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Things to Memorize for the AP Exam 1. A. B. C. Strong Electrolytes (100% ionized) Strong Acids: HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO4, HClO3 Strong Bases: Hydroxides of group IA and II A, Except Be and Mg Soluble Salts ( ionic compounds: metal/nonmetal) Always Soluble if these are in a compound 2. Except with NO3-, Group IA, NH4+, CH3COO-, ClO4-, ClO3- No Exceptions Cl- Br-, I- Pb, Ag, Hg22+ SO42- Ag, Pb, Hg22+ Ca, Sr, Ba - Thermo + ΔH(Enthalpy) Endothermic Exothermic ΔS (Entropy) Disorder Order ΔG(Gibbs Free Energy) Not Spontaneous Spontaneous 3. Trends on the Periodic Table: The closer to F, the greater the trend in every case except size and metallic character. Column IIA and VA are exceptions to the ionization energy trend because they have a full and half-full sublevel. 4. Flame Tests: Na (yellow), K (violet), Li (red), Sr (red), Ca (red), Cu (green), and Ba(green). 5. Colors of various solutions : Cu2+ (blue), CrO42- (yellow), Cr2O72- (orange), Ni2+ (green), Fe2+ (yellowish/green), Fe3+ (brown/yellow) MnO4- (purple), I- (purple), Zn2+ (colorless), Cu(NH3)42+ (dark blue) 6. Element Colors: Bromine (red/brown), Iodine (violet), Chlorine (yellow/green), Sulfur (yellow). Mercury & Bromine are liquids. 7. Intermolecular Attractions from strongest to weakest: Ion-Ion (metal/nonmetal), Hydrogen Bonding ( H attached to N,O, or F), Dipole/Dipole ( polar molecule), and London Dispersion (nonpolar molecule). 8. Polyatomic Ions: 121+ ClO Hypochlorite C2O4 Oxalate NH4 Ammonium ClO2 Chlorite CO3 Carbonate ClO3 Chlorate Cr2O7 Dichromate ClO4 Perchlorate CrO4 Chromate CN Cyanide SO4 Sulfate MnO4 Permanganate SO3 Sulfite NO3 Nitrate NO2 Nitrite OH Hydroxide HCOO Formate HCO3 Hydrogen Carbonate (bicarbonate) 3HSO3 Hydrogen Sulfite (bisulfite) PO4 Phosphate CH3COO Acetate PO3 Phosphite SCN Thoicyanate In addition, know that Pb can be +2 or +4, Fe (+2,+3), and Cu(+1,+2) 9. Oxidation of water: 2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4eReduction of water: 2 H2O + 2 e- H2 + 2OH10. Most common complex ions: (a) When ammonia(NH 3) is added to Ag1+, Cu2+ it produces : Cu(NH3)42+ cupric tetraamine, Ag(NH3)2+ silver diamine. When concentrated OH- is added to Zn(OH)2 it produces Zn(OH)42-. When Fe3+ is in thiocyanate SCN- it makes Fe(SCN)63- complex. Co2+ with chlorine CoCl42-. Notice the number of ligands (things attached to the metal) is usually double the oxidation number of the metal. Transition metals with NH3, OH-, or SCN- often form complexes. 11. Terms Lattice or Lattice Energy goes with ionic compounds. Term delocalized electrons goes with metals (metallic bonds) 12. Memory List Oxidizers and Reducers Oxidizing Agents Formed in Rxn MnO4- (acid) Mn2+ MnO4 (base) MnO2 MnO2 (acid) Mn2+ 2Cr2O7 (acid) Cr3+ 2Cr2O7 (base) CrO422CrO4 Cr3+ Free Halogen (F2, Cl2 ...) Halide ion ( F-, Cl- ...) HNO3 (concentrated) NO2 HNO3 (dilute) NO H2SO4 (hot) SO2 H2O2 H2O Metal- ic (high) Fe3+ Metal-ous (low) Fe2+ HClO4 ClReducing Agents Formed in Rxn Halide ions (F-, Cl-, ...) Free halogens ( F2, Cl2, ...) Free Metal (Cu) Metal ions ( Cu2+) Metal-ous (Fe2+) Metal-ic (Fe3+) 2Sulfite ion (SO3 ) Sulfate ion (SO42-) Nitrite (NO2 ) Nitrate ion (NO3-) 2C2O4 (oxalate ion) CO2 Free halogens, dil, basic sol’n (Cl2) hypohalite ions (ClO1-) Free halogens, conc. basic sol’n halite ions (ClO21-) Oxidizing agents cause something else to be oxidized. They are reduced. Reducing agents cause something else to be reduced. They are oxidized Oilrig Oxidized loses electrons Reduced gains electrons [conc] pH 1x10-1 1x10-2 1x10-3 1x10-4 1x10-5 1x10-6 1x10-7 1x10-8 1x10-9 1x10-10 1x10-11 1x10-12 1x10-13 1x10-14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13. Organic Chemistry: These names go with the following numbers of carbons: (1) methane (CH 4), (2) ethane (CH3CH3 or C2H6), (3) propane, (4) butane (5) pentane (6) hexane (7) heptane (8) octane 14. Naming Alcohols: Alcohols end in –OH. The number of carbons determines the name: CH3OH – methyl alcohol or methanol, CH3CH2OH- ethyl alcohol or ethanol. “nol” at the end of the name means it is an alcohol, and benzene is C 6H6 15. Functional Groups: This tells you what kind of a compound it is: (a) alcohol ends in –OH (b) Ether C-O-C (c) Ketone C-C (Oxygen double bonded to this C) – C (d) Aldehyde C(O double bonded) – H bonded to other side of C (e) Amine- C – NHx (f) Acid - Ends in COOH (g) all single bond hydrocarbons are called alkanes (h) double bonds are called alkenes (i) triple bonds are called alkynes Nuclear Chemistry 16. (a) Alpha Particle - a helium nucleus consisting of 2p and 2n, 4/2 He. It has a 2+ charge (b) Beta Particle- is an electron 0/-1 e and has a negative charge (c) gamma ray- is emitted from the nucleus and has no mass 0/0 and no charge. 17. Kinetics: If ln[A] vs t is a straight line then it is a first order rxn. If 1/[A] vs t is a straight line, it is second order. If [A] vs t is a straight line then it is a zero order rxn. The rate at any time can be determined by drawing a line tangent to the point and taking the slope of the line. 1st order integrated rate equation: ln[At]= -akt + ln[Ao] 2nd order integrated rate equation: 1 / [At] = akt + 1 / [Ao] 0 order integrated rate equation: [At] = [Ao] - akt 18. Arrhenius Theory: Acid ~ substance that contains hydrogen and produces H + in aqueous solutions. Base ~ substance that contains OH and produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions. Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Acid ~ a species that acts as a proton donor. Base ~ a species that acts as a proton acceptor Lewis Theory: Acid ~ a substance that accepts a share in an electron pair to form a coordinate covalent bond. Base ~ a substance that makes available a share in an electron pair to form a coordinate covalent bond. 19. Equilibrium: K = 1 rxn is at equil. K > 1 rxn is spontaneous, product favored. K < 1 rxn is nonspontaneous, reactant favored. If Q = K rxn is at equil. If Q > K, rxn proceeds to reactants side. If Q < K, rxn proceeds to product side.