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Super Quiz Digest 2007-2008 Intro July of 1861, was the beginning of the tension. Eleven states had officially declared their independence from the United States of America. South Carolina responded to the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency by calling for widespread secession. In April the first shots were fired when secessionists bombarded the Union fortress of Fort Sumpter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Neither side was ready to fight when they met at Bull Run Creek near manassas, Virginia. Nearly 61,000 men clashed that day. 5000 people were killed, injured, or captured. The next year, the small Pennsylvania town of Gettysburg was the location of the largest battle ever fought on North American Soil. A total of 620,000 Americans died as a consequence of the Civil War. The federal government itself changed, as three critical amendments to the U.S. Constitution resulted from it. The assassination of Abraham Lincoln dealt great harm to the prospects of a peaceful reconciliation. The war was left unresolved thus, making the African Americans unequal. The Road to War Slave labor in the old world was an economic institution. The South profited from slavery, but proved willing to jettison the institution. By 1827, nearly all African Americans were free. William Lloyd Garrison declared slavery a national sin that demanded immediate expiration. The critical issue was the expansion of the nation. The westward growth that fueled the national expansion created political tensions between the North and the South. The disagreements started after the United States’ victory in the Mexican-American War of 184648. Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas started the issue of Kansas and Nebraska should be a slave state or not. Antislavery Northerners ralied against the “Kansas-Nebraska Act as a revocation of the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The situation of “Bleeding Kansas” became a national crisis. Violence spread even to the halls of Congress. Preston Brooks attacked Charles Sumner. Dredd Scott was also a victim. Roger Taney ruled against Scott. Robert E. Lee caught the abolitionist John Brown which attacked Harper’s Ferry. John Brown predicted that this situation will only be resolved by blood. The Presidential Election of 1860 The Democratic party split into a Northern faction that nominated Stephen Douglas and a Southern faction led by Kentucky Senator John C. Breckinridge. The Republican Party, recoiling from its 1856 defeat, nominated Abraham Lincoln. The Whigs nominated John Bell. Several states of the Deep South held conventions to debate the possibility of seceding from the Union. South Carolina declared its independence in December of 1860, and in early 1861 Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Lincoln addressed this in his inaugural address. He declared, “We are not enemies, but friends”. The Crisis at Fort Sumpter Federal property was in the process of being transferred into the hands of the seceded states. Two prominent forts – Fort Pickens in Pensacola, Florida, and Fort Sumpter in Charleston, South Carolina. Lincoln shipped weapons to Fort Sumpter in case something happens. On April 12, 1861, Charlestonians began an artillery bombardment on the fort, thus making the beginning of hostilities. Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee seceded, joining the ranks of the Confederate States of America. The Conflict takes Shape Neither the Union nor the Confederacy was prepared for war. The Union lost Virginia’s Robert E. Lee, who declined Lincoln’s offer to lead the Union armies. Super Quiz Resource Guide pg: 9-14 The Union had to drag the Confederacy back by force on their own land. The US had 2.5 times as many free people, ten times as many industrial workers and twice as many railroads, 11 times as many manufacturing establishments, over 10 times as much banking capital, almost 10 times as great a value in annual production. Summer of 1861, the Union invaded Virginia and caused part of it to secede into West Virginia, which was admitted into the Union on June 20, 1863. Union and Confederate forces were careful around Kentucky, a neutral state, but Confed General Leonidas Polk invaded the state as a counter to Illinois, Kentucky raised a Union flag in response. Missouri also started neutral, but the Union seized its militia and took it over. Summer of 1861 Union had 21 states, 4 were slave, and Confed had 11 states. Though no southern state voted for him, Lincoln won, which prompted South Carolina to secede on December 20th, 1860. Lincoln wrote Alexander Stephens in 1860, that slavery was their only difference. Before the South seceded the North was in no position to abolish slavery. It lacked the numbers to successfully ratify an amendment against it. The southern states did not trust Lincoln, partly due to his debates with Douglas. The Compromises of 1820 and 1850 by Clay were only temporary solutions. Some suggest that the North fought the South for economic reasons, such as the large amount of Southern exports and access of the Mississippi River. At first northerners were not anti slavery but writings from William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglas, and Harriet Beecher Stowe changed things. Many argue that the cause of the war was state’s rights, due in part to South Carolina seceding in reaction to a tariff and Jefferson Davis’ claims. Hugh Brogan argues that the state’s rights defense was mainly to protect slavery. Though the South supported states rights, The Dred Scott Decision which limited states rights by claiming slavery could not be stopped anywhere was supported by the South. The South worried they would become a minority group and affirmed their own fears by leaving. The north began developing conspiracy theories about the South due to the “Gag Rule” enforced by Congress, the fact that the South tried to aquire Nicaragua and Cuba and President Buchanan’s southern sympathies. Southerner’s had their own conspiracy theory of a “Black Republican” plot to destroy slavery, due in part to Harper’s Ferry, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and the Nat Turner Revolt. Michael Holt argued that the cause of the civil war was the absolving of the whig-democrat party system. Harper’s Ferry was claimed to be “the meteor of war” by Hermen Melville. Harper’s Ferry resulted in the reorganization of the southern militia. Stephen Douglas’ support of the Kansas-Nebraska act raised problems in the North and South, such as “Bleeding Kansas”, the demise of the Whig Party, and the Rise of the Republican Party. Some people believe John Brown to be a crazy fanatic, others the only sane person in the nation. The only thing they can agree on is his importance in the beginning of the war and emancipation. After his death, people looked down upon his actions, except for abolitionists. Mainly during the 1960s during the black nationalist vogue, he was praised by people like Malcom X and H. Rap Brown as only white man worthy of respect. Though Reynold’s say’s outright that Brown’s fighting in Kansas were acts of terrorism and war crimes, but doesn’t denounce the man and talks about his good qualities and claims him to be right in his ideals. I. The Legacy of John Brown The man John Brown was an anti-slavery “terrorist” He was violent to both his family and to his enemies None of his endeavors achieved its ultimate goal In fact, his attack on Harpers Ferry in October 1859 backfired His failure there indirectly led to the Civil War However, his glorification by the abolitionist movement did NOT contribute to the conflict Surprisingly, Brown only advanced the abolitionist cause through the failure of his plan But in every other way, Brown damaged the mainstream anti-slavery movement Brown thought that the mainstream anti-slavery movement was a fraud hostile to liberty Two interpretations of Brown’s importance Two camps have opposing opinions on Brown’s legacy They only agree on Brown’s bizarre importance The first camp is hostile toward Brown Members of this group depict him as fanatical and insane They also portray him as the crazy abolitionist who caused an “unnecessary” war The second camp is amicable toward Brown Adherents to this view cite Brown’s hatred of slavery as proof of his sanity Brown was the only white abolitionist leader willing to risk his life by fighting alongside African-Americans In doing so, he essentially initiated the Civil War Brown differentiated himself from moderates such as Lincoln Whereas Lincoln’s only interest at the outbreak of the war was to maintain the Union (according to scholars in this group), Brown fought for both emancipation and racial equality W.E.B. Du Bois celebrated Brown as “the man who of all Americans has perhaps come nearest to touching the real souls of black folk” and concluded by saying that “John Brown was right” David S. Reynolds wrote a “cultural biography” of Brown, much of which followed the evolution of this line of thought Who first idealized Brown? Until recently, the idealization of Brown was largely limited to African-Americans Directly after Harpers Ferry, white abolitionists fiercely championed John Brown, but this view did not last for long In the period following Reconstruction and the establishment of Jim Crow,16 many black leaders and writers glorified Brown Although Frederick Douglass had declined Brown’s offer to join him in the assault on Harpers Ferry, the former said in 1881 that Brown was “our noblest American hero” Oswald Garrison Villard’s biography of Brown published in 1910 censured Brown’s violence and political aspirations Villard was William Lloyd Garrison’s grandson, a staunch liberal, and a co-founder (along with DuBois) of the NAACP Eugene V. Debs and Mother Jones were exceptions to this viewpoint Brown’s revival During the optimistic early days of the civil rights movement, Brown’s memory was, for the most part, set aside However, the angrier movements of the 1960s revived Brown’s legacy Leaders like Malcolm X and H. Rap Brown hailed him as the only white American worthy of respect Stephen Oates wrote a biography of Brown called To Purge This Land With Blood The terrorist Weather Underground movement invoked Brown in slogans such as “John Brown, Live Like Him/Dare to Struggle, Dare to Win!” Brown’s reputation has changed with the times, often peaking in times of political crisis when America seemed corrupt and racist During these times, Brown represents purity, valor, and sacrifice to many Brown and race Although Reynolds attempts to depict Brown as an exemplary personage, his judgments are evenly tempered He refers to Brown’s bloody assaults in Kansas during 1856 as acts of “terrorism” and as “war crimes” However, he weighs these negative qualities against what he believes to be Brown’s positive qualities He asserts that Brown was not insane and that he was the least racist of all the whiteabolitionists Brown was most comfortable immersing himself in “black culture” “Jim Crow” refers to the series of laws that limited the rights of African-Americans after the Civil War. Enrichment fact: “NAACP” stands for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and is an African-American civil rights group. Enrichment fact: Eugene V. Debs was a radical labor union leader in the 19th and 20th