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Chapter 19 and 20 notes
The Agriculture Revolution
Enclosure Movement
 Wealthy landlords fenced in common pastures and experimented with new farming technology
 Villages lost common lands and political power, peasants became poorer
Crop Rotation
 Fields depleted of nutrients by one crop replenished by planting different crops (“Turnip” Townshend)
 Fields not left inefficiently fallow
Selective Breeding
 Healthiest livestock bred to produce larger livestock (Robert Bakewell)
Other Discoveries
 Seed drill planted seeds efficiently (Jethro Tull)
 New crops: maize and potato
 Chemical fertilizers (Justus von Liebig as well as other German chemists)
 Reaper (Cyrus McCormick) developed in 1834
Results of Agricultural Revolution
 More food available
 Population increased
 Workers available for new factories
Cottage Industry and Early Capitalism
Merchants' Role in Cottage Industry
 Supplied materials-wool and cotton--to cottages to be carded and spun
 Took supplies from spinning cottage to weaving cottage to dying cottage to sell finished cloth
 Merchants sell product for more than material and labor costs = profit + larger investment higher profit
Capitalism/Free-market enterprise
 An economic system based on private ownership, free competition, and profit
 Cottage industry is an example of early capitalism
Effects of the Cottage Industry
 Big profits for new class of merchants
 Alternative source of income for peasants
Textile Industry and the Factory System
Textile Industry Invented
 Cottage industry couldn't keep up with demand for textiles
 Spinning jenny (Hargreaves), water frame (Arkwright), spinning mule (Crompton) improved spinning
 Power loom sped up weaving (Cartwright)
 Cotton gin separated seeds from cotton (Eli Whitney)
Rise of the Factory
 New machines, often too big and too expensive for homes, were put in factories
 Factories located near power source: coal, iron water
Effects of Textile Factories in Britain
 Prices of mass-produced textiles were much lower than hand-produced items
 Britain's textile industry increased enormously
 Majority of villagers forced to leave to find work in urban factories
Steam Engine: Energy for the Industrial Revolution
The Need for Energy
 Early factories relied on horses, oxen, and water mills
 Atmospheric engine – Newcomen developed a steam pump to pump water from mines
 Steam engine evolved in response to the increasing need for power (James Watt improved Newcomen’s engine and
later developed a steamed powered rotary engine that could be used to turn a shaft and thus drive machinery)
How the Steam Engine Works
 Steam forced from high to low pressure, produces power
Effect of Steam Engine
 Steam power, used where ever coal existed, increased textile production
 Improved mining which increased metals which in turn fueled other industries
Iron and Coal: Energy for the Industrial Revolution
The Need for Iron
 Farming tools, new factory machinery, railways
 Smelting makes iron more pure, but requires carbon
 Henry Cort – puddling – wrought iron
The Need for Coal
 Carbon necessary for smelting iron
 Steam engines powered by coal
Effect of Iron and Coal
 Britain produced more iron than all other countries of the world combined
 Coal powered Britain's enormous navy
Transportation
The Need for Better Transportation
 Increased production increased need to transport goods quickly and cheaply
 Pre-Industrial society used horses, mules, and dirt roads
Inventions
 Stone and eventually asphalt roads (John McAdam)
 Canals
 Locomotive Engine used in mines to transport coal (Trevithick)
 Railroad era ushered in with the Rocket in 1829 (George Stephenson)
Effects of Railroads
 Expanded rapidly throughout Britain
 Cheaper transportation increased production and profits
 New markets opened up to farmers
 Railways fueled other industries: coal, steam engines, iron, steel and many manufactured products
 People began to travel for pleasure
These developments fueled further developments in technology and science. As workers gain more leisure time,
changes occurred in society.
Later Developments
Steamship
 First practical steamship developed in 1807 (Robert Fulton)
 Ocean going steamships slow to develop; however, by 1870, 40% of ocean going ships used steam
 First ocean going passenger ship using steam (Cunard)
Suez Canal opened on November 17, 1869 -- had a negative impact on price of cotton in southern US
Panama Canal opened in 1914
Steel
 Bessemer Process – reduced the production of steel from 7-8 days down to 30 minutes. Developed in England by
Bessemer and Kelly in U.S.
 Sieman Brothers would reduce the time of production even more with the development of the “open blast furnace.”
