed to accelerate “private enterprise.” Third, the Japanese needed to raise and maintain a high
production so that export levels could be increased. Finally, the end of inflation through balanced
budgets.34 The United States occupation forces realized the only way that security could be
ensured in the Pacific was if Japan stayed on maintained stable economic base.
31
Yoshida, 204
Lafeber, 272
33
Ibid, 274
34
Ibid, 274
32
The Zaibatsu, large Japanese corporations that included the likes of Mitsubishi and
Nissan, played an important role over the issue of what to do about the Japanese economy
because General MacArthur hated them and believed they should be disbanded altogether. The
Zaibatsu to an extent were reimplemented in Japan along with the security force. Both the
security force and the Zaibatsu did not have the power they held prior to the end of World War
II. Max W. Bishop mentioned to George Atcheson that GHQ’s removal of the Zaibatsu directly
contributed to the economic disaster in Japan.35 Secretary of the Army Kenneth Royal also gave
his opinion on why the Zaibatsu should be reestablished, but Royal further elaborated. Royal
basically said that the breaking up of the Zaibatsu had been the following: un-American, the
Zaibatsu program had been carried too far by SCAP, dissolution of Zaibatsu interfered with the
economic recovery of Japan, and finally, private citizens should investigate MacArthur’s
Zaibatsu program.36 The Japanese economy needed all the help it could get from professional
Japanese business men, but MacArthurs removal of them essentially created a wall against
economic development.37
Land reform also played a large role in how the occupation of Japan would be viewed by
future historians. Occupation officials wanted to change the Japanese land system because it
showed signs of the Japanese feudal system, gave strength to the militarists of the nations and
also severely weakened Japan’s economy.38 Land reform in Japan had never been considered
before so the proposal that the Diet received proved to be revolutionary in terms of Japan’s
advancement. According to Yoshida had the GHQ implemented their plan for the land reform
35
Nishi, 71
Ibid, 72
37
Sebald,87
38
Yoshida, 196
36
Japan agricultural production would have been hurt.39 The Minister of Agriculture Mr. Wada
held responsibility for all negotiations that took place regarding the land reform and finally on
September 7, 1946 the bill was passed by the Diet.40 Some of the important provisions
implemented included all agricultural land that belonged to landholders that did not live in the
district where the land was located, had to be transferred to the tenants that took care of the land.
Also, the placed a limit on the amount of land an individual could hold to one cho, roughly
equivalent to one hundred acres of land.41
Women of Japan prior to the occupation faced a life of social norms that did not fit in
with democratic views. The Japanese military used the women as “comfort girls” so that the men
could get the sexual release that the military believed was needed.42 McClellan goes on to
mention in his article that the militirization of Japan led to a larger divide in gender roles of men
and women of Japan.43 Japanese women were to have children and support the family while the
brave men were off fighting. The occupation policies changed the way Japanese women had
lived by allowing them to freely give signs of affection and to experience love. According to
McClellan the Japanese men and women both exhibited public displays of affection that had
never before been seen in Japan.44 The sudden downfall of old social norms led to the swift
implementation of a democratic form of government and understanding. The occupation helped
free Japanese women of the bonds previously experienced in the previous system. The
occupation of Japan for women did have dark spots. The Recreation and Amusement Association
39
Ibid, 199
Ibid, 201
41
Ibid, 201
40
42
43
44
Mark Mclelland
basically resembled the “comfort women” system that the Japanese military had in place during
the war. Japanese women forced into prostitution by the economic crisis had to service hundreds
of occupation soldiers in the first few weeks of occupation. One report from a memorandum
describes five hundred United States military men waiting in line at the R.A.A.45 The situation
regarding the United States military and the R.A.A. presents a black eye and occupation history
and worked to undermine what the SCAP wanted to accomplish.
The United States occupation of Japan lasted from 1945-1952. During that period the
United States implemented many policies to recreate the nation of Japan. The occupation of
Japan featured both successful and stagnant policies. The United States severely limited Japan’s
economy in the first few years by restricting trade and the removal of many Zaibatsu hurt the
Japanese by creating rapid inflation. The United Stated did provide millions of dollars in aid to
the Japanese, which helped keep Japan’s economy from completely collapsing. The occupation
also contained some contradictions to situations that eventually occurred in United States foreign
relations history. The land reform instituted by General MacArthur directly contradicts the
United States denounced in the situation of Arbenz and Guatemala. Also, the situation of rape by
the United States military members presented a situation that could have severely undermined
the goals of the occupation. However, the occupation featured many positives for Japan. The
Japanese gained rights which they did not previously have prior to the United States occupation.
Women, for instance, gained the right to participate in government and freely participate in
society. The occupation also led to peace between the United States and Japan that currently
exists today. The majority of the Japanese people embraced MacArthur and his occupation forces
45
veteran’s today
and also enjoyed the benefits of democracy.46 Overall, the institution of a new constitution under
General MacArthur and SCAP undoubtedly interconnected the political, economic, and social
aspects of a new Japan .in both beneficial and impeding ways.
Historiography on the subject features interesting contrasts between authors that wrote
prior to the 1970’s and the authors who started writing during the 1970’s. Many secret
documents did not get released until around 1976 and helped historians shed some light on the
subject. The first historian I’d like to present is Russel Brines. Brines published his book in 1948
so the occupation had not ended yet. One thing that makes it difficult to read Brines is his the
fact he does not hide his sentiments towards the Asian culture almost as if he is biased against
them. At one point in Brines’ book he generalizes all “orientals” as lacking the urgency of time.47
Brines was not the only one who held some false views during the time period. William Sebald
believed the United States military did nothing wrong and contributed a great deal to the
Japanese people. Sebald never mentioned the rapes that occurred by occupation forces in Japan.
Nashi and Schonberger both wrote on the occupation of Japan after 1976 and thus they had more
factual information to go on. Both authors seemed to try their best to remained unbiased for their
respective countries. Nishi’s writings were particularly excellent because he showed how the
United States both succeeded and failed in the post war occupation of Japan.
The occupation of Japan in comparison to the readings we have done in class presents a
strong case that when American interests are involved, the United States is more than willing to
cross a few boundaries. The issue over land reform showed how the United States officials
readily implemented policies they eventually would condemn because of business reasons. The
46
47
Dear MacArthur
Brines, 78
Dulles brothers also had a role in both rulings. Another significant thing about Japan in United
States foreign relations is that the defeated nation gave the United States an opportunity to
develop a stronghold in the Pacific against the advance of Communism.
Bibliography
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Brines, Russell. MacArthur's Japan. Philladelphia and New York: J.B. Lippincott Company,
1948.
Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2003.
LaFeber, Walter. The Clash: U.S. Japanese Relations Throughout History. New York and
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