Download 1A Chap 8,11,12 Guided Notes

1A Chap 8,11,12 Guided Notes
Chapter 8
Page 143
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Flying Foxeso Fruit-eating ________ found in Southeast Asian tropical rain forests
o Endangered Species because of deforestation and hunting
o ______________- important in sustaining tropical forest communities
§ Mutualism- pollinate many plants including the durian which is an exquisite fruit in South Asia
but smell so strongly that it is illegal to carry on trains. They also disperse plant seeds with their
feces.
Page 144
·
“The equation of animal and vegetable life is too complicated a problem for human
intelligence to solve, and we can never know how wide a circle of disturbance we produce in the
harmonies of nature when we throw the smallest pebble into the ocean of organic life.” – George
Perkins Marsh
·
________________________- defined by three characteristics
o ____________________________
§ Relative Size
§ Stratification
§ Distribution of populations and species
§ Edge area- size of transition between different communities. This area has combined
characteristics of both communities and can act as a barrier.
o __________________________- combination of
§ Species Richness- number of species
§ Species Evenness- abundance of individuals
·
Species Diversity is effected by several factorso Latitude- diversity declines as distance from equator increases
o Pollution - diversity declines as pollution increases
o Habitat Diversity
o NPP
o Habitat Disturbance
o Time
o Niche Structure- Ecological role of species
§ Number of niches
§ Range of similarities and differences between
Page 145
·
Islands
o Number of species determined by
§ Speed at which new species arrive and old species become extinct
§ Island size
§ Distance from mainland
o Species Equilibrium Model aka _____________________________
§ Proposed by Robert MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson
§ Number of species controlled by a balance between the speed at which new species immigrate
and old species become extinct. Eventually an island should achieve an equilibrium point
between immigration and extinction.
·
Two factors affect these rates on an island
o Size- Large=more species, Small = less species
§ Why? –Immigration rates are slower on small islands because they are smaller targets for
potential colonizers. Extinction rates are faster on small islands because they have less resources
and less diversity of habitats.
·
·
A second factor is an island’s _________________
What labels do ecologists often use?
·
What do they describe?
·
_____________ are those that normally live and thrive in a particular community.
·
Others that evolved somewhere else and then migrate into or are deliberately or accidentally
introduced into a community are called ___________________________________________
·
Give an example of unexpected consequences
·
What is an Indicator Species?
·
What were canaries used for?
·
Page 148
·
The disappearance of many of the world's amphibian species may indicate a decline in
environmental quality in many parts of the world.
·
_________________ live in water and on land
·
Since 1980 populations of hundreds of the world's estimated ___________ amphibian
species have been vanished or declining in almost every part of the world, even in protected
wildlife reserves and parks
·
No single _________________ has been identified to explain the amphibian declines;
however there are a number of factors that can affect amphibian in their life cycle.
·
Some of the factors include habitat loss and fragmentation, prolonged drought, pollution,
increases in UV radiation, increased incidence of parasitism, overhunting, introduction of
nonnative predators and competitors
·
_________________ of amphibians can suggest 3 things: 1. It suggests environmental
quality deteriorating in parts of the world because amphibians are sensitive biological indicators
of changes in environmental conditions 2. Adult amphibians play important ecological roles in
biological communities. 3. From a human perspective, amphibians represent a genetic storehouse
of pharmaceutical products waiting to be discovered.
·
_________________________________ help determine the types and numbers of various
other special in a community
·
According to the hypothesis, keystone species play critical ecological roles such as
pollution.
·
An example of keystone species is the _____________________. These beetles move,
bury, and recycle animal waste. Without them we would be to our eyeball in waste.
·
The loss of keystone species can lead to _______________ and extinctions of other species
in a community that depend on it for certain services.
Page
149
·
______________________ can create and enhance habitats that can benefit other species in
a community
·
Some ecologists think that keystone species should be expanded to include the role of
foundation species, which play a major role in shaping communities by creating and enhancing
habitat that benefits other species.
Page 150
·
Proponents of the foundation species hypothesis say that Paine's study of the role of the
starfish piaster orchaceus as a keystone species in an internal zone did not take into account the
role of mussels as foundation species. According to the hypothesis, mussel’s beds are homes to
hundreds of invertebrate species that do poorly in the presence of mussel competitors such as sea
stars. When scientists measured the overall diversity of the species in the tide pool rather than just
the 18 species observed by Paine they found that the overall diversity of the species was rather
greater when the keystone sea star species was absent. Its absence allowed the number of
mussel’s species and the spices they interact with to expand. From this point of view, the mussels
should be viewed as a __________________ that expanded species richness
·
Competition, _____________________, parasitism, mutualism, and
_____________________are ways in which species can interact and increase their ability to
survive
·
When species in a community have activities or resources in common, they may interact
with one another.