centuries. Enrichment fact: Mother Jones was another labor union leader most prominent in the 19th century. Of course, as you will soon learn, Lincoln was not exactly a model of “color blindness.” – Patrick Brown’s prediction that only blood could wash away slavery proved correct, as did his criticisms of American political and moral corruption Clearly, Reynolds as well as Douglass believed that Brown was right Brown as an historical figure Reynolds argues that Brown was an important figure in American history This assertion caught the attention of reviewers of his book from ranging from Kirkus Reviews to The Atlantic Monthly According to the reviewers, Reynolds wrote a “timely” account of “America’s premier iconoclast” One critic stated that John Brown “made Lincoln possible” and created “the atmosphere of panic and paranoia…that produced secession” Another critic asserted that John Brown was “a serious legatee of the English and American revolutions who anticipated the Emancipation Proclamation and all that has ensued from it,” not a homicidal maniac Reynolds presents Brown as “the first mover” of the conflict His book’s long subtitle backs up this claim Reynolds’ case raises serious qualms about his claims Brown did not abolish slavery: Lincoln, the Union Army, and the writers of the 13th Amendment abolished slavery Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry did not cause South Carolina’s secession: Lincoln’s election to the presidency did that Brown did not create the civil rights movement any more than the thousands of other civil rightists did Although Reynolds uses abolitionists quotes to back up his admiration of Brown, they are metaphorical, not historical Clearly, Reynolds’ claims are not backed up effectively II. Brown’s Beginnings The beginning of the abolitionist movement23 Brown was not a typical abolitionist radical Abolitionism began among Northern blacks who rallied against slavery They met in various church societies and denounced the African Colonization movement The African Colonization movement wanted to move blacks back to Africa They also protested the racism prevalent in the free areas of the Union These Northern blacks eventually spurred the white abolitionists into action in the 1830s The white abolition movement was led by William Lloyd Garrison In 1833, Garrison helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society, which also helped lead the charge against slavery The white anti-slavery radicals were often called “immediatists” They agitated for the immediate purging of slavery Unlike Brown, they often utilized the Christian principles revived by the Second Great Awakening Plenty radicals refused to join John Brown’s operation, no matter how much they praised him in later years. David Reynolds’s book states Brown was a purveyor of curdled and destructive idealism John Brown lives on as an American terrorist to his victim and his own cause. Interpreters of the American experience argued something special about the American experience set Americans apart from mankind. The idea of southern Exceptionism flourished Southerners believe they “possessed a separate and unique identity” and does not belong to American Experience. The Enduring South; The Everlasting South; The Idea of the South: these books argue the south is still different The Southerner as American; Epitaph for Dixie; Southerners and Other Americans: these books insist that Southern differences are wrongly historical. When of how south joined mainstream: Civil rights revolution, 1950s Bulldozer revolution, 1950s Camber of congress Babbittry, 1920s New South crusade, 1880s. John William De Forest: We will do well to study this particular people (the southerners)… soon lose it peculiarities. George Tindall: Vanishing South… stayed the most prolonged disappearing acts since the fall of Rome. Some historians quarrel that the south’s separate entity never existed Other historian suggests: South was threatened by North which caused the secession No picture of the Old south can encompass the complexity of the antebellum reality. Grandy McWhiney: North and South in 1861 is one of the great myths of American History. Grandy McWhiney: We submit a single figure to show similarities between North and South…600,000 civil war graves. C. Vann Woodwand: South remains more American than anything else. Many antebellum Americans certainly thought that North and South had evolved separate societies South could no longer tolerate association the North Many opinions were not universal in the South Civil war was not all about slavery but free society Charles Colcock Jones Jr.: in this country have arisen two races [i.e. Northerners and Southerners] Free labor ideology became the dominant political force in the North by 1860 William H. Seward: Slavery undermined intelligence, vigor, and energy in both blacks and whites. Seward’s most famous speech: Struggle between free labor and slavery in North and South was an irresponsible conflict between two opposing forces. U.S. therefore became two nations Lincoln: America must and will… become either entirely a slave holding nation, or entirely a free labor nation In 1860 Lincoln’s party claimed majority of the votes in the North. South believed survival of their civilization would only come in a separation. Edward Pessen insisted that the North and South were more alike than we believed. Wealth distributed in unequal fashion in both sections Voting requirements the same David Potter insisted North and South were alike in: Same language Same religion Same law Same political system North and South spoke same language, but used it to revite each other North defied Fugitive Slave Law, which was supported by the South. Religious communities split because of difference in political opinion Potter concluded that the principle characteristic of the South was the persistence of “folk culture” North had a more urban region than the South Southern agriculture remained labor-intensive, while the North became capital- intensive. States east and west of the Appalachians were different as North and South, but made no trouble in separation West was urbanizing and industrializing more of the North than South As North and South grew apart, East and West came together West made most of the capital for the North Railroad Boom of 1850s tied the Northeast and Northwest and made the trade grow to the East west. When crisis of Union came, West joined East instead of the South. Southern’s lack resulted in their money to invest in crops and slaves instead of manufacturing 1780s Thomas Jefferson praised farmers and warned against industrial classes. South’s white population was more homogeneous than North’s Reinforced kinship marriages more strongly in the south than the North During middle decades two times as many whites left South for North and vise versa. Slavery was the most crucial geographic difference between North and South. 90% of U.S. blacks lived in the South North was commited to white supremacy as the South South was more likely to carry weapons than Northerners were. Enforcement of violence resulted from the need to control a large slave population. Popularity of military companies in the North. South only had 30% of white population. More than 3/5 of the volunteer soldiers in the Mexican War came from slave states Slave states still had half the North’s proportion of white children in public school. Illiterate white people were 3 times greater in the South than North. Southern whites viewed abolitionism as a threat to their existence. Super Quiz Resource Guide pg: 27-32 Wooward suggests in his essays “The Irony of Southern History” and “The Search for Southern Identity” in the 1950s, that the south experienced poverty, failure, defeat, and had doubt in progress from such problems, much like the rest of the world, and unlike the North. At first the North and South were very similar but varied more the longer the war raged, with northerners accepting change and southerners resisting it. As the North grew industrially the South stayed similar to most other countries. Secessionists protested in 1861 that they were seceding to preserve traditional rights and values, and to resist revolution. Civil war is marked as turning point for industrial revolution. The Early War (First Bull Run-Antietam) 1. First Bull Run: In summer of 1861 Lincoln sought a decisive battle to subdue a rebellion in the East by taking control of the Confederate capital in Richmond, Virginia. Gen McDowell’s (North) and Gen Beauregard’s (South) forces met at Bull Run Creek on July 21st. Observers sat almost within range of confederate cannons. Union forces pushed back the Confederates until 12,000 Confederate reinforcements arrived from Harper’s Ferry. Union’s retreated. 4,700 casualties and no real advantage for either side gave the Union realization that this would not be an easy war and the confederates a boost of confidence. The south was a massive chunk of land and the North decided the best way to defeat it was to blockade Southern seaports, attack Richmond, and divide the south across it’s waterways. This was called the Anaconda plan. In February 1862 Gen Grant in the west attacked Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, conquering both and effectively splitting the South in two. April 6, 1862 55000 confederates under Gen Johnston and Gen Beauregard launched an assault on unexpecting Union lines under Gen Grant at Shiloh. The next day 15000 troops led by Gen Buell joined Grant and together they forced Beauregard’s troops (Johnston had been wounded) to retreat. Gen McClellan prepared his troops for assault on Richmond, moving them to Fort Monroe on the Virginia coast by ferry. The Confederates used one of the first iron-clad gunboats, the Virginia, against the Unions iron-clad Monitor. Though McClellan’s forces eventually reached 121,500 troops, his conquest was stalled by the fact that he always overestimated his opponents, and made no decisive action. Confederate Gen Magruder kept McClellan busy with only 13,000 troops. At Williamsburg Union victory but no follow up. By late May McClellan reached the outskirts of Richmond with 105,000 men against the South’s 60,000 men but was stopped by Gen Johnston and was forced to retreat by Gen Lee during the Seven Days Battles to the James River where Lincoln recalled the army to Washington. Stonewall Jackson’s spring 1862 campaign in Shenandoa Valley, Virginia. Stonewall with 16,000 troops kept Generals Banks, McDowell, and Fremont, with 60,000 total troops, from joining with McClellan’s attack of Richmond. 