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International Environmental Issues
Terms
Oikos
-international student organization that looks to promote
sustainable development. This relates to greek root, ECO,
meaning home. Eco-nomy and eco-logy have been separated
somewhere along the line of history by humans, but they are coexisting and indeed co-dependent in human society.
Development
Improving the quality of life. Optimism after world war two was
evoked by political independence of the former colonies, rapid
technological advances, and success of the Marshall Plan [WB,
IMF]. The rich-poor gap, however, has grown, as in, the poorer are
relatively poorer. The problem was that they wanted to use the
Marshall Plan to develop the third world, however Europe was
being reconstructed, and so the Marshall Plan had no practical
application in the third world.
Sustainable development
This is development with the next generation in mind. The idea is
a cooperation between economic growth and environmental
security. The difficulty is in MDC resource consumption and LDC
population growth. As the modern world was shaped by the
industrial revolution and exponential growth in consumption of
resource, productivity, scientific knowledge, and technological
advances, the change must come where sustainability is the goal.
Distancing is the psychological factor involved in ameliorating a
process that has hidden negativities. Consider the production of
Boxite into aluminum. There is much pollution from mining
aluminum Boxite in Jamaican mines. However, the can makes it to
your home and you drink the contents, then you throw it into the
recycling bin. Recycling aluminum saves 90% of the original
energy, however what is that in relation to the negative aspect of
mining boxite?
Overdevelopment
Simply put this is development to excess. That is, too much
development. In the context of economic development, this means
that there is too much infrastructure, too much expansion, and too
many people. Overdevelopment
Carbon sinks
The carbon sinks are our forests. Although they are called the
“lungs of the world,” we will not be running out of oxygen if they are
downed. However, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere depends on
the forests to be recycled. Without the forests, carbon dioxide will
remain in the atmosphere without their natural sink to return to.
Tropical and temperate forests
1972 Stockholm -> 3rd upset
1982 Nairobi -> changed attitude
1992 Rio -> talk sustainability
2002 Johannesburg -> atmosphere of realism
Tropical forests are found in the mid and lower latitudes, mostly the
latter. Temperate forests are found more toward the north. The
main logistical difference between these kinds of forests concerns
their biodiversity. The most diverse forest in North America is
located in the south Appalachians, where one may find 30 different
tree species per hectare. However, in tropical forests, there can be
found 40-100 different species of tree in any given hectare. In Peru,
one can find areas with 700 different tree species per hectare.
“Spaceship earth”
Causes of deforestation
In 1969 the human race landed on the moon. An iconic
photograph was taken of the earth from the moon. This was a sort
of worldly epiphany. Many saw this as it; this globe is all we have.
The idea of “spaceship earth” came into existence, the idea being
that we are all on the same team, essentially, and we share this
space in which we live that we must cherish and care for.
The various causes of deforestation are the following. Agricultural
cultivation has been the most important way we have altered
environment. This began with the Neolithic period 12k yrs ago
when our ancestors began to cut wood away for harvest planting.
Then there is ranching, especially in the Amazon and Brazil’s large
meat industry. Logging is the classic reason for deforestation. It is
occurring all over the world. Fuelwood is another reason for
deforestation, and since half the world population depends on the
use of fuelwood for cooking and lighting, deforestation and
desertification result. Then of course there is the wood products
industry, which relates to logging. This wood is used to make
furniture and other aesthetically pleasing household items.
Sometimes and often overlooked are the indirect effects of foreign
debt. Foreign debt forces countries to do anything they can to make
economic progress, which means exploitation of resources and
resulting deforestation or what have you.
UNCED meetings
Limits to Growth
This was published by the Club of Rome in 1972. They plugged in
the factors: energy, population, chemicals, fertilizer, fisheries, and
cereal and the model showed a drop in population. This didn’t
happen, however, it highlights the limits to growth, hence the
name.
Bhopal
It was in Bhopal, India where a Union Carbide plant accident
immediately killed 3000 people in the city. This highlighted the lack
of safety in these first world plants taking advantage of relaxed
safety regulations in Third world countries.