·
Members of these species may be harmed, helped, or unaffected by the interactions
·
Ecologists identify 5 basic types of interactions between species: interspecific, competition,
predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
·
The most common interaction between species is competition for shared or scarce
resources. Ecologists call such competition between species _____________________________.
When this occurs, parts of the fundamental niches of the competing species overlap. With
significant overlap, one of the competing species must migrate or shift its feeding habits.
·
Some species evolve adaptations that allow them to reduce or avoid competition for
resources with other species
·
Over a time scale long enough for evolution to occur, some species competing for the same
resources evolve adaptations that reduce or avoid competition. One way this happens is through
resource partitioning. It occurs when species competing for similar scarce resources evolve more
specialized traits that allow them to use shared resources at different times
·
How do Predator and Prey Species Interact? Eaten and Being Eaten.
o ________________________: members of one species (the predator) feed directly on all or
part of a living organism of another species (the prey). This is called a predator-prey relationship.
o Most predation occurs on a microscopic level in the soil of aquatic systems.
o At an individual level, the prey is harmed. On a population level, predation can be beneficial
because the predators kill the least fit members of the population, aiding in natural selection.
·
Case Study: Why Are Sharks Important Species? Culling the Oceans and Helping Improve
Human Health.
o Sharks feed on sick and injured animals and therefore prevent the ocean from becoming
overcrowded.
o Many people think that shark attacks are common, but this is just the interpretation of sharks.
White sharks are responsible for most of the attacks because they mistake humans for sea lions.
o Sharks are caught by humans mostly for their fins.
o Sharks rarely get cancer, so scientists are studying them. They are also studying their immune
systems which allow wounds to heal without getting infected.
o Sharks are slow ________________, so they are vulnerable to population decline due to
overfishing. Bans have been placed on fishing sharks, but they are hard to enforce.
·
How Do Predators Increase Their Chances of Getting a Meal? Pursue, Ambush, and
Immobilize.
o ________________ can simply approach the plants they feed on.
o ___________________ that feed on mobile prey have two options: ambush and pursuit.
o Other tactics are running fast, keen eyesight, hunting in packs, camouflage, and venom.
·
How Do Prey Defend Themselves Against or Avoid Predators? Escape, Repel, Deceive,
and Poison.
o Tactics include: running fast, good sight/smell, protective shell/skin, camouflage,
and _____________ (poisonous, irritating, foul smelling, bad tasting)
Pgs. 154-157
·
Bioprospectors are scientists that go into nature to find promising _________ chemicals for
medicines and natural pesticides.
·
Warning coloration advertises a warning to potential predators to avoid eating them.
-Ex; Poisonous frogs, monarch butterflies, grasshoppers.
·
Mimicry is when an animal looks or acts like a dangerous one to trick potential prey.
-Ex; Viceroy butterfly looks and acts like a monarch.
8-4
·
Parasitism occurs when one species _______ on part of another organism, actually by
living ___ or ___ the host.
-The parasite benefits and the host is harmed.
-Ex; Tapeworms, ticks, fleas, mosquitoes.
·
Mutualism is when two species interact in a way that _______ both.
-Pollination mutualism is between _______ and animals such as ______, _______, ________.
Most common form of mutualism.
-An example of __________ mutualism is when both species are supported nutritionally by each
other.
-Gut inhabitant mutualism is when ___________, such as bacteria, live in an animal’s digestive
tract. They help __________ their host’s food.
·
Commensalism is a species ___________ that benefits one species but has ______ effect
on the other species.
-Ex; Redwood sorrel, a small herb that benefits from growing in the shade of tall redwood trees;
they don’t harm the trees at all.
8-5
·
Ecological succession is the gradual _______ in species composition of a given area.
·
Primary succession-
Early successional plant species-
Midsuccessional plant species-
Late successional plant species-
Secondary succession-
Pg 157
·
_______________________ begins in an area where the natural community of organisms
has been disturbed, removed, or destroyed but some soil or bottom sediment remains.
·
Candidates are: __________________, burned or cut forests, heavily polluted streams, and
dammed or ______________ land.
·
“Thus as succession proceeds, the numbers and types of ____________ and
_________________ also change.”
Pg 158
·
(Copy the chart)
Pg 159
·
Facilitation – One set of __________ makes an area suitable for species with
different ___________ requirements.