2nd battle of Bull Run, Union Gen Pope fought Stonewall at Manassas till Longstreet provided Confederate reinforcements and South won. The war changed from a war to preserve the Union to a war to abolish slavery. Slaves were a valuable labor source in the South and weakened the South by running away and trying to resist slavery. Gen Butler, commander of Fortress Monroe took slaves for the Union war effort. Even before the Emancipation Proclamation slaves were being emancipated. Gen Fremont proclaimed all slaves in Missouri were free and Gen Hunter did the same for Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina. Congress passed Confiscation Acts that authorized seizure of all confederate property, including slaves, and declared all slaves behind union lines as free. Antiwar Northerners were enraged by such proclamations and acts. After the Fall of Fort Sumter, Lincoln suspeneded the Writ of Habeas Corpus to keep secessionists in Maryland from impeding Federal troops. The Arrest of John Merryman, a prominent secessionist from Baltimore, led to a legal opinion from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney known as Ex Parte Merryman. He ruled that Lincoln had overstepped his boundaries but Lincoln ignored it. He also issued the lead opinion in Dread Scott Decision. Lincoln had much resistance from Peace Democrats, Butternuts, and Copperheads, most of whom followed Clement Vallandigham, an Ohio Democrat who argued the Southern states were legally allowed to leave peacefully. R. M. Johnston’s Bull Run: Its Strategy and Tactics (1913) and William C. Davis’s Battle at Bull Run (1977) are both important books on the First Bull Run. The two books do not mention the social and political actions behind the war. 33-38 May 1861: Brigadier-General Irvin B. McDowell was appointed to command the newly formed Army of the Potomac. Hugh Brogan “Americans are not schooled to the long haul; they expect everything to happen quickly. In 1861 both war Democrats, whose views on slavery were cautious (believing that Congress had no right to interfere with property rights in the states), and the more radical Republicans (who demanded its abolition), were impatient to see an early and decisive victory. Conservatives wanted to see an immediate end to the rebellion as a sign of no change to property rights or race relations in Southern states. Before 1860 the south had a fastness of Democratic Party; it’s dominance of the presidency could not be restored until Southern electoral votes could be counted in its column. The Radical Republicans demanded an immediate over throw of secession as a prelude to the destruction of the Southern plantocracy. McDowell drew up a respectable plan to advance overland towards Richmond, outflanked the left of any Confederate forces he might meet, and advance on the city. McDowell was able but inexperienced, overworked, and lacked a group pf able staff officers to help him. General P.G.T. Beauregard-Confederate commander- and General Johnston were hardly the two modest men in the confederate army. Beauregard welcomed Johnston’s troops, but not Johnston. He was jealous and suspicious of Johnston as a rival. Beauregard had concentrated his forces in the centre and on the right along Bull Run and neglected his left, but he was persuaded to move his forces to the left. Even though by late afternoon, the battle had not gone badly for McDowell, his plan was too complex for his untrained and raw army. Because he lacked a good staff, McDowell lacked a good staff, he attended other people’s work, and coordination was lacking. Discipline broke down. The crisis of the battle was reached shortly after 3 p.m. The Confederate army had turned 90 degrees to face McDowell’s outflanking force. Colonel Oliver O. Howard’s brigade was severely mauled in an attack on Henry Hill and was driven back in confusion. It was symptomatic of the amateurish deployment on both sides that the success of McDowell’s assault rested on one brigade. Some parts of this turned into a rout which swept up a number of important political personages who had come out to watch the crushing of the impertinent rebels. Thus ended the campaign of Bull Run, in which so much hope was had been invested. The main feature of this campaign was the complete lack of preparation on both sides for sustained military operations. If McDowell had waited until he was properly prepared and trained before attacking the Confederates, the he would have lost 10,000 of his best men once their terms of enlistment had expired. In July 1861 Pres.Lincoln called for a further 400,000 volunteers, again for 3 years. These troops were undisciplined and poorly trained. At the Battle of Bull Run, on the Southern side, the secessionist fire-eater, Edmund Ruffin, was disgusted to find that there were as many soldiers retiring on the field of Bull Run, as there were advancing. Ruffian’s Comments contradicted a widely held view that the South was better equipped in every way to wage ware tan the North; indeed that the south had its own military tradition. The only evidence that secession had been carefully nursed was found in a novel published in 1836 by Nathaniel Beverley Tucker, The Partisan leader. 7-22-61 McClellan(MC) goes to wash. becomes general of Army of Potomac. he was 34 @ the time From then on, he always assumed the enemy had tons more troops than they had. he never engaged an enemy numbering less than “100k” When Winfield Scott disagreed with him, MC had him fired and took his place as head of the army=11-1-61 1816 August-MC thought the Confeds. could field 100k men. November he thought 150k. in 1862 during the peninsula campaign, they had 100k when he was near Yorktown then 200k when he got to Richmond. Basically he thought the Confeds. were a lot better than him, in # of troops, time it took to move then, morale, basically everything was worst case scenario MC was a conservative democrat, believed the war would end soon, and slavery would dissolve soon afterwards through a gradual process One myth about him is that he was a “naïve victim of political manipulation” which the article states he was not He was very straight forward w/ his enemies, he told Charles Sumner(an abolitionist) that he wasn’t fighting to end slavery or to help the Republican party Towards the army he was very affectionate. he called it, “his army” and he basically paraded army, showing himself off to his troops. They soon started calling him “Little Mac” (why, idk the article didn’t say, ask THE FRITH, he knows everything) By the summer of 63’ he had been driven from the gates of Richmond in the 7 days battle. He claimed Lee had superior numbers and that if it were not for his brilliant “flanking maneuver” aka retreat, the casualties would have been too much for the North to bear. During the battles he had lost all nerve to fight, often retreating and never being present himself. he always had lower officers direct it for him. After the Second battle of bull run, the army and people had lost confidence in MC. Unfortunately Lincoln let MC remain general. Soon afterwards in his Maryland campaign, he lead his army with disastrous results. He failed to push and take several opportunities to destroy Lee’s much lesser force and during Antietam, he barely managed to survive. General Grant, in an essay later, explained away MC’s greater faults by rationalizations, but the author of this articles disagrees and says that MC was a poor commander who failed to commit his troops and without him, the war could have ended much sooner. He claimed that he gave the North, “An Army sized inferiority complex.” The two generals that followed him, Burnsides and Hooker, had equally disastrous results in battle because they were chosen for their popularity, not their battle experience or skill. After MC was sacked, he decided to run for president but failed because around election time, the North won a few decisive victories (Something MC never did). In the election Lincoln had 55% of the vote and 78% of the soldier vote, which was expected to go to MC EXCEPTS FROM “MY GOD, ARE WE FREE?” the author states that contary popular belief, lincoln’s emancipation did not free the slaves, instead the slaves freed themselves by refusing to work during much of the war. BUT slaves were willing to work for themselves, many ran away and started work (for pay) in major cities, even in the South. Few whites complained because there was a huge labor shortage due to the war. Despite their efforts, blacks were not elevated in society. This was because the whites viewed them as inferior in order to raise their our superiority, so admitting that blacks were equal would not only elevate blacks, but also lower whites. In order to stop the widespread “revolt” of their slaves, whites increased punishment for running away and for not obeying orders. At the beginning of the war when Lincoln said that he would not free slaves, many blacks tried to prove themselves by attempting to join the Confederate army. Of course none succeed except a small group of militia in New Orleans, because whites thought the idea stupid, and silly. Digest pgs. 45-50 To Keep Them Down Slave holders sensed rise of violence among slaves and were scared for themselves. State assembly responded by making laws that slaves had to travel with a pass, and canceled exemptions from patrol duty. August, 62- C.E Howell of Jackson County, Mississippi, told his governor no more slaves could be spared. Slaves started to fight back, when punished rebelled even more. Slave overseers afraid of uprising. May 61- Alabama planter urged families to stay home and save families. Georgia’s Albany Patriot complained that blacks would come to together, exhibit their weapons, and devise their secret destructive plans, even if they were against the law. Early summer 61- rebellion hysteria swept across South’s plantation belt. Spread because of a slave, Israel, found away from his plantation without a pass. Israel made them believe that all slaves all over the country were about to break out. Two suspected insurrection leaders were arrested. Mid summer insurrection mania died down, but slaveholders’ fear of rebellion were still there. Gone To the Yankees Escaping slaves gave information on Confederate troop strength and more. 62- Robert Smalls and a few other black crew escaped on a boat to Union lines; he escaped so easily because he was a skilled sailor and knew all the signals. 61- At least 15 thousand slaves had escaped to Federals. 