Montreal Protocol
This happened in 1987, meant to phase out CFC production.
CFCs were found to be depleting ozone at a rapid rate, and so
action was taken. Production of CFC
Distancing
Amazon Basin
The Amazon Basin is the richest place in the world for biodiversity.
The Amazon is not deforested in uniform fashion, as any map will
show, that roads are where deforestation occurs. Land and cattle
serve as hedge against inflation, even though cattle themselves are
not profitable. The largest ranches are highly subsidized. Brazil
tried to convince its poor that the Amazon was a frontier to be
ventured into. Indigenous people have been greatly affected by
outside efforts to exploit the Basin for land use and logging interest.
Chico Mendez
EPA
Chico Mendez was a supporter of the local seringueiros’ union of
the Amazonian forests. He tried to show that the Amazon is not
“empty,” that, indeed, there is the possibility of extractive reserves
of economic value without destroying the forest. But the
shortsighted and destructive policies of ranching would not hear of
it. In 1988 he was murdered by hired guns. This event triggered
international outrage against the exploitative and brutal practice of
ranching in endangering not only the forest, but human lives as
well.
Environmental Protection Agency. This is a US government agency
that serves to regulate emissions of certain greenhouse gases on
top of other prerogatives. The Bush administration’s stance on CO2
was that it could not be regulated because it was not a pollutant
since it is a naturally occurring element. However, this position was
challenged by a coalition of state governments and, recently
actually, the Supreme Court ruled that the EPA could indeed
regulate CO2 emissions.
CFCs
Sustainable forestry
Sustainable forestry can be done in several ways. The forest can
maintain extractive reserves from whence products like rubber can
be got. This means that you leave the forest in tact, and you can
extract your product as well. Agro-forestry is another possibility.
One can grow things in tropical forests without having to clear
them. Then there is
eco-tourism, or the making of revenue by showcasing the
biodiversity of the forests. This, however, it not the strongest of
incentives because it is much more lucrative [in the short term] to
tear down the forest then and there.
Spotted Owl
This situation of the Spotted Owl considered the sides of timber
production and ecosystem management. There was a dubious
oversimplification of the situation in which it was put to opinion as
“jobs vs. owls.” However, it was more that a question of any owl in
any forest, it was a question of an endangered owl that was
dependent on an endangered ecosystem. It was a question of
short term and long term, and also of ecology and economy.
Implications for destroying a species can be great.
Low impact forest utilization
This refers to any use of the forest in a way that does not harm it.
In a video we saw the sustainable harvesting of the stuff that
makes gum by indigenous peoples. These practices, such as nut
collecting and rubber tapping, give opportunities to locals to
participate in the economy without having to witness destructive
alternative. These utilizations include agro-forestry, eco-tourism,
and extractive reserves.
Carbon bonds and credits
These are international incentives for forest preservation. What
does it entail? Carbon bonds and be bought and traded. The way
it works is simple. Take Norway for instance; Norway pays Brazil
not to deforest in order to compensate for its own carbon
emissions.
I=PxAxT
Paul Ehrlich, in “The Population Bomb” [1968], describes the idea
of I=PxAxT. This is an equation in which I=impact, P=population,
A=affluence, T=technology. This could be seen as a two-edged
sword. How much do you trust technology to solve problems? For
example, how much do you trust technology to solve the problem
of CO2 emissions?
Chlorofluorocarbons. These were invented in 1928 and were
considered a “miracle chemical.” They were used in aerosol cans,
refrigerants, solvents and foams. However, it was discovered that
these gases were contributed to the deterioration of the ozone
layer. A major problem with them is that they do not have a natural
sink, meaning that once exposed to the open air, there they remain
until they float up to the ozone layer and react with ozone gases
that are subsequently destroyed.
Greenhouse gases and sources
CO2, or carbon dioxide, is 31% of the GHG, Methane makes up
51% and NOx, nitrous oxide, makes up 17%. CO2 comes from
burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and cement production [such as
that produced in Portland]. CH4 [methane] comes from natural gas,
cows, rice fields, and landfills. NOx comes from vehicles, fertilizer,
and soil disruption. CFCs [chlorofluorocarbons] are another gas,
from aerosols, refrigerant, and industrial waste.
