Download Abadzi, H - University of Leeds

Administrative Assistants’ Perceptions of IT Training Effectiveness
Amran Rasli, Taman University, Malaysia
Paper presented at Fourth International Conference 'Vocational Education and Training Research',
University of Wolverhampton, 16-18 July 2001
INTRODUCTION
The efficacy of training programmes in enhancing management competencies of
individuals cannot be taken for granted any more as most organisations have allocated sizeable
annual budgets on management development training programmes (Robinson & Robinson, 1996).
According to Saari et al. (1988) and Sogunro (1997), many large organisations devote a substantial
portion of their human resource effort to managerial training as compared to smaller organisations.
Most of the reviews of management training stress that little is known about the
effectiveness of the training conducted (Fielder, 1996; Sugunro, 1997). Saari et al. (1988)
discovered that a major reason for the lack of knowledge is the scarcity of meaningful and rigorous
research. The main evaluation in most management training too often consists of simply asking the
trainees how they liked the programme and whether they thought they had learned something.
There is tremendous support for the evaluation of staff development and training programmes
(Fielder, 1996; Parry, 1997). Managers recognise that what is lacking is answer to the question,
“Are we achieving results?” – specifically, the question of actual transfer of training towards
professional development needs to be addressed.
The current interest and engagement in the areas of professional development is increasing in the
corporate, public and private organisational settings. This is due, in part, to changes in technology
and in efforts to increase organisational efficiency and productivity. Creating substantive and
meaningful professional development programmes is challenging when attempting to meet the
training needs of employees within a changing work environment brought about by technological
advancements as well as ensuring a productive return for training investments.
Literature Review
A review of literature in the field of human resource development (HRD) is important to the
understanding of the professional development of employees, that is, processes that prepare an
individual for the advancement in one's vocation and for increased of new responsibilities. The
growth of HRD, as a discipline, has been attributed to technological advances, increased work
force diversity and demands for productivity improvement. However, the research literature in the
field of HRD has not paralleled this growth (Fortunato & Keiser, 1985). Several researchers believe
that this is due to the fact that HRD is a young field with its literature dispersed among roots in
behavioural science, adult education and personnel management (Fortunato & Keiser, 1985).
Differentiating Education and Transfer of Training
This study is directed towards understanding what moves adults to participate in education
and learning pursuits, especially in the context of in-service training. The concepts of "education"
and "transfer of training" were considered central in the present exercise. The interrelationships of
these concepts has been the major focus of study by the proponents of "adult education" and
"training" such as Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) and Caffarella (1991). This section briefly
describes and links these major concepts together.
Concept of Education
The term 'education' has been defined in a variety of ways. Silong (1986) confirms this
view in his illustration of the shift from a traditional and narrow concept of education to the
presently more integrated and broader concept. The traditional concept views education as
something that is deeply associated with children and school. It looks that education is only for
children. This may sound awkward but Adler (1982) observes that "this error about education
being completed at school is widespread…"
The present concept of education takes note that education and schooling are not always
synonymous. This is manifested in the many definitions of education presented by various
scholars. For instance, Kachar and Teh (1980) in their attempt to integrate various definition of
education, see education as a process of facilitating in which the learner is made aware of the
various opportunities, options and alternatives that are available to him so that he can decide on
his own what steps to take. Education, according to these authors, is concerned with the opening
up of the world of the learner and helping him to decide his activities.
Smith's (1982) concern for the 'occurrence of learning' is apparent from the following
definition of education: "The organised, systematic effort to foster learning, to establish the
conditions, and to provide the activities through which learning can occur." Darkenwald and
Merriam (1982) view education as follows: "Education is broadly conceived as the deliberate,
systematic and sustained effort to transmit, evoke, or acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, or
skills, as well as any outcome of the efforts."
Therefore, based on some definitions highlighted above, it can be concluded that
education is a learning process that consists of elements of design and content. On the design
side, education can occur either through deliberate, organised and systematic efforts, or under
lesser or non-regulated environments which include normal life circumstances. The elements of
content include the types of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that need to be transmitted to
specific categories of learners.
