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International Environmental Issues Terms Oikos -international student organization that looks to promote sustainable development. This relates to greek root, ECO, meaning home. Eco-nomy and eco-logy have been separated somewhere along the line of history by humans, but they are coexisting and indeed co-dependent in human society. Development Improving the quality of life. Optimism after world war two was evoked by political independence of the former colonies, rapid technological advances, and success of the Marshall Plan [WB, IMF]. The rich-poor gap, however, has grown, as in, the poorer are relatively poorer. The problem was that they wanted to use the Marshall Plan to develop the third world, however Europe was being reconstructed, and so the Marshall Plan had no practical application in the third world. Sustainable development This is development with the next generation in mind. The idea is a cooperation between economic growth and environmental security. The difficulty is in MDC resource consumption and LDC population growth. As the modern world was shaped by the industrial revolution and exponential growth in consumption of resource, productivity, scientific knowledge, and technological advances, the change must come where sustainability is the goal. Distancing is the psychological factor involved in ameliorating a process that has hidden negativities. Consider the production of Boxite into aluminum. There is much pollution from mining aluminum Boxite in Jamaican mines. However, the can makes it to your home and you drink the contents, then you throw it into the recycling bin. Recycling aluminum saves 90% of the original energy, however what is that in relation to the negative aspect of mining boxite? Overdevelopment Simply put this is development to excess. That is, too much development. In the context of economic development, this means that there is too much infrastructure, too much expansion, and too many people. Overdevelopment Carbon sinks The carbon sinks are our forests. Although they are called the “lungs of the world,” we will not be running out of oxygen if they are downed. However, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere depends on the forests to be recycled. Without the forests, carbon dioxide will remain in the atmosphere without their natural sink to return to. Tropical and temperate forests 1972 Stockholm -> 3rd upset 1982 Nairobi -> changed attitude 1992 Rio -> talk sustainability 2002 Johannesburg -> atmosphere of realism Tropical forests are found in the mid and lower latitudes, mostly the latter. Temperate forests are found more toward the north. The main logistical difference between these kinds of forests concerns their biodiversity. The most diverse forest in North America is located in the south Appalachians, where one may find 30 different tree species per hectare. However, in tropical forests, there can be found 40-100 different species of tree in any given hectare. In Peru, one can find areas with 700 different tree species per hectare. “Spaceship earth” Causes of deforestation In 1969 the human race landed on the moon. An iconic photograph was taken of the earth from the moon. This was a sort of worldly epiphany. Many saw this as it; this globe is all we have. The idea of “spaceship earth” came into existence, the idea being that we are all on the same team, essentially, and we share this space in which we live that we must cherish and care for. The various causes of deforestation are the following. Agricultural cultivation has been the most important way we have altered environment. This began with the Neolithic period 12k yrs ago when our ancestors began to cut wood away for harvest planting. Then there is ranching, especially in the Amazon and Brazil’s large meat industry. Logging is the classic reason for deforestation. It is occurring all over the world. Fuelwood is another reason for deforestation, and since half the world population depends on the use of fuelwood for cooking and lighting, deforestation and desertification result. Then of course there is the wood products industry, which relates to logging. This wood is used to make furniture and other aesthetically pleasing household items. Sometimes and often overlooked are the indirect effects of foreign debt. Foreign debt forces countries to do anything they can to make economic progress, which means exploitation of resources and resulting deforestation or what have you. UNCED meetings Limits to Growth This was published by the Club of Rome in 1972. They plugged in the factors: energy, population, chemicals, fertilizer, fisheries, and cereal and the model showed a drop in population. This didn’t happen, however, it highlights the limits to growth, hence the name. Bhopal It was in Bhopal, India where a Union Carbide plant accident immediately killed 3000 people in the city. This highlighted the lack of safety in these first world plants taking advantage of relaxed safety regulations in Third world countries. Montreal Protocol This happened in 1987, meant to phase out CFC production. CFCs were found to be depleting ozone at a rapid rate, and so action was taken. Production of CFC Distancing Amazon Basin The Amazon Basin is the richest place in the world for biodiversity. The Amazon is not deforested in uniform fashion, as any map will show, that roads are where deforestation occurs. Land and cattle serve as hedge against inflation, even though cattle themselves are not profitable. The largest ranches are highly subsidized. Brazil tried to convince its poor that the Amazon was a frontier to be ventured into. Indigenous people have been greatly affected by outside efforts to exploit