Kyoto Protocol
This took place in 1997 in Japan. It sought to reduce GHG
emissions to 1990 levels. 140 nations signed the treaty, but it was
not ratified by the US, India, or China, three very important
countries. The treaty went into effect February 16, 2005.
Carbon intensity
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Precautionary principle
The precautionary principle is the idea that prevention is better than
a cure. That is, we should deal with challenges such as global
warming and deforestation now. In the case of uncertainty, we act
on the best information available in assessing the risk. It
emphasizes that to take no action is in itself an action that will
certainly have consequences. Of course, first people must be
convinced that a problem is urgent. In the US, polls show that 60%
of Americans believe global warming is affecting the climate, as
opposed to 48% in 1997.
Carbon footprint
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Carbon reduction and offsets
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Biodiversity
World population
6.7b. The world population has been growing exponentially since
the dawn of man. The world growth rate peaked at 2% in the
1960s, but it still grows today, exponentially. It is a major factor in
considering our resource use and the changing climate. Often it is
argued that types of populations should be regulated, because it is
the global north whose population uses the vast majority of earth’s
resources.
CO2 and carbon cycle
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Biodiversity is of course the diversity of biological organisms. There
are biodiversity “hotspots” in the world where one could find the
most diverse biological mix on the planet. Biodiversity is important
not only because of aesthetic value but also because of the future
potential of discover for medicinal purposes or what have you.
Mass extinctions
Mass extinctions are both extinctions of many species at once and
also the extinction of a single species at a rapid rate. E.O. Wilson
has predicated that 27,000 species are going extinct a year, and
that indeed we are in the “Sixth Extinction.”
Genetic, species, and ecosystem
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Diversity
Diversity is variety. Variety of animals, variety of plants, variety of
ecosystems. Diversity is threatened by the expansion of
humankind and our unfriendly methods of extraction. It is
important to preserve diversity because of aesthetics, possibilities,
and because it is the right thing to do.
Native and non-native species
Native species are those that have been in a given ecosystem
since their discovery. They are those that have been evolving in a
given ecosystem for centuries and millennia. Non-native species,
then of course, are those that are not native to a given ecosystem.
They could have migrated there because of loss or change in their
own habitat, or humans could have artificially introduced them.
Examples of native and non-native species are
Exotic and invasive species
Exotic species are native and invasive species are non-native.
Charismatic mega-fauna
This refers to the generally larger animals that we tend to
associate with endangerment or extinction. A person more readily
can tell you that the tiger is endangered than a smaller insect with
a long name. However, the extinction of a smaller, lesser-known
animal could have the same if not more disastrous effects on it’s
eco-system than the larger animals.
Snail Darter
The snail darter presents a situation where the idea of “megafauna” is put to the test. In the US they wanted to build a dam to
improve power efficiency, however, the Tellico Dam would spell
the end of the small Snail Darter fish. If the snail darter were, say,
elephants, then perhaps the situation would have been different.
The snail darter was relocated and is now doing quite well,
however, it may have untold effects. Moving species can be a
dangerous thing, as often introducing new species to an
ecosystem can have disastrous impact.
Biodiversity “hotspots”
Biodiversity “hotspots” cover 1.4% of the Earth’s land surface.
These spots alone account for 44% of vascular plants and 35% of
vertebrates. These ecosystems are grasslands, dry tropical
forests, desert, tundra, etc. The emphasis of hotspots is on
endemic species. For example, the Amazon is not rich in endemic
species while Madagascar and New Zealand are. Often endemic
species are found on island countries such as these, for the very
reason that they are physically separated from the continents.
in which study is conducted, in which the wilderness remains intact.
Level 2 is a national park for conservation and recreation purposes.
VI is maintained for “sustainable of natural resources,” which entails
limited but allowed resource extraction.