Education is not synonymous with learning. The term "education" emphasises the
educators or the agents of change who present stimuli and reinforcement for learning and who
design activities to induce change. In contrast, the term "learning" emphasises the person in whom
the change occurs. Learning is the act or the process by which behavioural change, knowledge,
skills and attitudes are acquired (Boyd, et al., 1980; Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 1998).
From the types of education highlighted above, it is clear that the term 'education' is very
broad and is truly a lifelong process. The emergence of a new concept called 'lifelong education'
or 'lifelong learning' is in line with this broader view of education. Many scholars such as Lengrand
(1975) and Cropley (1980) as well as Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) have contributed to the
development of this new concept of education. Although different scholars have highlighted
different facets of the same idea, Dave, (1976) sees 'lifelong education' as a comprehensive
concept which includes formal, non-formal and informal education, covering the lifespan of an
individual.
Concept of Transfer of Training
Newstrom (1986) states “transfer of training is defined as the degree to which managers
effectively applied to their jobs the knowledge and skills gained in the off-the-job developmental
process”. It has been estimated that billions of dollars are spent annually on all types of training in
the United States (Fielder, 1996). According to Georgenson (1982) and Caffarrella (1994) as little
as 10% of the expenditure pays off in actual behaviour change on the job, resulting in a relapse
rate of 90%. Newstrom (1986) reported the results of a survey of 84 training and development
specialists that were asked the proportion of management development programme content that
gets transferred to the job immediately. The average response was 40%. When the time period
was changed to within a 6-month period, the response dropped to 25%. The residual effects of the
training programmes after 1 year were estimated at a 15% transfer rate.
Caffarrella (1994) emphasised that transfer of training is enhanced when the training is
viewed as relevant and practical. Application exercises where the trainee can practice the new
skills should be a major part of the instructional activities. The changes required by the learner
should be realistic and able to be accomplished. Cascio (1998) offered several suggestions to
maximise transfer of training. Similarities between the training situation and job situation should be
maximised. Trainees should receive as much experience with the new skills as possible. Trainers
should provide a strong link between training content and job content emphasising that what is
learned in training is immediately applicable to the job.
Wexley and Baldwin (1986) investigated the effectiveness of three post-training strategies
for facilitating transfer of training. The authors picked time management as the training topic
because of its relevance to students and future managers. The three approaches were assigned
goal setting, participative goal setting, and a behavioural self-management approach based on the
relapse prevention model.
Byham, Adams, and Kiggins (1976) investigated the transfer of training of a behavioural
modelling programme using nine supervisors and a matched control group. The authors stated
that successful transfer of training skills from the classroom to the job required three things: an
acquisition of new skills from training, confidence to use the new skills on the job, and positive
reinforcement of skills when applied. Skill acquisition was obtained through use of the modelling
programme. Confidence was built by providing a series of success experiences leading to more
and more difficult interactions and by providing the opportunity for rehearsal. The factors leading to
self-reinforcement included the use of defined steps to handle each interaction and the classroom
experience of being an observer of the interactions, which should heighten participants’ selfevaluation skills.
The trainees’ supervisors also received an orientation to the modelling
programme to increase the probability of management reinforcement for the use of the new skills.
Finally, while education and transfer of training are now easy to distinguish, the next
question is what type of training can be considered as education? According to Nadler (1970)
"employee's training" involves those activities designed to improve the performance on the job the
employee is presently doing whereas, "employee's education" involves those human resource
development (HRD) activities which are designed to improve the overall competence of the
employee in a specified direction and beyond the job the employee is presently doing.
Relevant Research Findings on Adult Learning
Caffarella (1994) asserted that adults are not likely to willingly engage in learning activities
unless the content is meaningful to them. Adults want to apply their learning to present situations
and come to a learning activity with their personal goals and objectives. They prefer to be actively
involved in the learning process rather than passive acceptors of knowledge. Adults also want to
be able to support each other in the learning process.