Aviation
 Dirigibles – motor powered lighter than air ships (Zepplin)
 Heavier than air flight (Wrights)
Automotives
 Use fuel to produce direct power that did not have to first be converted to steam (Diesel)
 Motor powered bicycle (Daimler)
 Water cooled internal combustion (Benz) He and Daimler combined to produce a car the Mercedes Benz
 Assembly line production of cars (Ford)
Communications
 Telegraph systems (Samuel F. B. Morse developed most successful)
 By 1875 telegraph allowed messages to be sent around world in less than 5 minutes
 Telephone and Wireless (Bell and Marconi)
New Business Methods
 Corporations operated under charters granted by government
 Monopolies developed
Massive shifts in population
 Millions left Europe, although population grew from 226 million in 1850 to 400 million by 1900
 25 million left Europe for the U.S.A., Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America
 Population became more urban as five out of every seven rural born in 1850 moved to the city by adulthood.
Popular or Mass Culture
 Music Halls and Vaudeville
 Professional Sports – European football (soccer); American baseball
New Ideas in Medicine and Science
 Germ Theory (Lister and Pasteur)
 Periodic Table (Menedeleev)
 Theory of Evolution (Darwin)
 Radioactivity(Marie and Pierre Curie)
 Genetics (Mendel)
 Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)
Spread of Industrialization
Why was it slow to spread out of Britain?
 Until 1825, Britain had a law in place that prevent mechanics, toolmakers, and engineers from leaving the country
 French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars made industrialization difficult on the continent
United States
 1789: Samuel Slater, a Brit, memorized how spinning machine worked and emigrated to U.S.
 1780: Moses Brown opened a factory to house Slater’s machines; however, factory only produced thread
 1813: Francis Lowell revolutionized American textile industry by mechanizing every stage of textile industry
 After civil war transcontinental railroad was completed
 Major U.S. corporations founded in 1800’s Standard Oil (John D. Rockefeller) and Carnegie Steel (Andrew
Carnegie)
Europe
 Belgium led the way; William Cockerill, a Brit, smuggled plans for spinning machine to Belgium.
 John Cockerill, William’s son eventually built an enormous industrial complex in eastern Belgium
Germany
 Ruhr Valley will become center of industrialized Germany; possessed large deposits of coal and iron; Germany
will overtake Britain in production in late 1800’s
Other areas of industrialization in Europe
 Northern Italy
 France’s efforts at industrialization only grows after 1850 when the government begins to build railroads
 Spanish state of Catalonia will overtake Belgium in the production of cotton
 Austria, and Russia will lag behind in the industrial race
Gap between industrialized and non-industrialized countries will widen. Spread of industrialization did increase
competition between nations and a major result will be imperialism.
Response to Industrialization
Classical Economists favored a laissez-faire policy (leave alone). Reject mercantilistic policies.
 In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith said that government should not interfere in the economy. Progress
results from individuals following their own self-interests. Three natural laws of economics; self-interest,
competition, supply and demand
 In his Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus argued that since population grows more rapidly
than the food supply, wars and epidemics are necessary to prevent mass starvation.
 In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, David Ricardo put forth the iron law of wages: Wages are low
when workers are plentiful. If the number of workers goes down, wages will go up. However, as soon as workers
have more money, they will have more children, and wages will fall as the population rises once again.
Utilitarianism
 Most noted were Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
 Most associated with “the greatest good for the greatest number”. Government should promote programs that
would provide for the greatest good. If a program does not benefit the majority, government should keep hands
off. Also pushed for legal and prison reforms and improvements in education
Utopian Socialists
 Utopian socialists favored common ownership of property and blamed private ownership of factors of productions
for society’s ills.
 Believed that the government should actively plan the economy

Well-known Utopian socialists included Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and the Comte de Saint-Simon
Scientific Socialists or Communists
 Most noted Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels, The Communist Manifesto,
 Karl Marx said that history is marked by class struggle between the haves and the have-nots. The Industrial
Revolution, to Marx, was a struggle between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (employers). Marx
believed that someday the proletariat would revolt, taking control of the factories and government. Once the
proletariat seized control of the means of production, a dictatorship of the proletariat would educate the masses in
the communist system and eventually the need for government would disappear. The result would be a
classless society or pure communism.