64- When Sherman’s army moved through Georgia, there were 17,000 trailing blacks behind. December 3, 64- with Confederates following them, the Union left 500 refugees for the Confederates who were following them to be shot down (not on purpose). Sexual assault of black woman was most under reported crime of Civil War. 5% of all Union courts-martial’s showed over 30 trials for rape. Raping an African American woman was barely a crime. Union also abused slaves for amusement. “We are Oppressed Everywhere in this Slavery-Cursed Land.” Harriet Tubman dumped in baggage car and held there for the whole bus ride when refused to get up from her seat. Some states put laws so that blacks couldn’t live there. July 62- Irishmen mob attacked blacks on Cincinnati docks for working there. When blacks called police- no response Blacks still lacked rights (voting). Even if blacks graduated top in class, still turned down jobs because of their color. “Shedding the First Blood” Blacks were glad to fight in war, volunteered. Some reasons were- citizenship, full rights, weapons, and going back south where family might still be. Nicholas Biddle- first black to shed blood for the Union, April 18, 61 (while marching). Lincoln didn’t think blacks could make good soldiers. Crittenden-Johnson resolution- assured nation that war was being fought to defend and maintain the supremacy of the Constitution and to preserve the Union. Northern Upper classes wanted war for easy access to Cotton States. Slaves that came to Union line sent back because Lincoln was fighting a white man’s war and did not want slaves to be part of war. “No Free State Wants Them.” May 61- General Benjamin Butler did not turn back slaves that came to Union line, called them contraband of war. Sent to help wit fortifications. This passed the First Confiscation Act. August 30- General John C. Fremont issued the wars first true emancipation proclamation, freeing all slaves held by pro-Confederates in Missouri. Lincoln canceled this and fired Fremont. April 62- General David Hunter freed all blacks in his area and created first black regiment. Lincoln canceled this and fired him also. If slavery not abolished, North full of escaped fugitives. Fugitives dying by hundreds and thousands because of lack of food. General Dix asked for temporary asylum and employment for refugees. Governor Andrew clearly said “No free state wants them.” 62- Lincoln forced to pass Militia Act- black enlistment under white officers. Second Confiscation Act This act freed all slaves owned by pro- Confederate slaveholders. Lincoln afraid that forced emancipation might make Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland drop out of Union. Basically, Lincoln wanted to stop slavery but was afraid of what might happen Section 3: The War Intensifies (From Antietam to Gettysburg) Pages: 51-56 Campaign Fall 1861-Winter 1861 By the late summer of 1862, Union troops had been driven back from within five miles of the Confederate capital of Richmond. Robert E. Lee commanded the most successful of those armies. With an eye toward London and Paris, Lee marched his troops into Maryland. A slaveholding state that had remained in the Union, Maryland boasted a large population of Confederate sympathizers. Rebel troops under Generals E. Kirby Smith and Braxton Bragg set out from Knoxville, Tennessee, and Chattanooga, Tennessee, respectively. Entering Kentucky, these commanders, like Lee, believed that the residents of the state would rally to their cause. And like Lee, they were disappointed. Still, Smith and Bragg got as far as Frankfort, Kentucky, gobbling up union garrisons along the way and threatening Louisville and Southern Ohio. The overly cautious soldier, however, did not make contact until October. By then, back east, Lee’s forces had already slipped back into Virginia. So Lincoln reluctantly placed General George B. McClellan back in command of the exhausted and stunned Federal troops around Washington, D.C. Lee had daringly split his army, assigning one part, under General Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson to capture Harpers Ferry-a Federal armory and outpost with a garrison of 10,000 Union soldiers. On September 13, Union soldiers made a spectacular discovery. Going over an old Confederate campsite, they found a copy of Lee’s orders detailing the position of the Army of Northern Virginia’s scattered commands. This stroke of good luck, however was wasted on McClellan. While recognizing the importance of the orders, The Union Commander was lethargic in setting his men in pursuit. September 15, Lee pulled his commands together at the town of Sharpsburg. There, on the banks of Antietam Creek (east of town), the Confederates would make their stand. Despite overwhelming numbers, McClellan was unable to break the rebel line. Union forces counted 12,000 casualties and the Confederates 10,000. McClellan had poorly managed his troops, sending them in piecemeal fashion, while Lee had expertly shifted his units to meet new threats. Antietam, therefore, was a tactical stalemate, but McClellan could claim a strategic victory after the Confederate Withdrawal. Politics, Slavery, and Diplomacy In the Union government, abolitionists derived Lincoln for standing in the way of emancipation, while conservative politicians accused him of being too revolutionary in his actions. Antislavery campaigners recognized Lincoln’s predicament and proposed that emancipation be done under the guise of military necessity. The abolition of slavery, they argued, would weaken the Confederate war effort and serve to bring a swift resolution of the war. They also passed “two confiscation” acts in 1861 and 1862. The first one allowed Federal troops to seize property that was being used to militarily aid the Confederacy. The second went further, emancipating slaves who belonged to rebel Southerners. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to take place January 1, 1863 this declared free all enslaved blacks who were still in states rebelling against the Federal government. In this regard, the Emancipation Proclamation freed no blacks outright. Lincoln’s preliminary Emancipation Proclamation converted a war for Union into a war for freedom. The most critical international crisis came in November, 1861. A U.S. Naval vessel stopped the British ship Trent. Onboard, federal sailors discovered two Confederate commissioners-James Mason and John Slidell-on their way to Europe. The captain of the U.S. ship, Charles Wilkes, arrested the two men and took them back to the United States. Campaign Winter 1862-Spring 1863 With the midterm elections behind him, Lincoln removed the troublesome McClellan, a popular Democrat, from command. The job of leading the Army fell to Ambrose E. Burnside, known for his mutton-chop whiskers. By December 13, when Burnside’s troops had finally crossed the Rappahannock and were hurling themselves at the rebel works, the defensive lines were well protected. Unable to alter his plans, Burnside cost the Union army over 12,000 men, killed, wounded, or captured. Grant set out to take the city with a two-pronged advance in November 1862. He would lead an army overland toward Vicksburg while his friend, General William Tecumseh Sherman, led an attack form the river. Sherman attacked the Confederates at Chickasaw Bluffs on December 29. Repulsed, he returned to Tennessee. Burnside was replaced by Joseph Hooker. Hooker divided his Army of the Potomac, leaving one part to menace Fredericksburg while the other one swung wide around Lee’s flank. Lee sent part of his army to face Hooker, lead by Stonewall Jackson. On Hooker’s route to Fredericksburg, the Army of Potomac had to pass through the Wilderness. At Chancellorville, sending a powerful force to hit Hooker on the exposed Union right flank, the Confederates sent Yankee troops running. As the attack bogged down and night fell, Jackson was accidentally shot by friendly fire. Hooker lost his appetite for battle and withdrew on May 6. The Federals sustained 17,000 deaths while Confederates only 13,000. Among those was Stonewall Jackson. The Maryland Campaign in Perspective Maryland remained firmly in the Union; Republicans breathed a bit more easily about coming Northern elections. The Confederate army had cleared Federals form northern Virginia, captured Harpers Ferry and its garrison, provisioned itself from western Maryland, and maintained a position near the south bank of the Potomac after its withdrawal. The Lost Cause, published in 1866, Edward A. Pollard suggested that the campaign had “few parallels in history for active operations and brilliant results.” South Carolinian Alexander Cheves Haskell praised the fighting qualities of the Confederates at Antietam, but stressed that huge numbers of their comrades had abandoned the army. George G. Meade, who as commander of the Army of the Potomac would repel a second Confederate raid nine months hence, pronounced Lee’s Maryland adventure “the most lamentable failure.” Digest Pg. 57-62 Robert Goldthwaite Carter considered Antietam a partial victory. Antietam made a good start on the business of finishing Lee, but McClellan’s inactivity on September 18 allowed the Confederate to retreat. Lincoln prodded and implored McClellan to move, until finally, Lincoln Removed Little Mac from command. Lee’s movement north represented 3 goals: an effort to take the war out of Virginia, gather food and fodder Threaten Washington from the west. Prevent another Union incursion south of the Potomac before the onset of winter. Ambrose Burnside unusual winter campaign ended ignominiously for the Union at Fredericksburg in mid-December. The captures at Harpers Ferry constituted a bonus that Lee did not envision at the outset. After the fighting on South Mountain, Harpers Ferry had fallen. Lee erred badly in choosing to give battle at Sharpsburg—it was, thought his “greatest military blunder.” Lee, Jackson, and Longstreet all had high heroics in the south. If Lee’s gravest error was in striving to do too much with a limited force, McClellan’s was in asking too little of a powerful one. McClellan lacked the fortitude to let his loyal soldiers seek complete victory. McClellan’s love for his men, caused him to doubt their abilities to defeat Lee’s veterans. The army of the Potomac possessed the requisite elements to deliver a fatal blow. Destruction of Lee’s army would have crippled the southern morale and may have ended the war. Whitelaw Reid, Republican correspondent who’s quoted “We indeed took no steps backward at Antietam Creek, but we took very few forward.” For Northerners, Antietam signaled a special turning point in the war. Photographers reached the battlefield before the dead had been buried—a first in American History. October 1862, Mathew Brady’s New York gallery placed on exhibit a series of views entitled “The Dead at Antietam.” Those who saw the pictures now their understanding included images of the twisted bodies of North Carolinians and Louisianans, of dead horses and broken equipment, and a blasted landscape. Lee’s raid into Maryland was a profound failure. September 22, 1862, when Lincoln told his cabinet that he would issue a preliminary proclamation of emancipation. Should the states in rebellion refuse to return to the Union by January 1, 1863, said president, their chattels “shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free.” The south reacted with violent scorn, pointing out that Lincoln was freeing slaves only where he lacked the power to do so. United States open the way for nearly two hundred thousand black men to fight in Federal armies. With the proclamation the struggle became a total war for Union and freedom. Neither Lee’s withdrawal from Maryland nor did the proclamation guarantee that Europe would stay out of the war, but the two persuaded them to wait until military developments favored the Confederates. Emancipation Proclamation made possible by Lee’s retreat—did provoke angry reaction that helped the Democrats. The Republicans managed to gain five seats in the Senate and retain control of the House. Maryland campaign, its centerpiece was surging maelstrom of Antietam, which was the bloodiest battle. The war after Antietam would demand a decisive resolution on the battlefield, and that the Confederacy could not achieve. My Whole Soul Is in It Lincoln had asked the legislature to pass a joint resolution providing federal aid to any state willing to adopt a plan for the gradual abolition of slavery. Second Confiscation Act emancipated all slaves of persons engaged in rebellion, regardless of involvement in military affairs. The bill provided no workable means of enforcement and no procedure to determine whether the owner of a slave crossing Union lines was actually engaged in insurrection, but it passed. If the rebels lost their slaves, the slaves would then be free to join the Union forces. The North could be considered a military necessity, a legitimate exercise of the president’s constitutional powers. Thus the constitutional protection of slavery could and would be overridden by the constitutionally sanctioned war powers of the president. January 1, 1863 date on which all slaves within states still in rebellion against the Union would be declared free, although didn’t include border states. 