the Basin for land use and logging interest. Chico Mendez EPA Chico Mendez was a supporter of the local seringueiros’ union of the Amazonian forests. He tried to show that the Amazon is not “empty,” that, indeed, there is the possibility of extractive reserves of economic value without destroying the forest. But the shortsighted and destructive policies of ranching would not hear of it. In 1988 he was murdered by hired guns. This event triggered international outrage against the exploitative and brutal practice of ranching in endangering not only the forest, but human lives as well. Environmental Protection Agency. This is a US government agency that serves to regulate emissions of certain greenhouse gases on top of other prerogatives. The Bush administration’s stance on CO2 was that it could not be regulated because it was not a pollutant since it is a naturally occurring element. However, this position was challenged by a coalition of state governments and, recently actually, the Supreme Court ruled that the EPA could indeed regulate CO2 emissions. CFCs Sustainable forestry Sustainable forestry can be done in several ways. The forest can maintain extractive reserves from whence products like rubber can be got. This means that you leave the forest in tact, and you can extract your product as well. Agro-forestry is another possibility. One can grow things in tropical forests without having to clear them. Then there is eco-tourism, or the making of revenue by showcasing the biodiversity of the forests. This, however, it not the strongest of incentives because it is much more lucrative [in the short term] to tear down the forest then and there. Spotted Owl This situation of the Spotted Owl considered the sides of timber production and ecosystem management. There was a dubious oversimplification of the situation in which it was put to opinion as “jobs vs. owls.” However, it was more that a question of any owl in any forest, it was a question of an endangered owl that was dependent on an endangered ecosystem. It was a question of short term and long term, and also of ecology and economy. Implications for destroying a species can be great. Low impact forest utilization This refers to any use of the forest in a way that does not harm it. In a video we saw the sustainable harvesting of the stuff that makes gum by indigenous peoples. These practices, such as nut collecting and rubber tapping, give opportunities to locals to participate in the economy without having to witness destructive alternative. These utilizations include agro-forestry, eco-tourism, and extractive reserves. Carbon bonds and credits These are international incentives for forest preservation. What does it entail? Carbon bonds and be bought and traded. The way it works is simple. Take Norway for instance; Norway pays Brazil not to deforest in order to compensate for its own carbon emissions. I=PxAxT Paul Ehrlich, in “The Population Bomb” [1968], describes the idea of I=PxAxT. This is an equation in which I=impact, P=population, A=affluence, T=technology. This could be seen as a two-edged sword. How much do you trust technology to solve problems? For example, how much do you trust technology to solve the problem of CO2 emissions? Chlorofluorocarbons. These were invented in 1928 and were considered a “miracle chemical.” They were used in aerosol cans, refrigerants, solvents and foams. However, it was discovered that these gases were contributed to the deterioration of the ozone layer. A major problem with them is that they do not have a natural sink, meaning that once exposed to the open air, there they remain until they float up to the ozone layer and react with ozone gases that are subsequently destroyed. Greenhouse gases and sources CO2, or carbon dioxide, is 31% of the GHG, Methane makes up 51% and NOx, nitrous oxide, makes up 17%. CO2 comes from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and cement production [such as that produced in Portland]. CH4 [methane] comes from natural gas, cows, rice fields, and landfills. NOx comes from vehicles, fertilizer, and soil disruption. CFCs [chlorofluorocarbons] are another gas, from aerosols, refrigerant, and industrial waste. Kyoto Protocol This took place in 1997 in Japan. It sought to reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels. 140 nations signed the treaty, but it was not ratified by the US, India, or China, three very important countries. The treaty went into effect February 16, 2005. Carbon intensity - Precautionary principle The precautionary principle is the idea that prevention is better than a cure. That is, we should deal with challenges such as global warming and deforestation now. In the case of uncertainty, we act on the best information available in assessing the risk. It emphasizes that to take no action is in itself an action that will certainly have consequences. Of course, first people must be convinced that a problem is urgent. In the US, polls show that 60% of Americans believe global warming is affecting the climate, as opposed to 48% in 1997. Carbon footprint - Carbon reduction and offsets - Biodiversity World population 6.7b. The world population has been growing exponentially since the dawn of man. The world growth rate peaked at 2% in the 1960s, but it still grows today, exponentially. It is a major factor in considering our resource use and the changing climate. Often it is argued that types of populations should be regulated, because it is the global north whose population uses the vast majority of earth’s resources. CO2 and carbon cycle - Biodiversity is of course the diversity of biological organisms. There are biodiversity “hotspots” in the world where one could find the most