Other efforts at reform
 Unions, especially those of highly skilled workers had some success. Eventually governments would grant unions
the right to collective bargaining and to the strike
 Luddities (named for Ned Lud) attacked and destroyed the machines that they thought were depriving workers of
their jobs. First united effort by workers; however failed to halt spread of industrialization. Involved several
hundred workers in Britain who were never found
 Chartist Movement – first united effort by workers to gain rights for workers; presented a People’s Charter to
Parliament requesting universal male suffrage, secret ballot, end of property requirements for holding office,
salary for those serving in House of Commons
Reforms
 Factory Act of 1833 -- prohibited children under age of 9 from working in textile industry; limited the hours of
children from 9-12 to 8 hours a day; limited the hours of children 13-17 to 12 hours a day
 Mines Act of 1842 – prohibited women and children from working in mines
 Ten Hours Act of 1847 – women and children under the age of 18 could not work more than 10 hours a day
 Reform Bill of 1832 – modernized Parliamentary districts; eased property rights for voting thereby allowed upper
middle class men to vote
 Reform Bill of 1867 – granted the right to vote to working class men
 Reform Bill of 1887 – granted the right to vote to agrarian workers
Changes in the British Monarchy
 During the reign of Queen Victoria the monarchy became solely ceremonial or symbolic
Women’s Rights
 Women did gain new employment opportunities, but only made 1/3 of what a man made
 Women’s Suffrage Movement
o Led by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in United States; held major meeting at Senaca Fall n
1848
o Led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters in Britain; used radical methods to bring attention to
movement; Emily Davison lost her life at Epsom Derby when she jumped out in front of the king’s horse
to win support for women’s suffrage.
Revolutions in Europe 1830-1848
France
1830: Liberals who wanted to increase the number of males who could vote, overthrew Charles X who tried to reestablish
an absolute monarchy. Louis Philippe, a cousin of Charles X was selected to be the next king. He called himself the
“king of the French”. He was also known as the “bourgeois king”. He drew most of his support from the upper middle
class. As time passed he came to be influenced more and more by conservatives. In addition, beginning in 1846 France
began to suffer severe economic problems. In 1848, Louis Philippe attempted to further reduce the number of males who
could participate in government. This led to his ouster.
The provisional government called for elections to a Constituent Assembly that would write a constitution for a French
republic. A new constitution was ratified on November 4, 1848. It set up the Second Republic with a single legislature
and an elected President.
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte – (Napoleon’s nephew) was elected President. According to the constitution, he was
only allowed to serve one term. As the end of his term neared, Louis Napoleon urged that more men should be able to
vote. When the legislature frowned on this, he asked the people to restore the empire with himself as emperor. After a
plebescite for the restoration of the empire, on December 2, 1852, Napoleon III took the title of Emperor
In 1870 after the defeat in Franco-Prussian war the Second Empire fell and Napoleon fled t Britain.
The Revolutions in the Austrian Empire
Austria
In 1848, the Austrian Empire was ruled by the feeble-minded Ferdinand I (r. 1835-1848). Political authority was in the
hands of a triumvirate, led by the reactionary Prince Metternich. News of the February Revolution in France gave rise to
revolutionary fervor in the Austrian capital of Vienna. On March 13, 1848, rioting broke out in the city. Responding to
pressure from his opponents in the government, Metternich resigned and went into exile.
As the revolutionary disturbances subsided, the Austrian government began to recover its confidence. In October,
Ferdinand I abdicated and was replaced by his eighteen-year-old nephew, Francis Joseph (r. 1848-1916). The
government announced that the new emperor would not be bound by any commitments made by his predecessor. By
1851, the old system of centralized government had been restored with the exception of the robot, the system of
obligatory peasant labor.
Hungary
In 1848, the Austrian authorities were also confronted with revolutionary upheavals in Hungary. On March 3, 1848, the
radical Magyar nationalist Louis Kossuth (I 802-1894) demanded self-government for Hungary. In mid-March, the
Magyars established an elected parliament to replace the Hungarian diet and abolished serfdom. Faced with the
revolution in Vienna, the Austrian government was forced to recognize the virtual independence of Hungary.
In the autumn of 1848, the Austrians moved against the revolution in Hungary. In April 1849, the Hungarian diet declared
Hungary's independence of Austria, established a republic, and elected Kossuth as its first president.
In June 1849, Emperor Francis Joseph accepted the offer of assistance made by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. Some
100,000 Russian troops invaded Hungary, reinforcing the Austrian army there. On August 9, the combined AustroRussian force defeated Kossuth's army and Austrian control was restored over Hungary.
The Revolutions in Italy
In early 1848, revolutions against both the princely rulers and Austrian domination swept the Italian states. News of
Metternich's fall on March 13 led to the outbreak of rioting throughout northern Italy. By March of 1849, all of the
revolutions had been suppressed. In the effort to suppress these revolutions, France had occupied the Papal States and
would remain in Rome until the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.
Revolution in the German States
As news of the French February Revolution spread through the German states, agitation mounted in the cause of liberal
reform and national unification. Elsewhere in Germany, liberal nationalists from several states agreed in March to
convene a preliminary assembly to discuss the possibility of unifying Germany. This preliminary assembly decided to call
for the election of a national assembly to draft a constitution.