Abadzi (1990) contended that since adults are self-directed, they could only be given
facilitation, not taught. In facilitating adult learning, it is important to establish a climate conducive to
learning where two-way transmission of knowledge takes place rather than the one-way
transmission of children’s classrooms. For learning to occur with adults, Abadzi (1990) believed
there should be an atmosphere of mutual respect, supportiveness, collaboration, and openness
rather than a competitive environment. The climate is important because unless they find the
content and mode of presentation appealing, adults will either leave or not attend to the learning
experience. Abadzi (1990) stated that the experiential learning model is a cyclical process that
includes four basic modes for optimal learning. First, there needs to be a concrete experience
where the person is able to become involved fully, openly, and without bias in the new
experiences. An example of this would be the trainee observing a film demonstrating various
managerial techniques. Next, a person must be able to reflect on and observe these experiences
from many perspectives. This could occur through a discussion after the observations. The
person then must be able to create concepts that integrate these observations into logically sound
theories. This could be accomplished through lecture and required reading. Finally, a person must
be able to use these theories to make decisions and practising and demonstrating the previously
learned skills could accomplish this for the trainee.
Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) found that learning materials that use dualmode presentation techniques result in superior learning to equivalent single-modality formats. An
example of dual modality includes lecture and audio-visual presentations together, as opposed to
one or the other alone. This supports the experiential learning model as well as behaviour
modelling. Knox (1977) stated that, in most instances, adults purposefully engage in systematic
and sustained learning for the purpose of modifying performance. Their reasons for engaging in
learning activity and their anticipated uses of the new learning usually relate to a familiar area of
performance. Actual transfer of the learned activity to a real situation that the learner engages in
outside of the classroom identifies improved performance (Caffarella, 1994).
Some adult workers with experience in specialised occupations become supervisors
(Knox, 1977). Learning to supervise others effectively involves many types of learning activities,
such as closely observing others, on-the-job training, supervisory skills coaching by one’s
manager, supervisory training sessions, reading about supervision, and receiving feedback about
the effectiveness of supervisory performance. Knox (1977) asserted that supervisory training or
management development sessions often focus on helping the new supervisor to understand
concepts about interpersonal relations and to apply the concepts to improve supervisory
performance. The learning activities are successful to the extent that the new supervisor integrates
relevant experience and recent changes in knowledge, skills, and attitudes to produce improved
performance.
Cascio (1998) contended that feedback about one’s performance is essential for learning
to occur. Knowledge of results gives the learner information about how he or she is performing
and what corrections should be made. Learners can acquire knowledge or results intrinsically,
through rehearsal and practice or extrinsically, through feedback from the trainer and other
participants. Knox (1977) pointed out that an adult’s motivation and co-operation in learning is
more likely when the tasks are meaningful and of interest to the learner. Active interest and
participation are more likely when the learner helps in selecting the learning tasks. Torrence
(1993) suggested that having the trainees make some decisions about their training makes them
feel personally involved.
Varying the training activities to include didactic and experiential
interaction is motivating to adult learners. Know continued that one way in which adult learners
can gain encouragement is through the use of an example or model of what they should know or
be able to do as a result of the training experience. This assists the adult learner with clarification
about expectations for the learning experience.
The Baldwin and Ford Model for Professional Development
Based upon research in the behavioural sciences, adult education and personnel
administration, Baldwin and Ford (1988) developed a model to illustrate the factors that influence
the transfer of learning from the training site to the work environment. This model is important
because it highlights the close relationship of the major characteristics of the trainee, the training
programme and the work environment to the design and delivery of training programmes and, in
turn, the effectiveness of the transfer of learning to the work environment. In addition, the model
also provides insight into the factors that could be potential supports or barriers to individual
knowledge and skill development programmes. The Baldwin and Ford model, describes the
transfer process in terms of training inputs, training outputs or outcomes and conditions of transfer.