3.5 million black people who had lived enslaved for generations were promised freedom. Caleb Smith and Blair both members of Lincoln’s cabinet were not in favor of the proclamation others accepted it. Super Quiz Resource Guide Digest Chase: o Had greatly promoted abolitionism, but recoiled o Later thought abolitionism a great danger-would lead to universal emancipation. o Recommended: -Allowing Generals organize & arm slaves (Army better control of emancipation) -Directing Commanders of Departments to proclaim emancipation with Districts o Considered proclamation better than nothing at all (Support) o o Saw hopes for presidency vanish in 1856 & 1860 Strongest claim to beat Lincoln (1864 Nominations)-frustrated Radical Republicans by Lincoln’s slowness on slavery issue Seward: o Worried proclamation might provoke racial war in South, disturb cotton, and England & France intervene for own economic interests o Sensitive to threat of European intervention o Failed to grasp: Union committed to emancipation, Europe would not support South o Little faith in efficacy of proclamations on paper without Union army enforcement o Preference: Confiscate rebel property as fast as territory was captured o Underestimated Proclamation’s power to unleash North’s moral fervor & keep Republican Party united o Had no thought of actually opposing the proclamation o Loyal to Lincoln, only demurred on timing Emancipation Proclamation: o Antietam Union victory- Lincoln reveals decision to issue Emancipation Proclamation o Were repeated warnings that proclamation would have bad consequences for Union o Final proclamation’s new provision: First time authorization of recruitment of blacks into armed forces o Proclamation stated all persons held as slaves within states and parts of states in rebellion shall be free o First hour of reception for proclamation reserved for Washington officials, then opened to general public o Receptions held at homes of cabinet members- Chase, Stanton (most elaborate) o Lincoln felt certain he was doing right in signing proclamation-millions rejoiced o Nationwide abolition would wait until ratification of 13th Amendment (December 1865) o Emancipation Proclamation placed slavery “under its (government) ban” Lost Opportunity of Gettysburg: o Spring 1863: War had grown in intensity & brutality o Lincoln believed if Army of the Potomac could deliver death blow to Confederate Army, end of Civil War in sight o Lincoln angry with McClellan’s (Union Commander) recalcitrance o Edward Bates (conservative attorney general of President) urged Lincoln to assert himself forcefully as commander in chief o McClellan & Lincoln had opposite views of military function within republic -McClellan believed military should be left to generals to command -Lincoln believed military fell under authority of President & Congress o Lincoln injected himself more fully into military affairs than predecessors o Lincoln had a broad & nationalist construction of Constitution (Charter of Liberties) o Realized Constitution could enshrine individual rights & sanction great executive powers o September 1862-Lincoln issues preliminary draft of Emancipation Proclamation & rids Army of Potomac of McClellan o War transformed from limited war to total war & from war for Union into freedom war o McClellan replaced with Burnside o Lincoln sought generals who would communicate with him along a two-way street o Burnside threw lives of soldiers away at Fredericksburg o Hooker lost in contest of wills with Lee around Chancellorsville o Lincoln offered Couch & Reynolds positions as Generals of Potomac Army–both denied o Hooker proposed attacking rear of Lee’s army near Fredericksburg o Hooker wished to take Confederate capital (Richmond) & capture Lee o Lincoln wished for Hooker to take Lee’s Army (Lincoln losing faith in Hooker) o o o o o o Hooker asked to be relieved of command when permission was denied to subsume Federal garrison at Harpers Ferry Meade ordered to replace Hooker (June 28) Meade wins victory at Gettysburg Lincoln disappointed when realizes Meade’s goal is only to “drive invader from our soil.” Vicksburg surrenders to Grant Lincoln sent order to destroy Lee’s army-if this could be done, rebellion would be over PLACEHOLDER 69-74 Causes of Confederate defeat – controversy Debate began in 1866 when Edward Pollard wrote The Lost Cause Pollard blamed Jefferson Davis 1960- Why the North Won the Civil War 1986- Why the South Lost the Civil War (coauthored by 4 historians) Frank Owsley- State Rights in the Confederacy Paul Escott- After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Southern Nationalism Grady McWhiney & Perry D. Jamieson- Attack and Die: Civil War Military Tactics and the Southern Heritage No definitive answer possible Internal interpretations- focus on Confederacy External interpretations – focus on both Union and Confederacy Most historians view Gettysburg as fault of Confederate generals George Pickett views North as cause Confederate reason- North more numbers- weapons & people Union reason- God with strongest battalions South questioned Northern numbers as test to their intelligence Past societies have overcome greater odds than one in Civil War Confederate- strategically defensive war South wanted war to be long so Union would just give up For north to win, they had to conquer vast stretches of Southern territory, cripple Southern resources, and destroy fighting power Another theory of South’s lose is internal conflict Flaws to internal conflict: negative efforts on Confederate war effort exaggerated and individual states helped in war effort If north lost- theory of internal conflict applies ( divisions on conscription, taxes, suspension of habeas corpus, martial law) Nonslaveholding whites (2/3 South population) & slaves – left from war effort Desertion of the army seriously weakened Southern war effort (most at end due to sense of lose) 2/5 of southern pop. Black and slave (blacks provided most labor force) ¾ white military age of south joined (north – ½) American revolution compares to Civil war (Americans won, south not) Guerrilla warfare behind Union lines in pro-South regions larger than vice-versa Union draft riots worse than confederate bread riots “lack of will” thesis ( South no strong sense of nationalism) Southern flag similar to northern, south great seal – George Washington, money/ postage stamps – Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, & others) Confederate nationalism - American nationalism purified of malign Yankee domination South more at stake – property, country, freedom Some southerners felt guilty of slavery, but others thought it positive good Religious doubts another source of defeat Most lost will due to armies destroyed/captured, railroads wrecked, factories/cities burned, ports seized, countryside occupied, & crops wasted Loss of will to carry on, not initial lack of will Authors of Why the South lost said Confederacy succumbed to internal rather than external causes Many people argue North had superior leadership Super Quiz Guide Pg. 81-86 The Confederacy benefited from better generalship in the first half of the war. In 1864, Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan had emerged to top commands. They felt the concept of “total war” was nesscary to win the war. Lee, Jackson, and Forrest were also talented in limited theaters. The Confederacy mostly focused on the Virginia theater. The North was superior in management of military supply and logistics. In 1862, the North formed a group of officials, including Meigs and Fox, to organize the Northern economy. The Confederacy was inferior to the Union in terms of organization and administration. The Confereacy had a very unorganized economy. Lincoln was a better commander in chieff than Davis. Many historians agreed upon this including Southerners. They thought Lincoln to be a great asset and a major factor in victory. Lincoln was much more successful than Davis in communication, politics, and teamwork. He was flexible and humorous compared to Davis’ rigidness and seriousness. Although the North had superior leadership and the South didn’t, there were times where it was vice versa. The North suffered bad leaders like McClellan, Pope, Burnside, and Hooker. The North was more business-oriented than the South. The Confederacy could only boast a few brilliant successes in this area of leadership. The Southern officials were able to do so much with so little. Their efforts kept them in the war for a long time. Lincoln made mistakes as a war leader. He went through a half-dozen failures with the eastern theater before finding the right general. Jefferson Davis might have gone down in history as the greatest leader of a war of independnce. He was the architect of a new nation and refered to as the George Washington of the Southern Confederacy. Sherman’s capture of Atlanta and Sheridan’s victoires over Jubal Early in the Shenandoah Valley were main events of the war. In July, Horace Greeley had written to Lincoln pleading with him to open peace with the Confederation. The transformation of Northern will illustrates the point made earlier that the will of both the Northern and Southern people was primarily a result of military victory rather than a cause of it. There was nothing inevitable about Northern victory in the Civil War. It is the element of contingency that is missing from the generalization about the cause of Confederate defeat, whether such generalizations focus on external or internal factors. A major turning point in the war came in the summer of 1863. Before then, during the months between Union defeats at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, a time that also witnessed Union failures in the western theater, Northern morale dropped to its lowest point in the war—except perhaps during August 1864. Predictions in July 1863 of the Confederacy’s imminent collapse turned out to be premature. More twists and turns marked the road to end of the war. To understand why the South lost in the end, we must turn from large generalizations that imply inevitability and study instead the contingency that hung over each military compaign, each battle, each election, each decision during the war. Lincoln cherished the Union and was a strong supporter of democracy. The Civil War had been long and hard which lowered the status of principles and elevated the central principles in dispute. The pressure of the Civil War altered American values, elevating majority rule and equality at the expense of individual liberty and the rule of law. The country underwent a profound cultural and legal shift with consequences for contemporary America. Lincoln staunchly defended law, liberty and the Constitution, but he moved into questionable territory with all three when he suspended individual liberties, shutting down anti-war and antiadministration newspapers and jailing dissidents. Most important, he suspended habeas corpus, clothing himself with more power than any other individual in America before or since. Habeas corpus makes the force at the disposal of the chief executive subject to regulation by the courts. If Lincoln did not constitutionally have the power to suspend