Ecotourism
Ecotourism refers to the tourism industry involving the “spectacle”
of ecological marvel. Generally, of course, this means tourism of
tropical forests in mid-latitude and lower-latitude forest areas. This
is one alternative for forest use to prevent deforestation. Costa Rica
was the first to set up national parks, and has since had ecotourism, like many countries with tropical forest cover. It makes up
4-7% of international tourism. It’s goals are to generate revenue,
preserve nature, encourage travel to a natural destination,
empower and benefit local peoples, support human rights and
democracy, build environmental awareness, create financial benefit
for conservation, and to encourage respect of local cultures.
CITES
This stands for the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species. Illegal trading in endangered species is a
growing industry, already at 20b dollars a year. Species are affects
and animals are considered products. They are used for the
purposes of food, medicine, clothing, religion, magic/belief,
ornament, sport, and companionship. CITES was formed in 1963,
in 1975 different levels of protection were applied through appendix
I, II, and III. Nations are responsible for implementation.
BTUs
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Energy intensity/efficiency
Energy intensity is the”efficiency” in using energy to grow
economics. For instance, the Bush administration prides itself on
measure the US’s energy intensity, that is, how much economic
output per unit of energy. China is very energy intensive, however
the US would not be considered energy intensive because of the
relation of energy use to economic gain. Much of the global climate
change depends very much on how energy intensive Chinese
development will be. Increase in intensity comes with access to
technology.
Energy consumption
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Environmental Kuznet’s Curve
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Energy sources
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Three conservation area models
“Negawatts”
The Classic model [Yellowstone model] is the first such model of
conservation. This method emphasizes “fines and fences.” It is the
physical partitioning of areas made off limits to people, and
removing anyone within the national park. The second is the
Populist model. The idea was the “noble savage,” that indigenous
peoples had the right to live on the land they’ve lived on for so
long. The final model is the Neoliberal model, which is based on
valuation. This means that a value must be placed on the area, be
it to attract tourists or to just epitomize biodiversity.
-Amory Levins- the best way we can save energy is by
conservation. Indeed consider the ANWR situation. We could save
50x more energy that could be extracted from there just by
changing CAFE
IUCN categories
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International Union for the Conservation of Nature. These are the
categories from levels I to VI that put a label on the extent to which
parks are used/protected, I being the most protected and VI being
the most economically managed. The categories differ by their
various activities and objectives. A level 1 area is a strict reserve
CAFÉ
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Proven reserves
“Peak oil”
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Import dependency
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Biofuels
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Ethanol
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Alternative energy sources
Alternative energy sources include wind, solar, geothermal and
coalition of developed world governments has rallied to pressure
China into banning HCFC-22. The Montreal Protocol allows nations
to continue to produce this until 2016, at which time it must be
completely phased out. Ironically, the importation of HCFC-22 is not
decidedly illegal in the US.
GCMS
Generally circulation models are theoretical numerical models that
research the possible effects of global warming. These models can
be used to simulate and predict distributions of various phenomena
around the atmosphere such as evapotranspiration, winds,
precipitation and clouds.
Nuclear energy
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Human impacts on atmosphere
Bad question, read every other question here and you’re good.
Forest Fragmentation
This is the other way of deforestation beside clear-cutting. While in
clear cutting you are removing a whole area of forest, Forest
Fragmentation is when loggers go into the forest and take certain
trees. It is said that this method effects large trees most.
Earth summit
This was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It was attended by some
150 countries. There was no formal agreement signed, however,
the talk was centered on sustainability. These meetings are
UNCED meetings
WPPS
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Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
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Laws of thermodynamics
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Deforestation
Deforestation is a major concern globally for several reasons. One
is that the forests of the world function as carbon sinks, sucking up
some carbon in the atmosphere. Also, the forests of the world,
specifically the tropical forests of the lower latitudes, are places of
great biodiversity. It is thought that there are millions of species of
plants and animals yet to be discovered. This can have grave
meaning. Cures for diseases can be found in these vast reserves
of diversity. Why are the forests being deforested so? Demand for
the tropical hardwoods is very high from countries in the
developed North. Also, forest is being logged and torn down to
make room for ranches, agricultural fields and residence. SEE
causes of deforestation. Many activist possibilities can be
dangerous, for instance Dorothy Stang was murdered in Brazil
while she was promoted conservation.