Elected by universal manhood suffrage, the German National Assembly began its deliberations in Frankfurt on May 18,
1848. One major issue facing the assembly was the question of whether Austria should be included in the new united
Germany. Some of the more conservative delegates favored both including Austria and inviting the Hapsburgs to accept
the German imperial crown. Others opposed the inclusion of Austria, arguing that the Hapsburgs would almost inevitably
oppose a liberal constitution and pointing out that the Austrian Empire included large areas that were inhabited by nonGermans. The view of those who wanted to exclude Austria prevailed. However, after writing a constitution and offering
the Prussian king the position of king of a united Germany, he turned it down. Efforts at unification thus failed in 1849.
The Two States to Avoid Revolution
Great Britain
Great Britain avoided the revolutions that most of Europe suffered during the first half of the 19th century. Reform Bill of
1832- eased property requirements so more people could vote, especially the industrialized middle class. It also
modernized the districts.
Parliament continued to make social and political reforms that kept the country stable.
A People's Charter (Chartists) of 1838 – called for the elimination of property requirements and called for suffrage for all.
Also called for annual elections to Parliament, pay for the members of the House of Commons, and the use of secret
ballots.
Russia
Russia was rural, agricultural and feudal with little industrialization. After the Russian defeat in the Crimean War in 1856,
the Russians realized the need to modernize.
Czar Alexander II made serious reforms. On March 3, 1861 Alexander issued the Emancipation Edict which freed the
serfs. Peasants could now own property and marry as they chose. But the new land system, mirs, was not helpful to the
peasants, the land left for them was poor and often they could not support themselves. The mirs were a collective
system of land ownership which tied the peasants together as a group. Any member who left would place a greater
burden on those who remained; therefore, leaving was rarely an option.
Alexander attempted other reforms, too but soon found he could please no one. The reformers wanted more changes at
a faster pace and the conservatives wanted to preserve traditional Russia.
Alexander Herzen, a populist, founded a group whose slogan was “land and freedom.” This group was compose of
young university students hoped to inspire a peasant uprising; however, the peasants turned many of the student radicals
over to the authorities. Herzen’s group later splintered into two groups and one faction, the “People’s Will, assassinated
Alexander II in 1881. Alexander II’s son and successor, Alexander III turned against reform and returned to the old
methods of repression.
Crimean War
This war is significant because it seriously weakened Austria and Russia, the two powers most bent on preserving the
peace settlement negotiated at Vienna in 1815. It was also the first war covered by war correspondents and the first in
which women, led by Florence Nightingale, established their position as army nurses.
The war began over a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire over the protection of Christians in the Ottoman
Empire, including the foreign Christians in Jerusalem and in Palestine. The French also claimed jurisdiction over these
same Christians. In 1853, war broke out between the Russians and the Turks. In 1854, the French and then the British
joined the war on the side of the Turks. Piedmont who wanted to advance the Italian question soon joined these two
powers. Russians lost the war.
Consequences of the Crimean War:
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Destroyed the Concert of Europe.
British entered their period of “splendid isolation.”
Russia withdrew to set it internal affairs in order.
Austria had lost friends because they did not aid Russia who had helped them defeat the Hungarians in the 1848
revolutions.
Prussia, which was not a participant and only a last minute invitee to the Congress, appeared on the waned.
Unification of Italy
Involved:
 King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont Sardinia
 Count Camillo di Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont Sardinia
 Napoleon III of France
 Giuseppe Garibaldi
Events to Unification:
 1858 – Aided by France, Piedmont waged war against Austria who dominated the Italian states which resulted in the
o aquisition of Lombardy by Piedmont Sardinia
 Series of riots and revolutions in northern Italian states led by nationalists who voted in a series of plebiscites to join
with Piedmont Sardinia
 May 1860 -- Led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, a small force of about 1100 nationalists sailed from Genoa to Sicily with the
intent of liberating Sicily and southern Italy and uniting this region with the north.
 Meeting between Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel in Naples where Garibaldi turned over Sicily and southern Italy to
Victor Emmanuel
 March, 1861 - an Italian parliament met and declared Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. The new kingdom had a
constitutional monarchy and an elected parliament.
 1866 -- Austro-Prussian War where Italy sided with Prussia and as a result secured Venetia the last northern state
needed for unification
 1871 – The French having withdrawn their troops from Rome to fight in the Franco-Prussian War, Italy took over the
Papal States, Rome became the capital, and according to the Law of Guarantees, the pope kept the section of Rome
known as Vatican City. The pope angered over this turn of events vowed never to leave the Vatican. No pope left
until 1921.