habeas corpus, then by doing so, he fundamentally altered the freedom of American citizens. The issue was addressed head on May 26, 1861, in Baltimore, with the case of the treasonous John Merryman, a lieutenant in a group pledged to armed resistance against the government. Merryman petitioned the court for habeas corpus after being seized in his bed at two in the morning and confined in Fort McHenry. Roger Taney ordered the general to produce Merryman so that the court could judge whether he had been legally imprisoned. The general refused. In the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, together called the “Civil War Amendments,” made Lincoln’s cultural change into to law. The amendments abolished slavery and made black Americans citizens. Lincoln was an icon who empowered whatever political faction that can wield his support. Lincoln was the first president elected as a Republican. Lincoln did not speak directly to modern issues because the citizens of America made suspicions about his motivations to command his support on contemporary political issues. Lincoln elevated equality bacause the events of the war compelled him to do so. As the issuse of slavery came to be prominent in the years leading to the Civil War, Southern thinkers attacked the Declaration of Independence for its proposition of equality. War’s tendency to make the principles in dispute central to the warring parties explains Lincoln’s other fundamental change, the elevation of majority rule at the expense of liberty and law. The South fought against majority rule by refusing to abide by the national majority’s will. As with equality, people elevated majority rule when they justifed the war. Neither the north or south were completely unified 4 million slaves identified with Union cause Erosion of the will to fight greatly contributed to the CSA defeat Civil War greatly altered the landscape of Southern life forever Most of the white southerners lived in the upcountry, not on plantations Most owned few or no slaves at all A distinctive subculture formed in the mountainous regions of the south Disloyalty set in Virginia’s western region seceded from the state and joined the Union In East Tennessee, pro-Confederates were the minority Andrew Johnson was the only senator from a seceding state to remain at his post in Washington DC Tennessee voters elected 3 unionists to represent them in Congress William B. Carter proposed a plan to cut off East Tennessee from the Confederacy Carter’s plan failed. Many of the Tennesseans in the region left and joined the Union army Yeomen refused to help the Confederacy fight the war because they believed the rich plantation owners were not doing their part to help the cause Winston county in northern Alabama voted to secede from the Confederacy Georgia’s Rabun County was also against secession from the Union Secret Union organizations flourished in the Ozark mountains of northern Arkansas The disintegration of slavery in the early part of the war hurt the confederate cause Slaves took advantage of the shortage of young white men and stopped working on large scales When the Union began cutting into the south, slaves flocked by the thousands to the federal lines Even in the deep south, conflict undermined the south’s peculiar institution Reports of insubordinate behavior multiplied throughout the south Alexander Stephens, VP of the Confederacy, affirmed that slavery was the cornerstone of the CSA Planters began to resist the call for cotton and food from the front lines, increasing tension between them and the yeomen Due to the shortages, the subsistence farmers in the mountains were in poverty Many planters also engaged in trade with the Yankees to avoid losing money The impressment, or confiscation, of oxen and horses hurt the poor farmers even more for they no longer had the means to plow their fields or transport their goods The problem was further exasperated by the rampant inflation in the South Poverty overtook thousands of upcountry families, especially those with men in the army Food riots broke out in Virginia and North Carolina Many yeomen became convinced that the war was “a rich man’s war and a poor man’s fight” Confederacy enacted the first conscription laws in American history dissatisfaction turned to outright resistance of Confederate authority in large areas of the southern upcountry beginning in 1863, desertion became a huge problem for the Confederate army more than 100,000 men deserted by the end of the war most of the deserters were poor non-slaveholders who’s work was indispensable to the survival of their families John A. Campell, the South’s assistant secretary of war, wrote “the condition of things in the mountain districts menace the existence of the Confederacy as fatally as…the armies of the United States” Disaffection became endemic in Jones County, Mississippi Newton Knight, a pro-union subsistence famrer, organized a group of farmers to “fight for their rights” This irregular force managed to win a battle against a Confederate cavalry unit In western and central North Carolina, the Heroes of America, numbering in the tens of thousands, was formed They established an “underground railroad” to enable unionists to escape to federal lines Fighting erupted between pro-unionists and pro-confederates in the south. Crops were laid to waste, homes destroyed President Davis declared martial law and suspended habeas corpus Unionists saw their land seized and were taken prisoner on trumped up charges Supporters of the Union in the south were left with deep scars A pro-slaver before the war, William G. Brownlow was a southern preacher and newspaper editor. After secession, he turned his pen against the confederacy and was sent north and his paper shut down He returns to Knoxville, Tennessee, two years later after Gen. Burnside occupied the city, a firm believer in emancipation and against pro-confederate southerners The Election of 1864 The President faced a split party. Many supporters were angered by the number of casualties and lack of progress on the battlefield. That summer, Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune declared, “Mr. Lincoln is already beaten. He cannot be elected. And we must have another ticket to save us from utter overthrow.” Before the Republicans came up with a presidential nominee for the 1864 election, Lincoln had already been back on the ballot. For his running mate, Lincoln chose war Democrat Andrew Johnson of Tennessee. Lincoln also picked a Southerner as a sign of war reconciliation with war-weary Confederates. The Republicans who were part of the National Union party in the election also supported Lincoln’s war measures and demanded total surrender from the Confederacy. The Democratic chose George B. McClellan – an outspoken critic of the Emancipation Proclamation. McClellan had been adored by his Army of Potomac. Democrats opposed the violation of state rights and civilian civil rights violations and demanded the end of the war. The vicious accusations flew that Republicans wanted interracial sexual relations and the “Copperhead” Democrats were traitors who would support the Confederates. On November 8, Lincoln received 55% of the popular vote and 212 electoral votes compared to McClellan’s 21 votes. Critical Campaigns Military success and defeats translated into political capital and eventually electoral victory To oppose the Confederate Robert E. Lee, Lincoln promoted the Union’s most successful commander, Ulysses Grant to the position of general-in-chief. Lincoln was hoping for more of Grant’s western victories in Virginia. In May, Grant crossed the Rapidan River to threaten Richmond and catch Lee in a pitched battle. Lee prevented Grant from gaining such advantages so he launched a pre-emptive attack before Grant could reach Richmond. By May 7, Grant had 17,000 casualties and Lee had 11,000; but rather than accepting defeat – Grant and the Potomac Army continued south, which they have never done after a defeat. When the Union troops heard that they were going to march, they cheered, which frustrated Grant’s plan of secrecy. May 12, at Spotsylvania Court House, the Union troops hurled themselves at the “mule shoe” in the middle of a rainstorm. Freedman’s Bureau: Digest Some half-hearted steps were taken by the government to put the freedmen and abandoned estates under the supervision of the Treasury officials (i.e. laws of 1863 and 1864) The government was inefficient— even though it leased land and employed many Negroes, it left a lot of control in hands of army March 1864- House passed a bill establishing a Bureau for Freedmen in the War Department 1865- “Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands” created. The U.S. government was assuming charge of emancipated blacks as ward of nation. On May 12, 1865, Major General Oliver O. Howard was appointed as commissioner of the new Bureau. He saw a lot of corruption. Bureau faced two major difficulties: 1. The idea that establishing former slaves on the land of their masters was not realistic because there was not enough land to go around 2. It was hard to find officials that would dutifully work on the necessary social reforms After a year’s work, the above-mentioned problems were still unresolved, but there were also some successes: 1. The Bureau relieved physical suffering 2. Transported 7,000 fugitives from congested centers back to the farm 3. Inaugurated the crusade of the New England schoolma’am Act of 1866 extended existence of Bureau to July 1868 Bureau, essentially, became a full-fledged government: made laws, executed them, laid and collected taxes, maintained and used military force, etc. Greater distance grew between black and white South In 1868, 900 Bureau officials from Washington to Texas ruled on these main issues: 1. Relief of physical suffering 2. Overseeing of the beginnings of free labor 3. The buying and selling of land 4. The establishment of schools 5. The paying of bounties 6. The administration of justice 7. The financing of all these activities There was the difficult question of labor: 30,000 black men were transported from the refuges and relief stations back to the farms Bureau’s vision of land-owning often led to disappointments Greatest success of Freedmen’s Bureau lay in the planting of free schools among Negroes Opposition to Negro education was bitter in the South: “An educated Negro is a dangerous Negro…” $750,000 of the $6,000,000 expended in five years for educational work came from the freedmen themselves Along with education, buying land, and various other enterprises, the ex-slave was handling free capital Chief source of money came from Negro soldiers in the army who received pay Even though Congress put the whole matter of paying Negro soldiers into the hands of the Freemen’s Bureau, fraud was still very common Least successful part of Bureau’s work: The Judicial functions Bureau courts became centers simply for punishing whites Regular civil courts became solely institutions for perpetuating slavery of blacks Almost every law passed by legislature seemed to attempt to reduce Negroes to serfdom (slaves of the state) Regular Bureau court consisted of one representative of the employer, one of the Negro, and one of the Bureau Bureau disbursed over $20,000,000 before it was finally closed Bureau began a system of free labor Founded the free public school in the South