diverse biological mix on the planet. Biodiversity is important not only because of aesthetic value but also because of the future potential of discover for medicinal purposes or what have you. Mass extinctions Mass extinctions are both extinctions of many species at once and also the extinction of a single species at a rapid rate. E.O. Wilson has predicated that 27,000 species are going extinct a year, and that indeed we are in the “Sixth Extinction.” Genetic, species, and ecosystem - Diversity Diversity is variety. Variety of animals, variety of plants, variety of ecosystems. Diversity is threatened by the expansion of humankind and our unfriendly methods of extraction. It is important to preserve diversity because of aesthetics, possibilities, and because it is the right thing to do. Native and non-native species Native species are those that have been in a given ecosystem since their discovery. They are those that have been evolving in a given ecosystem for centuries and millennia. Non-native species, then of course, are those that are not native to a given ecosystem. They could have migrated there because of loss or change in their own habitat, or humans could have artificially introduced them. Examples of native and non-native species are Exotic and invasive species Exotic species are native and invasive species are non-native. Charismatic mega-fauna This refers to the generally larger animals that we tend to associate with endangerment or extinction. A person more readily can tell you that the tiger is endangered than a smaller insect with a long name. However, the extinction of a smaller, lesser-known animal could have the same if not more disastrous effects on it’s eco-system than the larger animals. Snail Darter The snail darter presents a situation where the idea of “megafauna” is put to the test. In the US they wanted to build a dam to improve power efficiency, however, the Tellico Dam would spell the end of the small Snail Darter fish. If the snail darter were, say, elephants, then perhaps the situation would have been different. The snail darter was relocated and is now doing quite well, however, it may have untold effects. Moving species can be a dangerous thing, as often introducing new species to an ecosystem can have disastrous impact. Biodiversity “hotspots” Biodiversity “hotspots” cover 1.4% of the Earth’s land surface. These spots alone account for 44% of vascular plants and 35% of vertebrates. These ecosystems are grasslands, dry tropical forests, desert, tundra, etc. The emphasis of hotspots is on endemic species. For example, the Amazon is not rich in endemic species while Madagascar and New Zealand are. Often endemic species are found on island countries such as these, for the very reason that they are physically separated from the continents. in which study is conducted, in which the wilderness remains intact. Level 2 is a national park for conservation and recreation purposes. VI is maintained for “sustainable of natural resources,” which entails limited but allowed resource extraction. Ecotourism Ecotourism refers to the tourism industry involving the “spectacle” of ecological marvel. Generally, of course, this means tourism of tropical forests in mid-latitude and lower-latitude forest areas. This is one alternative for forest use to prevent deforestation. Costa Rica was the first to set up national parks, and has since had ecotourism, like many countries with tropical forest cover. It makes up 4-7% of international tourism. It’s goals are to generate revenue, preserve nature, encourage travel to a natural destination, empower and benefit local peoples, support human rights and democracy, build environmental awareness, create financial benefit for conservation, and to encourage respect of local cultures. CITES This stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Illegal trading in endangered species is a growing industry, already at 20b dollars a year. Species are affects and animals are considered products. They are used for the purposes of food, medicine, clothing, religion, magic/belief, ornament, sport, and companionship. CITES was formed in 1963, in 1975 different levels of protection were applied through appendix I, II, and III. Nations are responsible for implementation. BTUs - Energy intensity/efficiency Energy intensity is the”efficiency” in using energy to grow economics. For instance, the Bush administration prides itself on measure the US’s energy intensity, that is, how much economic output per unit of energy. China is very energy intensive, however the US would not be considered energy intensive because of the relation of energy use to economic gain. Much of the global climate change depends very much on how energy intensive Chinese development will be. Increase in intensity comes with access to technology. Energy consumption - Environmental Kuznet’s Curve - Energy sources - Three conservation area models “Negawatts” The Classic model [Yellowstone model] is the first such model of conservation. This method emphasizes “fines and fences.” It is the physical partitioning of areas made off limits to people, and removing anyone within the national park. The second is the Populist model. The idea was the “noble savage,” that indigenous peoples had the right to live on the land they’ve lived on for so long. The final model is the Neoliberal model, which is based on valuation. This means that a value must be placed on the area, be it to attract tourists or to just epitomize biodiversity. -Amory Levins- the best way we can save energy is by conservation. Indeed consider the ANWR situation. We could save 50x more energy that could be extracted from there just by changing CAFE IUCN categories - International