The trainee input factor includes various characteristics of the (a) trainee, (b) training design of the
instructional programme, and (c) the work environment. The conditions of transfer include (a) the
ability of the trainee to and take generalise skills or behaviours learned in training to the job context
and (b) the ability to maintain the learned skills or behaviours over a period of time on the job.
According to the model, regardless of the initial training during the programme, both the
characteristics of the trainee and factors within the work environment have a direct effect on
professional development and on the trainee's ability to take generalised learning and to apply as
well to maintain it within the job context. Therefore, it is important for HRD professionals to gain an
understanding of the employee and their work environment. The model also illustrates that the
design of the training programme has a direct effect on professional development. Factors such as
the techniques of instruction and training content have an affect on professional development. In
turn, professional development has a direct effect on the ability to take generalised learning and
apply it to "real life" work situations and maintain the philosophy of learning organisation. A review
of literature regarding characteristics of the trainee, training design and factors in the work
environment to the success of the transfer of learning provides additional insight into professional
development of employees.
Trainee Characteristics
A great deal of literature is available regarding the trainee's ability or skill, attitudes and
motivation in relationship to the degree of success of training programmes. In terms of ability and
skill, Flavell's (1977) research is sometimes referred to in adult education literature since it deals
with the growth of adult cognition. According to Flavell (1977) for many adults, real problems are
those situations that confront adults in their areas of expertise and the resolution of these problems
is dependent upon the ways in which adults use their cognitive skills. More recent literature often
refers to the types of ability or skills that the future work environment will require.. Howell and
Cooke's (1989) research indicate that the computerised workplace has moved individuals from
performing simple and procedural tasks to more complex tasks requiring them to be able to make
inferences, diagnoses, judgements and be involved in decision making processes oftentimes under
time pressures. Fleishman and Mumford report (1989) that it will be increasingly important to know
how individuals build on previously learned material in order to understand how the transfer of
learning affects performance of new and more complex tasks.
Research regarding personality factors such as self-efficacy, career aspirations and
attitudes towards learning and towards change often reflects the affect these factors have upon an
individual's motivation to learn. In a study of improvement of computer skills in the workplace, Hill,
Smith and Mann (1987) suggest that individuals who have a high self-efficacy level are more likely
to seek opportunities to improve computer skills and are more likely to attempt more difficult and
complex tasks on the job. Other researchers suggest that the relevance of training programmes to
an individual's job and career aspirations can affect their motivation to learn (Knowles, 1980; Perry,
1990). Craig (1996) report that individuals who believe in the value of training that they received
towards job skill improvement are more likely to try newly acquired skills on the job. An individual's
attitude toward learning and change can also affect an individual's motivation to learn. According to
Knowles (1980), the adult learner in today's changing work environment needs to view learning as
a life long endeavour. The old belief that learning is primarily a function of youth and that the
purpose of an education is to supply all the knowledge and skills required to live adequately for life
is no longer valid. The rapidly accelerating pace of information processing change means that facts
learned in youth have become insufficient and skills become outmoded by new technologies
(Knowles, 1980). How an individual deals with these changes is a factor in human resource
development. Some individuals are eager for change while others may view change as a threat to
their current positions. Fuller (1969) and Hall et al., (1973) state that changes over time can
produce various perceptions, feelings and frustrations within individuals thus affecting their learning
processes. In addition to characteristics of the trainee, the design and delivery of training
programmes also influences the success of the transfer of learning to the job context.
Training Design
Early research on training focussed on the incorporation of learning principles on the
improvement of training programmes. This includes research in the areas of (a) identical stimulusresponse elements both in training and the work environment (Underwood, 1951), (b) principles
underlying training content (McGee & Thayer, 1961), (c) stimulus variability, that is, presenting
relevant training stimuli in multiple ways (Ellis, 1965), and (d) conditions of practice such as
distributed sessions and various feedback mechanisms (McGee & Thayer, 1961; Naylor & Briggs,
1963; Wexley & Thornton, 1972). Later research explored the facilitation of training transfer
through self-management and goal-setting (Wexley & Baldwin, 1986; Latham and Frayne, 1989).