Sustainable use
Acid rain
Acid rain is caused by sulfur and nitrogen in the atmosphere
chemically combining to water droplets in any form of precipitation
and falling to the ground. This is a very devastating occurrence,
and it is most observed in the regions of Europe, particularly
Eastern Europe and Poland.
Ozone layer
The ozone layer serves to protect us from the otherwise harmful
rays of the sun. Ultraviolet light is absorbed by ozone gases so that
it does not reach Earth’s surface. However, with the recent
depletion of ozone by GHGs, UV rays have been said to have
increased. This would increase the number of skin cancer among
humans. Actually, it has been shown that amphibians have
declined in recent years, and that increased uv radiation could be to
blame.
Ozone depletion
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PCBs
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Superfund
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Masting
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. This regulates just that,
tariffs and trade. If certain situations call for it, they can require
countries to change subsidy policy or tariff policy. For example,
Brazil, in order to expand it’s international role, needed to cut
subsidies on domestic goods, which destroyed the rubber tapper
lifestyle.
Environmental colonialism
This is the idea of production patterns. The South wants to
develop, and they have the North telling them to limit this or that,
hindering their industrial development. The southern countries’
typical question would be something like, “why can’t we pollute as
you did in order to reach where you are economically?
HCFC-22
This is a refrigerant used in most window air conditioners. It has
been phasing out over the past few decades because of it’s
adverse effects in deteriorating the ozone layer. Recently a
This is the mass fruiting episodes that involve many species at
once and occur at irregular, multiyear intervals. Ignoring the
process of masting can lead to extinction of species. For instance,
Dipterocarp were destroyed when the industry would not wait until
the seedlings would drop to ensure more trees in 70 years.
Frontier forests
Frontier forests are the vast tracks of forests yet un-exploited. The
largest of these are in Canada, South America, and Siberia. These
forests are primary forests, where secondary forest is re-plantation
or re-growth following initial exploitation by human hands.
Eco-efficiency
Eco-efficiency refers to a friendly, compatible living situation among
nature. Ever since humans severed their ties with nature several
thousand years ago and settled down, we have lost the ability to
see ecosystems for what they are. Our modern situation serves as
a kind of mask, shielding us from the effects of our inefficient
institutional industrialization. Eco-efficiency assumes cooperation
between nature and human existence.
Arithmetic vs. Exponential growth
Arithmetic growth refers to linear growth, that is, say, I add 100
grains of sand to my collection every year. Exponential growth
refers to growth skewed yearly in an ever-more populous amount.
That is to say that I’ll add 10 grains this year, then 100 grains, then
1000 grains, then 10000 [10x10x10…etc.]. Malthus predicted that
food production would grow Arithmetically and population would
grow exponentially. If not for the Green Revolution, food might not
be at the levels of production it is today.
J-curve
This refers to the number of individuals that, on average, a local
habitat can support, taking into account food, nutrient, predator and
disease-causing bacteria prevalence. Also, more generally, it
considers climate and rainfall. Average size of local population
multiplied by the number of those existing population yields the total
number of individuals of any species.
Conservation imperialism
This is the idea that through this new wave of conservation
activism, the North is creating a situation of neo-colonialism. Indeed
most of the conservation effort is from the North and the actually
biodiversity is mostly in the South.
Biology vs. other “hard” sciences
Graphic depiction of exponential (as opposed to linear) growth. Throughout most of human history, population was steady or linear because of high
birth and death rates. The j-curve illustrates Malthus' concern that
Sixth extinction
population was growing geometrically while food supply was increasing
The first 5 extinctions in mankind were all climatic in origin.
arithmetically (linearly). World population followed a "J" curve pattern with
However, it has been argued that there is a sixth extinction upon
growth into the 1960s when the growth rate peaked at 2%. Since then the
us, which is, will be anthropogenic in origin. This extinction is the
world population growth rate has dropped to about 1.3% indicating and "S"
extinction of not only animals that we know we are affecting but
or sigmoid curve.
also animals and insects that we have yet to discover.