Union for the Conservation of Nature. These are the categories from levels I to VI that put a label on the extent to which parks are used/protected, I being the most protected and VI being the most economically managed. The categories differ by their various activities and objectives. A level 1 area is a strict reserve CAFÉ - Proven reserves “Peak oil” - Import dependency - Biofuels - Ethanol - Alternative energy sources Alternative energy sources include wind, solar, geothermal and coalition of developed world governments has rallied to pressure China into banning HCFC-22. The Montreal Protocol allows nations to continue to produce this until 2016, at which time it must be completely phased out. Ironically, the importation of HCFC-22 is not decidedly illegal in the US. GCMS Generally circulation models are theoretical numerical models that research the possible effects of global warming. These models can be used to simulate and predict distributions of various phenomena around the atmosphere such as evapotranspiration, winds, precipitation and clouds. Nuclear energy - Human impacts on atmosphere Bad question, read every other question here and you’re good. Forest Fragmentation This is the other way of deforestation beside clear-cutting. While in clear cutting you are removing a whole area of forest, Forest Fragmentation is when loggers go into the forest and take certain trees. It is said that this method effects large trees most. Earth summit This was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It was attended by some 150 countries. There was no formal agreement signed, however, the talk was centered on sustainability. These meetings are UNCED meetings WPPS - Arctic National Wildlife Refuge - Laws of thermodynamics - Deforestation Deforestation is a major concern globally for several reasons. One is that the forests of the world function as carbon sinks, sucking up some carbon in the atmosphere. Also, the forests of the world, specifically the tropical forests of the lower latitudes, are places of great biodiversity. It is thought that there are millions of species of plants and animals yet to be discovered. This can have grave meaning. Cures for diseases can be found in these vast reserves of diversity. Why are the forests being deforested so? Demand for the tropical hardwoods is very high from countries in the developed North. Also, forest is being logged and torn down to make room for ranches, agricultural fields and residence. SEE causes of deforestation. Many activist possibilities can be dangerous, for instance Dorothy Stang was murdered in Brazil while she was promoted conservation. Sustainable use Acid rain Acid rain is caused by sulfur and nitrogen in the atmosphere chemically combining to water droplets in any form of precipitation and falling to the ground. This is a very devastating occurrence, and it is most observed in the regions of Europe, particularly Eastern Europe and Poland. Ozone layer The ozone layer serves to protect us from the otherwise harmful rays of the sun. Ultraviolet light is absorbed by ozone gases so that it does not reach Earth’s surface. However, with the recent depletion of ozone by GHGs, UV rays have been said to have increased. This would increase the number of skin cancer among humans. Actually, it has been shown that amphibians have declined in recent years, and that increased uv radiation could be to blame. Ozone depletion - PCBs - Superfund - - Masting GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. This regulates just that, tariffs and trade. If certain situations call for it, they can require countries to change subsidy policy or tariff policy. For example, Brazil, in order to expand it’s international role, needed to cut subsidies on domestic goods, which destroyed the rubber tapper lifestyle. Environmental colonialism This is the idea of production patterns. The South wants to develop, and they have the North telling them to limit this or that, hindering their industrial development. The southern countries’ typical question would be something like, “why can’t we pollute as you did in order to reach where you are economically? HCFC-22 This is a refrigerant used in most window air conditioners. It has been phasing out over the past few decades because of it’s adverse effects in deteriorating the ozone layer. Recently a This is the mass fruiting episodes that involve many species at once and occur at irregular, multiyear intervals. Ignoring the process of masting can lead to extinction of species. For instance, Dipterocarp were destroyed when the industry would not wait until the seedlings would drop to ensure more trees in 70 years. Frontier forests Frontier forests are the vast tracks of forests yet un-exploited. The largest of these are in Canada, South America, and Siberia. These forests are primary forests, where secondary forest is re-plantation or re-growth following initial exploitation by human hands. Eco-efficiency Eco-efficiency refers to a friendly, compatible living situation among nature. Ever since humans severed their ties with nature several thousand years ago and settled down, we have lost the ability to see ecosystems for what they are. Our modern situation serves as a kind of mask, shielding us from the effects of our inefficient institutional industrialization. Eco-efficiency assumes cooperation between nature and human existence. Arithmetic vs. Exponential growth Arithmetic growth refers to linear growth, that is, say, I add 100 grains of sand to my collection every year. Exponential growth refers to growth skewed yearly in an ever-more populous amount. That is to say that I’ll add 10 grains this year, then 100 grains, then 1000 grains, then 10000 [10x10x10…etc.]