·
Inhibition – Early species ___________ the establishment and growth of other species.
Occurs when plants release ___________ chemicals that reduce competition from other plants.
·
Tolerance – Late successional plants are largely unaffected by plants at earlier stages of
succession.
·
Disturbance – A change in ______________________ that disrupts a community or
ecosystem. (Aka fire, drought, flooding, mining, clear-cutting a forest, etc.)
·
Catastrophic disturbances can create ___________________ that can discourage or
eliminate some species but ________________ others by releasing nutrients and creating
unfulfilled niches.
·
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis – Communities that experience
fairly ________________ but moderate disturbances have the greatest species diversity.
·
Balance of Nature – A community is dominated by a few long-lived plant species and is
in ______________ with its environment.
·
Succession ______________ the ongoing struggle by different species for enough light,
nutrients, food, and space.
·
Terms like “______________” are being preferred over “______________” – which
implies an ordered and expected sequence of changes.
Pg. 160-161
 Everything living must maintain some degree of
and sustainability while
everything is changing
 All systems change in
to changing environmental conditions
 Stability is only maintained by constant
in response to changing environmental
conditions.
 Three aspects of
: inertia, constancy, resilience
 Inertia (
): ability of a living system to resist being disturbed or altered
 Constancy: ability of a living system to keep it’s
within the limits imposed by
available resources
 Resilience: ability of a living system to
damage after an external disturbance
isn’t too drastic
 Having many different species usually
the communities stability
 Complexity: number of
in a community at each trophic level and the number
of trophic levels in a community.
 At first thought greater
, greater _____________
 Many ecologists do not agree on the ________ of stability
 Grasslands are much less diverse than most________ , they are low inertia
 Populations, communities, and ecosystems are rarely, if ever, at _________
 Some suggest we should cut down diverse ________forests, use resources, and plant
new single tree species


Humans are __________ ecosystems that are essential to us
_________ Principle: taking measures to prevent humans from harming ecosystems
valuable to us
Start Chapter 11 (Pages 194-195)
Reintroducing a ____________ such as the gray wolf into a terrestrial ecosystem is one way to
help sustain its biodiversity and prevent environmental degradation.
In 1987, the USFWS proposed reintroducing gray wolves into the ________ ________.
Since 1995, ______ _____ _______ have caught gray wolves in Canada and relocated them in
Yellowstone.
With wolves around, _____ are gathering less near streams and rivers.
In 2003, the __________________ downgraded the gray wolf throughout most of the lower 48
from endangered to threatened.
What 3 factors are exerting increasing pressure on the world’s forests, grasslands, parks,
wilderness, and other terrestrial storehouses of biodiversity?
·
·
·
How have human activities affected the earth’s biodiversity?
What are the major types of public lands in the United States, and how are they used?
Why are forest resources important, and how are they used, managed, and sustained?
What can we do to help sustain the earth’s biodiversity?
How have human activities affected global biodiversity? Increasing our ecological footprint
About 82% of ________ _________ ________ have been cleared, fragmented, and dominated
because their soils and climate are very favorable for growing food and urban development.
Biodiversity
· Extreme environmental conditions.
· Large environmental disturbance.
· Intense environmental stress.
· Severe shortages of key resources.
· Nonnative species introduction.
· Geographic isolation.
Pages: 196-197
____% of California’s grasslands are gone
Global extinction rate multiplied by ____ after humans settled on the Earth.
____________________________ benefits us in the form of economic goods
and services, ecological services, reaction, scientific information, and
preserving option for uses in the future.
________________________: Knowing something is close to extinction and
still getting use from it.
_________________ is the value that people assign to economic goods.
What is a non-use value because people appreciate it’s beauty?
Based off of the willingness of people to pay to protect some forms of natural
capital is called ____________________________
Conservation Biology is
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________. The most endangered
and species rich ecosystems are called _____________________________ Bio-infomatics is the
science of _________, __________, and ____________________ biological info. National Forest
Systems consists of _____ forests and ____ grasslands.
Pages 198-199
What does USFWS stand for?
Most refugees protect ___________ and _____________________ for waterfowl and big game
to provide a harvestable supply for hunters; a few protect endangered species from extinction.
The National Park Service includes______ major parks and ______ national recreation areas,
monuments, memorials, battlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, seashores, and
lakeshores.
What do federal public lands contain?
What are the four principles that should govern use of public land?
*
*
*
There is strong and effective ______________ to these ideas.