Established the black peasant proprietor Secured the recognition of black freedmen before law Failed to establish good will between ex-masters and freedmen The Freemen’s Bureau expired by limitation in 1869 Border states and the south made bitter attacks on the Freedmen’s Bureau Senator Davis of Kentucky moved to entitle Act of 1866 “to promote strife and conflict between the white and black races...by a grant of unconstitutional power.” Legacy of the Freedmen’s Bureau is a heavy heritage of this generation Digest Over Pages 105-110 Telegraph said sherman was demon, instaiable with the fallen race best farm land btwn sierra nev anf frwy 99 about 300m n-s Came thr. sierra nev and burned towns killed animals and pets strip trees of fruit and burn down barns sher. through 120 acre farm on 12/28/64. sherman is crazy Quote: Thos people made war on us, defied and dared us to come south to their contry where they boasted they would kill us and do all maner of horrible things. We accepted the challange and now for them to whine and complain of the natural and necessary results is beneath contempt. Critics argue sherman march ot sea was irrelevant to north and amoral. March to sea did not kill many confederates but desemated southern plantation properties. Many critics questioned the march to sea because it did not accomplish any of the objectives of the war to begin with. Less than half a dozen rapes, and few acts of violence against southern sivilians. Kills outside of battle were simply military style executions, to respond to killings of northern prisoners Quote by Fed Office: THe federal army generally behaved very well in this state. I dont think there was ever an army in the world that would have behaved better, on a similar expedition, in an enemy country. Our army certainly wouldn't J. Bennet argues that march was a moral saying it traumatized and robbed noncombatants and wrecked their homes. J. Bennet Quote: AN invading army , without any claim on military neccessity, had thrown away every inclination toward mercy for weakness and helplessness. THe federal troops had resorted to the sheer brutality of overpowering streangth to despoil a people of their natural resources and to injure irreparably their finest sensibilities. True question was whether whites who supported chattel slavery were fair game Supporters argued that if the point was ending slavery then the best mechanism was to destroy the mechanisms to providing slavery. Sherman waged war of terror, through the destruction. But terror was not total no barbaric things like mass killings or ethnic cleansing such as wars in 20th century Late 20th cen. is era of conflict resolution and peace studies. This are concepts for both the good and bad sides. Those to fight to end slavery and those who fight to keep slavery can be judged as different Killed bloodhounds because tracker of slaves and union soldiers. Only way plantation owners would remain rich is with the bondage of african blacks. Sherman marched freely through the south probably saving lincoln the election After marching through only 300mi away from last confederate stranglehold which was lee's army in virginia Lee was very much afraid of sherman was he was marching up north towards them. Thomas Osbourn was sheman reached savvanah:" Thus the immediate object of the campaign is completed. THis army has been transferred from the middle of the country the the sea coast the city captured and the and supplied for lee's army destroyed.." In 1870 the value of farms was less than a third of what is was 10 yrs before Although poor south ramifacations continued for decades Confed Soldiers Write Governor: It is not in the power of the yankee armies to cause is to wish ourselves hom. We can face them, and can hear their shot and shell with out being mocved; but, sir, we cannot hear the cries of our little ones and stand. Sheman requoted something saying his cause wasnt to hurt families it was to stop the stranglehold the south has on slavery. On 12/6/84 sher man said: we have more men now than we had when the war begian...We are gaining strength and many if need be maintain the contest indefinently. Grant nor Army of Potomac after summer 1864 could make the american populance continue the war. Super Quiz Pg. 111-116 Lincoln assassinated by John Booth on April 14, 1865 Union troops depressed by Lincoln’s death. As shock subsided, a burning anger ignited. Voices clamored for retribution Sherman’s veterans in N.C. swore if war went on, “The Battle cry will be ‘Lincoln’ and woe to the rebel that falls into our hands.” Southern Civ. and Rebel prisoners who openly expressed approval of Lincoln’s death faced merciless retaliations. Union soldiers reportedly killed civilians in Nashville and D.C. over it. Some Union men approved of Lincoln’s assassination. They blamed him for emancipation and for the war’s dead. Very few Union soldiers felt this way. Lincoln gained approval of numerous soldiers by spending countless hours in hospitals, visiting the patients before his death. The Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed blacks the right of citizenship By permitting blacks the vote, Congress hoped to give the freed-people (or at least black men) the means to protect themselves. Section VI- Reconstruction Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Dec. 1863 Lincoln enticed rebel states with lenient rules to enter Union again. From Vice Pres., to President, Andrew Johnson continued the lenient policy Rebel Legislatures pass “black code” to lower black status. These Codes made sure even freed blacks still had no rights. Congress mad at B Codes enacted its own Reconstruction Act of 1867 This act put all Rebel states into military rule, except Tennesse. The Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed blacks the right of citizenship By permitting blacks the vote, Congress hoped to give the freed-people (or at least black men) the means to protect themselves. PLACEHOLDER FOR 117-122 (pages 123-128) - Theory and practice of white supremacy transcended regional boundaries Emancipation introduced other forms of white duplicity and coercion…the attitudes and behavior which had justified and underscored enslavement persisted in different ways More than a century of black freedom did not alter Patsy Mitchner’s assessment…it only deepened its tragic implications and underscored the terrible paradox of black men and women seeking admission into a society that refuses to recognize their essential humanity - - - - Blacks constituted the muscle of military and economic effort designed to perpetuate their bondage…they were considered as both the cause of the war and indispensable to the Confederacy The more desperate the Confederate case became, the more the white South depended on the labor and loyalty of its blacks…the more they were needed, the less they could be trusted Most loyal and devoted would be enshrined in white southern mythology (in story, in legend, and in statues and song) Neither whites nor blacks were untouched by the physical and emotional demands of the war…both races suffered and each had some sympathy for the other Many of the same slaves and others came to appreciate at some moment in the war that in the suffering and defeat of their white folks lay their only hope for freedom George King was a former South Carolina slave that was raised on Samuel Roll’s plantation King says about his master…“he says we are all free, but it don’t mean we is white. And it don’t mean we is equal. Just equal to work and earn our own living and not depend on him for no more meats and clothes.” Difference between slavery and freedom could be perceived in the choices that became available to them…expanding their personal and psychological autonomy, securing families/locating loved ones, formalizing marital ties, taking new surnames or revealing old ones, educating themselves, withdrawing the women from the white folks’ kitchens and fields, worshipping in their own churches, assembling for political and community purposes, and working at a pace under terms that go along with their new status Contemporary observers say that to suggest that emancipation made no difference in lives of black men and women is to judge emancipation solely by its economic content and ignore how many blacks perceived their freedom Former Florida slave observed that “even the best masters in slavery couldn’t be as good as the worst person in freedom” The distance blacks chose to place between themselves and their old status could not be measured by how far they traveled from their place of bondage The same class that had thought that blacks were needed to be tied to them by feelings of dependency found themselves dependent on blacks and unable to look after themselves If few former slave-owning families ever paused to scrutinize their own lives and dependency, the blacks who worked for them knew only too well Former slaveholders had not surrendered the convictions which they held blacks as slaves and they fully expected those men and women to maintain the same slave demeanor Nothing in the postwar behavior and attitudes of former slaveholders suggests that the ownership of slaves compromised their values or tortured their consciences After emancipation, every field hand aspired to work for himself on his own plot of land to become the independent proprietor of a small farm…the most American of aspirations, the stamp of respectability in an agricultural society, and the way to enter the mainstream of American life The certain confirmation of freedom was to own the very land on which they had worked on For blacks to succeed in becoming proprietors of small farms posed dangers as great as those raised by the specter of blacks succeeding as voters or legislators If emancipation created in the victorious North a rhetorical commitment to helping blacks help themselves, it was never translated into a significant measure of economic opportunity for the newly freed slaves South Carolina…a federal official took pains to explain a group of freedmen the meaning of free labor…he called it “the price you pay for freedom” “Every man has his own place, his own trade that he was brought up to, and he must stick to it…If a man works, no matter in what business, he is doing well. The only shame is to be idle and lazy.” “It is so everywhere and perhaps by hard work some of you may by and by become rich yourselves.” Federal government and that nation said in effect that special consideration did not need to be accorded the freed slaves to correct two centuries of special inequality and exploitation In the postwar South, the relationship of slave and master was transformed into tenant and landlord Former slaveholders did not respond easily to the concept of free labor - - - - Freed blacks also didn’t respond easily or passively to perceived limitation placed on their working lives and opportunities…they resisted contracted labor, sought to reduce the hours they worked each day, rejected working in gangs under white supervisors, broke up slave quarters, demanded shares that reflected their contribution to the making of the crop By securing farms of their own, blacks achieved a certain kind of personal autonomy and forced upon the old ruling class a new organization and management of labor Fact remained that most black farmers enjoyed neither ownership of the land nor the full rewards of their