. Malthus predicted that food production would grow Arithmetically and population would grow exponentially. If not for the Green Revolution, food might not be at the levels of production it is today. J-curve This refers to the number of individuals that, on average, a local habitat can support, taking into account food, nutrient, predator and disease-causing bacteria prevalence. Also, more generally, it considers climate and rainfall. Average size of local population multiplied by the number of those existing population yields the total number of individuals of any species. Conservation imperialism This is the idea that through this new wave of conservation activism, the North is creating a situation of neo-colonialism. Indeed most of the conservation effort is from the North and the actually biodiversity is mostly in the South. Biology vs. other “hard” sciences Graphic depiction of exponential (as opposed to linear) growth. Throughout most of human history, population was steady or linear because of high birth and death rates. The j-curve illustrates Malthus' concern that Sixth extinction population was growing geometrically while food supply was increasing The first 5 extinctions in mankind were all climatic in origin. arithmetically (linearly). World population followed a "J" curve pattern with However, it has been argued that there is a sixth extinction upon growth into the 1960s when the growth rate peaked at 2%. Since then the us, which is, will be anthropogenic in origin. This extinction is the world population growth rate has dropped to about 1.3% indicating and "S" extinction of not only animals that we know we are affecting but or sigmoid curve. also animals and insects that we have yet to discover. Rapid population growth Rapid population growth is occurring mostly in LDCs. Indeed 9598% of population growth is occurring there. While world growth rate is 1.2%, having peaked in 1960 at 2%, the most rapid growth rate is occurring in Africa at 2.3%. LCDs [excluding China] are a 1.8% population growth rate, and MDCs are at 1%. Fast population will occur when the birth rate is high and the death rate is low. Slow population growth Slower population is occurring in the MDCs. The MDCs are experiencing 1% population growth while the LDCs[not China] are experiencing 1.8% population growth. Slow growth is said to be occurring in the industrialized countries for several reasons. There is a cultural difference. Wherein the LDCs children provide for parents, in the MDCs children are a drain on parents financially. The total world population growth rate is 1.2%, and so we see that MDCs are below average. Anti-human environmentalism Guha writes about anti=humanism in environmental conservationist efforts. Claims that environmentalism suggests that “the enemy of the environment is the hunter and farmer living in the forest, who is too shortsighted for his or our good.” The claim is that biologists and environmentalist and conservationists do not care for the well being of indigenous peoples who have occupied certain lands for centuries. The claim is also that roads created to “protect” the forest will actually allow more loggers and more poachers to enter. This position advocates the decentralization of many smaller parks over huge parks here and there. Values of Biodiversityutilitarian;services;moral,ethical,aesthetic This theory suggests ideas of population based on birth and death rates. If the birth rate/death rate is high, then it is said that there is a stable population. If birth/death rates are down, then the population is growing. If birth rate/death rates are low, then it is said that there is stability. There are three “themes” of biodiversity importance, which are utilitarian values, ecosystem services, and moral, ethical and esthetic values. Utilitarian values mean that biodiversity matters because we use many more species than we think, that is, at least 40k per day. Species variation but also genetic variation among species are important if we want to continue to find uses for biodiversity. The atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere make up the variation in our overall ecosystem. It’s simple: plant life through photosynthesis makes oxygen, which we need to live. Nitrogen and phosphorous also come from the plant world. As for the last value: Genesis has called for our exploiting of animals, as the Earth is our bounty. Not all religions believe this, and many have learned that the world is necessary as diverse, that human beings cannot live completely in concrete plastic and steal. Biophilia: we all have the innate sense of belonging to the natural world. Optimum size of population Stewardship MDCs and LDCs -More Developed Countries and Less Developed countries. MDCs are generally the “global north,” while the LDCs are generally the “global south.” Demographic transition - One-child policy There were several countries that had successful population programs. One of them was China. Their method was the implementation of a one-child policy by which families are legally limited to one child. Often this creates gendered rifts, as families prefer to have a boy in order to carry on the family name. You see a seriously skewed orphanage system in which most of the orphans are girls. Carrying capacity New idea of judeo-christian theologians that we are the caretakers of the natural world, that it must be preserved. Habitat shifting Human-assisted migration is one way that habitats can “shift.” This is when we displace a species and introduce it to a new environment in order to try to preserve its existence. This has proved disastrous in the past. But due to global warming some species are either themselves