Rapid population growth
Rapid population growth is occurring mostly in LDCs. Indeed 9598% of population growth is occurring there. While world growth
rate is 1.2%, having peaked in 1960 at 2%, the most rapid growth
rate is occurring in Africa at 2.3%. LCDs [excluding China] are a
1.8% population growth rate, and MDCs are at 1%. Fast
population will occur when the birth rate is high and the death rate
is low.
Slow population growth
Slower population is occurring in the MDCs. The MDCs are
experiencing 1% population growth while the LDCs[not China] are
experiencing 1.8% population growth. Slow growth is said to be
occurring in the industrialized countries for several reasons. There
is a cultural difference. Wherein the LDCs children provide for
parents, in the MDCs children are a drain on parents financially.
The total world population growth rate is 1.2%, and so we see that
MDCs are below average.
Anti-human environmentalism
Guha writes about anti=humanism in environmental conservationist
efforts. Claims that environmentalism suggests that “the enemy of
the environment is the hunter and farmer living in the forest, who is
too shortsighted for his or our good.” The claim is that biologists
and environmentalist and conservationists do not care for the well
being of indigenous peoples who have occupied certain lands for
centuries. The claim is also that roads created to “protect” the forest
will actually allow more loggers and more poachers to enter. This
position advocates the decentralization of many smaller parks over
huge parks here and there.
Values of Biodiversityutilitarian;services;moral,ethical,aesthetic
This theory suggests ideas of population based on birth and death
rates. If the birth rate/death rate is high, then it is said that there is
a stable population. If birth/death rates are down, then the
population is growing. If birth rate/death rates are low, then it is
said that there is stability.
There are three “themes” of biodiversity importance, which are
utilitarian values, ecosystem services, and moral, ethical and
esthetic values. Utilitarian values mean that biodiversity matters
because we use many more species than we think, that is, at least
40k per day. Species variation but also genetic variation among
species are important if we want to continue to find uses for
biodiversity. The atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere make up the variation in our overall ecosystem. It’s
simple: plant life through photosynthesis makes oxygen, which we
need to live. Nitrogen and phosphorous also come from the plant
world. As for the last value: Genesis has called for our exploiting of
animals, as the Earth is our bounty. Not all religions believe this,
and many have learned that the world is necessary as diverse, that
human beings cannot live completely in concrete plastic and steal.
Biophilia: we all have the innate sense of belonging to the natural
world.
Optimum size of population
Stewardship
MDCs and LDCs
-More Developed Countries and Less Developed countries. MDCs
are generally the “global north,” while the LDCs are generally the
“global south.”
Demographic transition
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One-child policy
There were several countries that had successful population
programs. One of them was China. Their method was the
implementation of a one-child policy by which families are legally
limited to one child. Often this creates gendered rifts, as families
prefer to have a boy in order to carry on the family name. You see
a seriously skewed orphanage system in which most of the
orphans are girls.
Carrying capacity
New idea of judeo-christian theologians that we are the caretakers
of the natural world, that it must be preserved.
Habitat shifting
Human-assisted migration is one way that habitats can “shift.” This
is when we displace a species and introduce it to a new
environment in order to try to preserve its existence. This has
proved disastrous in the past. But due to global warming some
species are either themselves shifting their habitats northward to
find cooler habitats, or, in the case of the Torreya tree, they are
being picked up and planted elsewhere. Also the Monterey Pine
was endangered in California, but when it was moved, it spread. It
has spread in Chile, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. Then
there’s the black locust that wasn’t doing well, but when moved
northward, spread from NY to Wisconsin. It’s native area was the
Appalachian Mts.
“No-analog” communities
No-Analog communities are those that exist as outsiders who
were able to enter thanks to another outsider. Consider the black
locust. The black locust enriched the soil of the areas it invaded,
allowing for other outsiders [honeysuckle] to come in. No-analog
climate is also a term used, and combine the two and a
permanently knew habitat could be born.