labor Landlord ultimately used ownership of the land, control of credit, vagrancy laws, blacklists, the court, and the police to reassert his authority over black labor No matter how often the black press and black orators celebrated the examples of economic success and land ownership, the great mass of black southerners remained landless agricultural laborers…the political and civil rights they won during Reconstruction failed to alter their economic lives Through their industry, skill, enterprise, and frugality, former slaves would some day command a place in the South commensurate with their numbers and their weight in the economy Freedmen’s schools taught them to be diligent, faithful, and punctual in the workplace, to respect property and authority, to cultivate the virtues of honesty, industry and frugality Fredrick Douglass said “If you would be prosperous, you must be industrious.” African Methodist Episcopal Church preached to southern blacks that the only way to win over the hearts and minds of white people was through their pockets Reverend Henry Highland Garnet, a veteran black abolitionist, said that “The more money you make, the lighter your skin will be. The more land and houses you get, the straighter your hair will be.” Success came ultimately to the hardworking, the sober, the honest, and the educated Whites had accepted that irresponsibility, ignorance, and submissiveness were peculiar Negro traits…the blacks who failed to fit the stereotype seemed somehow abnormal and menacing While claiming that blacks were incapable of becoming their political, social, or economic equals, whites betrayed the fear that they might…Reconstruction taught blacks that many whites feared black success more than black failure The white South was driven to violence not because it was diminished by black failure but by the spectacle of blacks learning the uses of political power W.E.B. Du Bois wrote that “there was one thing that the white South feared more than Negro dishonesty, ignorance and incompetency, and that was Negro honesty, knowledge, and efficiency” Even as whites dwelt on the ignorance and illiteracy of blacks, they did not necessarily welcome the emergence of a class of educated, literate, and ambitious blacks Whatever black children learned in school, they came to understand that their color marked them as inferior in the eyes of whites, no matter how they conducted themselves Some young blacks found themselves cheated, beaten, and kicked off jobs by white employees who resented their ambition, their eagerness to learn a trade Isaiah Montgomery (back in 1890) was the only black delegate to the Mississippi Constitutional Convention and he proclaimed his faith in economic and educational progress as the key to race programs The fears of black success and assertiveness that had provoked much of the violence of Reconstruction proved equally pervasive in the early 20th century when blacks no longer posed a political threat If a given a choice, white southerners clearly preferred the “shiftless, worthless, ignorant” Negro to the educated and ambitious Negro MS, 1890s-white farmers terrorized black farmers off land Ned Cobb-black AL sharecropper: had property, white neighbors hated his success Best way to survive-don’t look like you’re succeeding Blacks were lynched, flogged, mutilated, or quietly murdered Attacks were publicized (Little Rock newspaper: “This may be ‘Southern brutality,’… but in polite circles, we call it southern chivalry…”) 1906-white mobs lynched, murdered, and assaulted blacks for 4 days Much violence fell on property-owning blacks-the industrious, respectable, law-abiding, accommodating, educated Dr. W. F. Penn, prominent black physician, Yale graduate-driven from his home Some whites deplored the violence, but dominant racial views were unchanged Historical docs, press-image of irresponsible, immoral, slow, stupid, easily frightened, sometimes dangerous Negro New generation of blacks-more rebellious, don’t know the compliance in slavery Other ways blacks improved themselves Learning to read, building communities, creating culture Thinkers, editors, preachers, leaders created programs, manifestos, sermons Found ways to be happy Richard Wright (born Natchez, 1908) grew up in MS, TN, AR-threat of violence was the worst Blues was a prominent form of self-expression Roots: hollers, shouts, chants, work songs of black field hands Expressed: day to day experiences, frustrations, anxiety, despair, values of new gen Famous singers Charlie Patterson, born Edwards MS, mid 1880s Furry Lewis, born 1900, raised in Delta at Greenwood Robert Johnson, raised in upper MI Delta; his song: “Crossroads Blues” Right before WWI, blacks migrate North but don’t escape racism. The Ending of Reconstruction (by Eric Foner and Olivia Mahoney) Conflicts b/w white Unionists and Confeds, but mostly former slaves were the victims Early Reconstruction-violence was local and unorganized 1865-66-most violence was over control of labor 1867-vilence was more organized and politically motivated (Rep dominated politics) Ku Klux Klan Founded 1886 in TN, served as military for Democrats Originally social clubterrorist organization of S Led by planters, merchants, Dem politicians 1868-killed AK congressman James M Hinds, 3 SC legislature, other Rep leaders GA, LA-terrorblacks can’t voteHoratio Seymour wins both states for pres election 1869-70-violence accelerated Local Rep leaders were targets 1870, AL-William Luke, Irish teacher in black school, lynched w/4 black men African-Americans, esp local leaders, were main targets Eg: 1869, GA-black legislator Abram Colby; Monroe County, MI black leader York County, SC-nearly all white males joined the Klan Early 1871-thousands hid in the woods to avoid assault Targets: blacks who have land, learned to read and write Violence sometimes expanded from one to the whole group Targets: churches, schools, any symbol of black autonomy 1871, Meridian, MI-30 blacks, white Rep judge killed 1873, Colfax, LA-black militiamen killed after surrendering local gov control to whites Purpose: restore white supremacy S gov couldn’t suppress KKK, most asked for aid from Pres Some Rep state gov (AR, TX) used milita to control KKK Sen John Sherman (OH)-the “power of the nation” must “crush, as we once before have done, this organized civil war” 1870-71-Congress adopted 3 Enforcement Acts 1871-Pres Grant authorized fed marshals to arrest hundreds of accused Klansmen 1872-after publicized trials of KKK leaders, Klan died 1870s-N’s commitment to Reconstruction decreased Radical leaders for civil rights replaced w/conservative, less idealistic politicians Some felt S should fend for itself 1872-Liberal Rep formed Members include influential journalists, prominent Rep (Lyman Trumbull) Believed corrupt politicians gained power from Civil War/Reconstruction Gov positions should be given based on passing exams, not cronies Democratic criticisms of Reconstruction-“ignorant” voters control politics 1872-Liberals nominate Horace Greeley (NY Tribune editor) for pres After Grant reelection, Liberal attack on Reconstructionmore racism in N 1874-Greeley supporter James S. Pike published The Prostrate State Describes SC as a “mass of black barbarism” “Negro gov”problems; solution: restore leading whites to power Newspapers supporting Reconstructionswitched sides 1873-severe eco depression; no time for civil rights Except Civil Rights Act of 1875-no discrimination in places of public accomidation 1876, US v Cruikshank-removed some convictions from Colfax MassacreEnforcement Acts meaningless Mid 1970s-Reconstruction was failing; where it survived, violence ^ 1875-76-violence in broad dayliigh 1875, MI White rifle clubs drilled in public, pres openly assaulted/murdered Gov Adelbert Ames asked for fed assistance Grant refused to helpDem landslide MI, end Reconstruction there 1876, SC-Dem nomination for governor: Wade Hampton (Confed cavalry commander) Hampton: Became governor as part of the Bargain of 1877. Favored a paternalistic policy toward former slaves and appointed a few blacks to minor positions. Was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1878, serving until 1891. Promised to respect the rights of all citizens of the state. His opponents inspired by Democratic tactics in Mississippi the previous year, used rifle clubs to disrupt Republican meetings, and freedmen being driven from their homes, assaulted and sometimes murdered. Presidential Campaign of 1876: Events in S. Carolina directly affected the outcome. Republicans nominated Gov. Rutherford B. Hays of Ohio to succeed Grant. Democratic opponent was New York’s governor, Samuel J. Tilden. Only S. Carolina, Florida and Louisiana remained under Republican control. Whoever captured these states would become the next president. There was anxious talk of civil war, but also intense negotiations involving leaders of both parties and self-appointed maneuverers representing Southern railroads anxious to receive federal aid. January 1877: Congress appointed a 15 member Electoral Commission, composed of senators, representatives, and Supreme Court justices. Republicans enjoyed an 8 to 7 majority on the Commission. The members decided that Hays had carried the disputed Southern states and was elected. Bargain of 1877: Hays would recognize Democratic control of remaining Southern states, and Democrats would not block the certification of his election by Congress. Hays promised to end federal intervention in the South and ordered U.S. troops to return to their barracks from guarding the state houses in S. Carolina and Louisiana. The Redeemers: Southern Democrats who overturned Republican rule and now ruled the entire south. Reconstruction came to and end. Collapse of Reconstruction: In many parts of the South, the Republican Party disappeared and the region long remained a bastion of one-party rule under control of a reactionary elite who used violence and fraud to stifle internal dissent. The federal government stood by indifferently while the Southern states effectively nullified the 14th and 15th Amendments, and stripped African-Americans of the right to vote (beginning in 1890’s.) Southern governments began enacting laws mandating racial segregation in schools, transportation, and public accommodations. African-Americans’ Struggle: 1896: Plessy v. Ferguson: Supreme Court ruled that such segregation did not violate the 14th Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection before the law, so long as facilities for the two races were “separate but equal.” Southern blacks were pushed into oppression, each of whose components, segregation, economic inequality, political disempowerment, reinforced the others. Between 1880 and 1968, nearly 3,500 African-Americans were lynched in the U.S. Southern Instability: White Southerners suffered as well as black, as expenditures on education, health, and public welfare remained well below those in other states. New laws strengthened the hands of landlords in disputes with tenants, and state governments resolutely opposed the introduction of labor unions. Long into the 20th century, the South would remain the nation’s foremost economic problem, a region of low wages, stunted economic development, and widespread poverty. Millions of poor Southerners felt their only hope for economic opportunity and social justice was to migrate to other parts of the country.