shifting their habitats northward to find cooler habitats, or, in the case of the Torreya tree, they are being picked up and planted elsewhere. Also the Monterey Pine was endangered in California, but when it was moved, it spread. It has spread in Chile, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. Then there’s the black locust that wasn’t doing well, but when moved northward, spread from NY to Wisconsin. It’s native area was the Appalachian Mts. “No-analog” communities No-Analog communities are those that exist as outsiders who were able to enter thanks to another outsider. Consider the black locust. The black locust enriched the soil of the areas it invaded, allowing for other outsiders [honeysuckle] to come in. No-analog climate is also a term used, and combine the two and a permanently knew habitat could be born. Societal energetics Early social energetics understanding recognized the importance of society-energy relations, but did not elaborate. That is, they failed to appreciate limitations to “progress.” Increases in energy production and efficiency are related to increases in the structural complexity and scale of human societies, but so what? More contemporary perspectives recognize what early understanding did not. There is a limit to production. There is a low and a highenergy society, that is, pre-industrial and industrial. Contemporary views recognize conservation as necessary change. Basically, new understanding recognized the possibility of ecological collapse. Barriers to energy system change, specifically issue-attention cycle: The issue attention cycle is a cycle of rising and falling concern due to energy-related national events and the volume of media coverage they attract. Once the energy crisis of the 70s ended, supplies have increased, and media coverage of energy issues is less. Another barrier is making policy for change when energy is cheap. This has to do with short-term market forces that make it difficult to invest in alternative energy sources. Third is that energy policies have been fragmented, contradictory and often paralyzed. In the US this separation is by fuel type, with different institutions handling different sectors of the energy industry. Fourthly, energy policy needs to work on a global basis. The MDCs must not only inform the LDCs, but must help them financially to show their commitment to LDC development and climate change. Finally there is the dilemma of action versus the delay in an uncertain world. We can wait and see our knowledge improve and the effectiveness fall, or visa versa. -nuclear Nuclear power is very uneconomic because of its high costs of maintenance and running. Also, the risk of nuclear meltdown is a strong disincentive. The storing of nuclear waste is a major problem. In the US the current debate centers on the issue of Yacca Mt. Nor is nuclear power “green” or “renewable.” Another concern is the proliferation of nuclear weapons by countries with the capabilities of nuclear power. Finally there is concern around security as they could be prime targets for terrorism. Nuclear energy is not a very good alternative as its ability to provide is questionable. -biomass These fuels have a low net energy yield, and they are dirty to burn, letting off far more carbon particulate than coal. In many LDCs, this fuel is not purchased but gathered, which is a strong disincentive for their technological R&D. However, since in many places biomass is gathered, this has led to deforestation and desertification. Making this fuel more conventional would entail the leveling of more area in order to create biomass plantations. -hydropower The drawbacks to hydropower are obvious: when a dam is set up, a reservoir must be created somewhere, potentially displacing many people. An example of this is China’s Three gorges dam which, it is estimated, has displaced 2 million people. They can also have affects on the ability of land to be agriculturally viable below the dam. Not to mention destroyed habitats, wildlife. And their construction costs are often quite high. Brazil products in demand Brazil has many products that are in demand globally. Primarily it is their tropical hardwoods. Japan imports over half of Brazil’s tropical hardwood exports, for chopsticks. Brazil also produces $3b of beef annually. The Brazil nut is another product in demand overseas. What does this demand mean for the forests? It means deforestation, it means governmental regulation, and it means logging gangs and criminal activities. Basically, the demand for products is what fuels deforestation and destruction of species, and so those who wish to save the forest should look to their countries. Five groups that fuel movement for wildlife conservation in global south Rainforest Action Network [RAN] Greenpeace E-Law Cultural Survival international Science teams Bio-prospecting Bio-prospecting is the term given to pharmaceutical or individuals searching tropical forests for ingredients to use in medicines. There is much controversy surrounding this. As it is one incentive to preserve biodiversity [although Terborgh disagrees], many people around the globe but primarily in the north are actively pursuing laws to protect the forests. Anyway, the main controversy surrounding bio-prospecting is that the country usually does not get any kind of royalty from the company who wishes to extract plants. Also, often patents are made for newly found plants, and a monopoly is for the production of certain extracts, suddenly affecting indigenous peoples or others. Debt swaps Middleton talks about debt-for-nature swaps, which means that a developing nation’s debt could be lessened or forgiven in return for halting deforestation practices.