Societal energetics
Early social energetics understanding recognized the importance
of society-energy relations, but did not elaborate. That is, they
failed to appreciate limitations to “progress.” Increases in energy
production and efficiency are related to increases in the structural
complexity and scale of human societies, but so what? More
contemporary perspectives recognize what early understanding
did not. There is a limit to production. There is a low and a highenergy society, that is, pre-industrial and industrial. Contemporary
views recognize conservation as necessary change. Basically,
new understanding recognized the possibility of ecological
collapse.
Barriers to energy system change, specifically
issue-attention cycle:
The issue attention cycle is a cycle of rising and falling concern
due to energy-related national events and the volume of media
coverage they attract. Once the energy crisis of the 70s ended,
supplies have increased, and media coverage of energy issues is
less. Another barrier is making policy for change when energy is
cheap. This has to do with short-term market forces that make it
difficult to invest in alternative energy sources. Third is that energy
policies have been fragmented, contradictory and often paralyzed.
In the US this separation is by fuel type, with different institutions
handling different sectors of the energy industry. Fourthly, energy
policy needs to work on a global basis. The MDCs must not only
inform the LDCs, but must help them financially to show their
commitment to LDC development and climate change. Finally
there is the dilemma of action versus the delay in an uncertain
world. We can wait and see our knowledge improve and the
effectiveness fall, or visa versa.
-nuclear
Nuclear power is very uneconomic because of its high
costs of maintenance and running. Also, the risk of nuclear
meltdown is a strong disincentive. The storing of nuclear waste is
a major problem. In the US the current debate centers on the
issue of Yacca Mt. Nor is nuclear power “green” or “renewable.”
Another concern is the proliferation of nuclear weapons by
countries with the capabilities of nuclear power. Finally there is
concern around security as they could be prime targets for
terrorism. Nuclear energy is not a very good alternative as its
ability to provide is questionable.
-biomass
These fuels have a low net energy yield, and they are dirty
to burn, letting off far more carbon particulate than coal. In many
LDCs, this fuel is not purchased but gathered, which is a strong
disincentive for their technological R&D. However, since in many
places biomass is gathered, this has led to deforestation and
desertification. Making this fuel more conventional would entail the
leveling of more area in order to create biomass plantations.
-hydropower
The drawbacks to hydropower are obvious: when a dam is
set up, a reservoir must be created somewhere, potentially
displacing many people. An example of this is China’s Three
gorges dam which, it is estimated, has displaced 2 million people.
They can also have affects on the ability of land to be agriculturally
viable below the dam. Not to mention destroyed habitats, wildlife.
And their construction costs are often quite high.
Brazil products in demand
Brazil has many products that are in demand globally. Primarily it is
their tropical hardwoods. Japan imports over half of Brazil’s tropical
hardwood exports, for chopsticks. Brazil also produces $3b of beef
annually. The Brazil nut is another product in demand overseas.
What does this demand mean for the forests? It means
deforestation, it means governmental regulation, and it means
logging gangs and criminal activities. Basically, the demand for
products is what fuels deforestation and destruction of species, and
so those who wish to save the forest should look to their countries.
Five groups that fuel movement for wildlife
conservation in global south
Rainforest Action Network [RAN]
Greenpeace
E-Law
Cultural Survival international
Science teams
Bio-prospecting
Bio-prospecting is the term given to pharmaceutical or individuals
searching tropical forests for ingredients to use in medicines. There
is much controversy surrounding this. As it is one incentive to
preserve biodiversity [although Terborgh disagrees], many people
around the globe but primarily in the north are actively pursuing
laws to protect the forests. Anyway, the main controversy
surrounding bio-prospecting is that the country usually does not get
any kind of royalty from the company who wishes to extract plants.
Also, often patents are made for newly found plants, and a
monopoly is for the production of certain extracts, suddenly
affecting indigenous peoples or others.
Debt swaps
Middleton talks about debt-for-nature swaps, which means that a
developing nation’s debt could be lessened or forgiven in return for
halting deforestation practices.