Download Chapter Summary/Lecture Organizer I. THEORIES AND

Chapter Summary/Lecture Organizer
I.
THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION – Motivation is the study of the "whys" of
behavior, whereas emotion refers to subjective feelings or affective responses. Because motivated
behaviors are often closely related to emotions, these two topics are frequently studied together. A
wide variety of motives are discussed throughout this text. The focus in this chapter is on hunger,
eating, and achievement. Six different theories of motivation fall into three general categories are
explored in this section: biological (including instinct, drive-reduction, and arousal theory),
psychosocial (including incentive theory and cognitive theories), and biopsychosocial theories.
A. Biological Theories - Instinct theories suggest there is some inborn, genetic component to
motivation. Drive-reduction theory suggests that internal tensions (produced by the body's
demand for homeostasis) "push" the organism toward satisfying basic needs, and that the
organism learns which specific behaviors will meet this goal. According to the arousal motive,
people seek an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance. Sensory deprivation
studies show that we all need a minimal amount of stimulation for our brains to function
properly. There are, however, individual differences in this need. According to Zuckerman, high
sensation seekers are biologically "pre-wired" to need a higher level of stimulation, whereas the
reverse is true for low sensation seekers.
Psychology at Work: Overcoming Test Anxiety - An application section provides some
basic study tips to students and some helpful coping techniques for students who struggle
with test anxiety.
B. Psychosocial Theories - According to incentive theory, motivation results from the "pull" of
external environmental stimuli. Cognitive theories emphasize the importance of thoughts,
attributions, and expectations.
C. Biopsychosocial Theory - Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs or motives that
incorporates both biological and psychological theories. He believed that basic physiological and
survival needs must be satisfied before a person can attempt to satisfy higher needs. Some critics
point out inconsistencies in Maslow’s theory that each individual’s lower needs must be met
before attempting to satisfy higher needs.
II.
MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOR
A. Hunger and Eating - Eating is controlled by a complex interaction of both internal and
external factors. The stomach, body chemicals, such as, neurostransmitters, hormones, and
enzymes, and the brain, particularly the hypothalamus, are the major internal factors. Obesity is
caused by a combination of environment, overeating, and lack of exercise. A large number of
people have eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa (extreme weight loss due to self-imposed
starvation) and bulimia (excessive consumption of food followed by vomiting or taking
laxatives) are both related to an intense fear of obesity. Cultural conditioning is one of the
external factors that play a role in hunger.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Obesity Weighing the Evidence – Students are
presented with conflicting information regarding an obesity epidemic and given the
opportunity to sort through the information in a critical thinking exercise.
B. Achievement - Achievement involves the need for success, for doing better than others, and for
mastering challenging tasks. Research with intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation shows that
extrinsic rewards can lower interest and achievement motivation.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Characteristics of High Achievers–
This exercise offers a brief self-test on achievement motivation (nAch) and an opportunity to
think about their scores.
III.
THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF EMOTION - There are three basic components to all
emotions: the cognitive (thoughts, beliefs, and expectations); the physiological (increased heart rate,
respiration rate, etc.); and the behavioral (facial expressions and bodily gestures).
A. Three Components of Emotion - Studies of the physiological component of emotion find that
most emotions involve a general, nonspecific arousal of the nervous system. This arousal
involves the reticular formation, limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. The most obvious signs
of arousal (trembling, increased heart rate, sweating, and so on) result from activation of the
sympathetic nervous system, a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system. The
parasympathetic system restores the body to "status quo." Self-report techniques, surveys, and
interviews are the usual method for measuring the cognitive component of emotions but are
highly subjective. The behavioral component of emotions refers to how we express our
emotions. Facial expressions and body movements are two of the major forms of nonverbal
communication.
Research Highlight: Mirror Neurons – “I Share Your Pain!” – Recent research on brain
cells that fire both when performing specific actions and when observing specific actions or
emotions of others is discussed.
B. Four Major Theories of Emotion - There are four major explanations of emotions differing on
how motions become activated.
1. James-Lange Theory - The James-Lange theory suggests we interpret the way we feel on the
basis of physical sensations such as increased heart rate, trembling, etc.
2.Cannon-Bard Theory - The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that feelings are
created from independent and simultaneous stimulation of both the cortex and the autonomic
nervous system.
3. Facial Feedback Hypothesis - The third general theory of emotion, the facial feedback
hypothesis, asserts that facial movements elicit specific emotions.
4. Schachter's Two-Factor Theory – Schachter’s two-factor theory suggests that emotions
depend on two factors--physical arousal and a cognitive labeling of the arousal. People
notice what is going on around them, as well as their own bodily responses, and then label the
emotion accordingly.
Research Highlight: Are Abused Children More Alert to Negative Emotions? –
Abused children's greater sensitivity to negative emotions, while adaptive in a threatening
environment, causes difficulties when these children interact in normal settings.
IV.
CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
A. Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation – Intrinsic motivation stems from internal factors such
as satisfaction whereas external motivation involves external rewards or avoidance of
punishment. Research suggests that extrinsic rewards may lower motivation and interest, if they
are not based on competency.
B. The Polygraph as a Lie Detector -The polygraph measures changes in emotional arousal
(increase heart rate, blood pressure, and so on). Although the polygraph is used in police work
and for employment purposes, psychologists generally object to this practice because they find
the polygraph is a poor predictor of guilt or innocence or of truth or lies.
C. Emotional Intelligence (EI) - Emotional intelligence involves knowing and managing emotions,
empathy, and maintaining satisfying relationships. Some researchers like Daniel Goleman
emphasize the importance of emotional intelligence (EQ) which involves self-awareness,
impulse control, persistence, zeal, self-motivation, empathy, and social deftness.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: How Culture, Evolution, and Emotion –
Most psychologists believe that emotions result from a complex interplay between evolution
and culture. Studies have identified 7 out 10 basic emotions that are universally experienced
and expressed in similar ways across almost all cultures. Display rules differ across cultures
and between men and women.