These approaches focus on how to maintain and generalise learning with the promotion of selfdirected behaviour on the part of the learner to facilitate the transfer of learning. Sterns and
Doversphike (1989) studied these learning theories as well as Malcolm Knowles' andragogical
paradigm for adult learning and identified common factors within the design and delivery of training
that they believe to have a positive impact on the transfer of learning.
First, training programmes should be relevant to the trainees' job. Second, ample feedback
within learning sessions must be included to encourage self-confidence. Third, training should build
on elements that are familiar to the trainees' past learning and job experiences. Fourth,
instructional strategies should be developed to limit memory requirements. Sterns and Doversphike
(1989) believe that these factors can be particularly important for older employees who have
motivation to learn but lack self-confidence or fear failure due to competition of younger or more
recently educated workers. Recent research has examined instructional strategies such as
demonstrations, discussions, case studies and role play in the classroom (Bentley, 1994; Craig,
1996; Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 1998). These strategies attempt to generalise learning and
provide opportunities to apply knowledge, skills and attitudes to various work situations and tasks.
Current research interest is growing in examining the merits of non-classroom delivery techniques
through the use of technology. Factors within the work environment can also influence the success
of the transfer of learning.
Work Environment
The extent to which an organisational climate provides an environment that facilitates
continuous learning is another factor that research indicates affects individual development and
transfer of learning from a training programme to the work environment. According to Ford (1994),
when trainees return to the work environment from a training activity a broad range of problems
can occur as they interact with new learning, other people and their job environments. Factors such
as time and distance from the educational experience, the risks perceived by trainees in adopting
new behaviour and the lack of readily available resources within the work environment can hamper
the transfer of learning process. Perry (1990) suggests that it is important for individuals to have
ample opportunities to practice, experiment with and perform their newly acquired knowledge and
skills in order to facilitate learning transfer in their work environments. In terms of learning
environments, Diamond and Allcorn (1986) state that work environments designed to support
inquiry fosters unlimited opportunities for individuals to acquire new meanings and insights into
their jobs. They add that a supportive environment in which ample opportunities are given to share
experiences and consolidate new learning promotes higher levels of intellectual thought. Their
research indicates that the success of this type of environment depends upon the willingness of
individuals to share their experiences and for management to support and interact with their staff
regarding organisational goals and objectives.
The research on characteristics of the trainee, training design and the work environment
suggest that the transfer of learning process needs to be a concern to those who design,
implement, assess and support professional development programmes. Although the ultimate
decision to learn lies with the learner, involvement of the learner, educator and supervisor can
facilitate the transfer of learning process. Furthermore, the Baldwin and Ford framework can be
used before developing, expanding or changing professional development activities to identify jobrelevant training needs, supports, barriers and incentives that may affect employee participation
and utilisation of programmes. Moreover, the model can be used after training to assess the extent
to which the transfer of newly acquired knowledge and skills are being utilised on the job and
maintained over time. The remaining part of this chapter will discuss what can be done to facilitate
the transfer of learning before and after professional development activities.
Kirkpatrick’s Training Evaluation Model and Professional Development
Bramley (1986) defined training evaluation as “a process or set of activities comparing
results against goals and established criteria. It is in a very real sense a scientific exercise
designed to answer the basic questions in a rigorous, neutral, objective and unbiased manner.”
Goldstein (1986), on the other hand, defines training evaluation as, “the systematic collection of
descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions related to selection,
adoption, value and modification of various instructional activities.” A more recent definition of
training programme evaluation is provided by Attia (1998) who like Goldstein (1986) defines
training evaluation as “the systematic collection of information necessary to determine the
effectiveness of training activities and their outcome.”
Hawes, Hutchens and Crittenden (1982) classified the benefits of evaluating training
programmes into primary and secondary goals. The primary goals are: 1) reduce learning time to
educate staff, 2) increase staff morale, 3) reduce staff turnover rate and improve control, 4) monitor
staff progress, and 5) improve interdepartmental communications. According to the same authors,
the secondary goals of training evaluations are to: 1) develop operational measures to determine
training programme effectiveness, 2) keep abreast with the dynamic and ever changing market
environment, and 3) provide valid modification lists on training programme methods and content.