Unification did solve all of Italy's problems. Lack of strong leadership due to Cavour's death in 1861 and Garibaldi's lack
of political skill caused the government to frequently change prime ministers and cabinets. Economic problems, cultural
differences between the northern and southern Italy, and massive emigration further served to keep the newly united
nation weak.
Unification of Germany
Involved:
 King William I of Prussia
 Otto von Bismarck, Prussian chancellor
 King Christian IX of Denmark
 Isabella II of Spain
 Leopold of Hohenzollern, cousin of the Prussian king
 Napoleon III of France
Events:
 1815 - Congress of Vienna organized the 39 German states into the German Confederation dominated by Prussia
and Austria.
 1834 – Prussia formed the Zollverein, a free-trade area that included all the major German states, except Austria.
 1862 – William I named Otto von Bismarck prime minister. A tough, calculating politician, Bismarck set out to make
Prussia head of a united Germany. As such he saw Austria as Prussia's major rival. In his first speech to the
Prussian parliament, Bismarck said that the great questions of our day cannot be solved by speeches and majority
votes --- that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 --- “but by blood and iron.” His two goals were to
o
Drive Austria out of the German Confederation
o
Overcome Austrian influence in southern Germany.
 1864 – Danish War which began when Christian IX of Denmark attempted to annex Schleswig to Denmark. Prussia
and Austria joined as allies to quickly defeat Denmark. Prussia received Schleswig and Austria got Holstein.
 1866 - Seven Weeks' War – Using conflicts over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, Prussia provoked
Austria into declaring war. Efficiently using its rail system, the better-trained Prussian army, Prussia quickly defeated
the Austrian army. Austria was humiliated. It was forced to withdraw from the German Confederation, forfeit some
land to Prussia, and cede Venetia to Italy who had sided with Prussia.
 1867 - several northern German states united with Prussia to form North German Confederation. Each state had
self-government, but the king of Prussia was named the hereditary president of the Confederation; thus, making
Prussia the dominant party. Bismarck’s success was a triumph of authoritarian government and nationalism.
 1867 - Austria agreed to a dual monarchy with Hungary, thus creating the new empire of Austria-Hungary. Austria and
Hungary became two independent and equal states with one ruler
 1868 - Spanish revolutionaries overthrew Spain's queen, Isabella II.
 July 2, 1870 - Spaniards offered the Spanish throne to Leopold of Hohenzollern, cousin of the Prussian king.
 July 12, 1870 – In response to a protest from Napoleon III, Leopold turned it down. Napoleon then asked King
William I of Prussia to promise that a Hohenzollern would never sit on the throne of Spain. William prepared a written
reply and sent it to Bismarck to review.
 Bismarck reworded the reply to make it appear as if the French minister and Prussian king had quarreled and insulted
one another. He then leaked the famous “Ems Telegram” to the press, along with information that France had had
territorial designs on southern Germany since 1865.
 July 15, 1870 -- In response to this perceived insult, France declared war on Prussia (Franco-Prussian War) In
response, the southern German states allied with the North German Confederation – just what Bismarck had hoped
would happen.
 At the Battle of Sedan, the Prussian forces overwhelmed the French forces. Napoleon III was taken captive by the
Prussians.
 By September, 1870, Paris was surrounded.
 January 28, 1871 -- Paris was finally captured.
By the Treaty of Frankfurt, France lost Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. France was also required to pay 5 billion gold
francs (one billion dollars) in reparations or war damages.
As Bismarck had hope German nationalism had swept the southern states into the unification movement.
January 18, 1871 - at the palace of Versailles, William I of Prussia was crowned Kaiser of the newly formed German
Empire. This empire was known to Germans as the Second Reich; the First Reich having been the Holy Roman Empire.
The new Germany had a solid economic foundation. Soon it would overtake Britain as the greatest industrial nation in
Europe.
France, having been defeated, went through a series of crises. After an internal war, a new government was finally
established in 1875. The new government, The Third Republic, lasted nearly 60 years. However, because a dozen
political parties jockeyed for power, the government changed about every 10 months. The one thing that did unite
Frenchmen was their hatred for Germany. Seeking revenge France began to build it army and to seek political alliances.
The emergence of Germany had upset the balance of power in Europe. Growing nationalism and the spread of
industrialization will lead all of the countries of Europe into an arms race, which will eventually lead to the Great War.
Austria having been humiliated in the Austro-Prussian War was forced to deal with the Hungarian demands for autonomy.
In the Compromise of 1867 (Ausgleich), the Dual Monarchy of Austria Hungary was created. Both states now had their
own parliaments, their own capitals, and conducted their own domestic policies. The one thing that united the two was
that the Emperor of Austria was also the King of Hungary. This man was responsible for the foreign policy of both Austria
and Hungary.