Levels Involved in Training Evaluation Process
Kirkpatrick’s (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) four level model of evaluating training
programmes has become the classic model and been used widely by trainers for over four
decades. The model explains that the tasks of training programme evaluation must involve four
distinct levels: reaction, learning, behaviour and results. According to Newstorm (1978), these four
levels have been endorsed by many researchers and practitioners, such that they have been
accepted as standard for training evaluation. Kirkpatrick’s (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b),
Newstorm (1978) and Honeycutt and Stevenson (1989) mentioned that all four levels of evaluation
categories can be ranked ordered from “reaction” being the simplest criteria, to “results” being the
most difficult criteria to be accomplished. Thus the task of training evaluation becomes increasingly
complex as training experts move their evaluation efforts on the continuum of “reaction-results
levels” of the evaluation categories particularly related to professional development (refer Figure 1).
Level of evaluation complexity
high
results
Professional Development
behaviour
learning
low
reaction
Figure 1: Kirkpatrick Evaluation Levels. Adapted from Reser, C. L. W. (1999). An Evaluation Schema for
Management Training and Development Prorammes. Master of Education Thesis, Queen’s University, Ontario.
DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In general, due to a lack of structure in exploratory studies, the use of a research
framework as a guide is very important (Parasuraman, 1986). Based on Baldwin and Ford’s model,
the researcher developed a revised conceptual framework. There are three apparent weaknesses
in the Baldwin-Ford model. The first weakness is the non-consideration of evaluation as an
important input towards professional development. Fortunately, based on the Kirkpatrick’s model,
evaluation is considered as an important factor for professional development. The second
weakness is the failure to consider socio-demographic influence on the model. The researcher
feels that it would be appropriate to develop a framework on professional development whereby
socio-demographic variables would be included as moderators. And finally, the complicative
relationship between the independent variables and confusion related to professional development
as an intervening variable. To off-set these weaknesses, the researcher will propose a simplified
model as in Figure 2.
Figure 2 shows that an employee’s professional development is influenced by four major
factors directly: trainee characteristics, training design, work environment and evaluation method;
and one major factor indirectly: socio-demographic factors. Each factor is capable of influencing an
employee to participate in training activities either independently or through interactions with other
factors as a group. The framework indicates the source of differences in professional development
for employees are based on: 1) the extent to which trainee characteristics affects their professional
development, 2) the extent to which training design affects their professional development, 3) the
extent to which work environment affects their professional development, 4) the extent to which
evaluation methodology affects their professional development, and 5) the extent to which sociodemographic factors influence their professional development.
The dependent variable for this exercise is professional development of employees. As
such, the dependent variable comprises of the combination of trainee characteristics, training
design, work environment and evaluation method. The independent variables consisted of trainee
characteristics, training design, work environment and evaluation method. Trainee characteristics
comprised of their ability, personality and motivation. Training design consisted of principles of
learning, sequencing and training content. Work environment was made of support at work and
opportunity to use skills attained. Finally, evaluation method comprised of reaction, learning,
behaviour and results. According to Sekaran (1992), a moderating variable is used to measure the
influence of another variable on the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable. Socio-demographic variables such as technological competency, gender, age and race
are commonly used as moderators.
Independent Variables
Moderating Variables
Dependent Variables
Trainee
Characteristics
 Ability
 Personality
 Motivation
Training Design
 Principles of
Learning
 Sequencing
 Training Content
Professional
Development
Work Environment


Support
Opportunity to use
Evaluation Method
 Reaction
 Learning
 Behaviour
 Results
Socio-demographic
Factors
Figure 2: Proposed Conceptual Framework
CONCLUSION
The development of a new model should be tested rigorously for applicability. Many
questions need to be answered. As an example, can the new model be applied for within different
types of organisation? Therefore, further research must be conducted to ascertain the validity of
the model.
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