In recent years, the government has given more than __________________ a year in subsides to
privately owned mining, logging, and grazing interests using U.S public lands.
What are three of the things developers and resource extractors want?
What are the three major types of forests?
Forests with at least ______ tree cover occupy _____ of the earths land surface.
What is an old growth forest?
Pg. 200-202
______________________________________________________ is a stand of trees resulting
from secondary ecological succession.
Secondary Growth Forests develop after trees in an area have been removed by
_________________________ and _______________________.
A managed tract with uniformly aged trees of one species that are harvested by clear-cutting as
soon as they become commercially valuable.
_____% of world’s forests are secondary growth.
_____% are old growth forests.
_____% are tree plantations.
Logging threatens _____% of forests.
Maintaining trees in a given stand at about the same age and same size is called
__________________________________________
___________________________________________ is maintaining a variety of tree species at
many ages and sizes to foster natural regeneration.
Government owns _____% of the remaining forests in developing countries.
The first step in forest management is to _________________________ for access and timber
removal.
Logging roads also expose forests to invasion by ________________________,
_________________, and ________________________________.
What is selective cutting? _________________________ cutting removes all mature trees in an
area in 2 or 3 cuttings.
_____________________________ removes all trees from an area in a single cutting.
A clear cutting variation that can provide sustainable timbre yield without widespread destruction
is _____________________________.
(pgs 203-211)
List one advantage and one disadvantage to clear-cutting forests.
Cutting down large forest areas reduces _____________ .
Define Deforestation:
What happens when deforestation occurs over a large enough area?
Deforestation can also contribute to projected _________ ___________ if trees are removed
faster than they grow back.
It takes _____ years for a replacement forest to accumulate the same amount of carbon stored in
the original forest.
Human activities have reduced the earth’s forest cover by what percentage?
The global rate of forest cover loss during the 1990’s was between ____ and _____ a year, and
at least another ______ of the world’s forests were degraded.
If the current deforestation rates continue, about ______ of the world’s remaining intact forests
will have been logged or converted to other uses within ____________ years.
What are the two pieces of good news?
What is the economic value of income from the earth’s ecological services according to the
University of Vermont?
To estimate the monetary values of the ecological services provided by the world’s natural
capital, the researchers divided the earth’s surface into ____ biomes and aquatic life zones.
They then attempted to put a ________ _______ on such services in the 16 different types of
ecosystems.
According to this, how much are the ecological services that the world’s forests provide us with
worth?
The researchers say their estimates could easily be too low by a factor of ____ to __________
or more.
What was omitted from the calculations?
What three important facts do these researchers hope that the estimates will call people’s attention
to?
What are two reasons that we have no changed our accounting system to reflect these losses?
How can we manage forests more sustainably?
How can we certify sustainably grown timber?
US forests cover more area than they did in ______, more wood is ________ than ______ , and
the country has set aside large areas of protected forests.
Forests cover about ______ of the US land area, which provide habitats for more than ______ of
the country’s wildlife and species.
The good news about forests:
The bad news about forests:
How can we reduce the damage of insects and disease?
_______________ fires can burn away ______________ underbrush and small trees, burn large
trees and ___________ from treetop to treetop, or burn flammable materials found
__________________________.
Name and describe the 3 types of fires
What are the ecological benefits of surface fires?
Where do crown fires most occur?
Which type of fire is the most difficult to detect and extinguish?
How can we reduce forest damage from fire?
The two ways to help protect forest resources from fire are ______________ and
___________________.
Ways to prevent forest fires are:
What campaign and council has prevented countless forest fires?
According to the U.S. Forest Service, severe fires could threaten about _____ of all federal forest
lands, mainly through ____________ from past protection programs, and increased
___________ in the 1980s that left behind ____________.
Name and give examples of strategies to reduce the harm from fires to forests and people.
According to biologists and many forest fire scientists, laws to reduce forest fires are likely to
_____________ the chances of severe forest fires. Two reasons of this are:
Fire scientists agree a program to accomplish the reduction of catastrophic fires should focus on
what two goals?
Biodiversity experts and environmentalists call for sharply ________ or ___________ tree
harvesting in national forests and using more ___________ forest management practices for
timber cutting in forests.
How do environmentalists believe forests should be primarily managed?
What reasons caused Congress to increase timber harvests?
How did the law Congress pass effect the Forest Service?
By law, the Forest Service must sell timber for ___________________________ of reforesting
the cleared land. But the price does not include the government-subsidized for ___________ and
___________ access roads for timber removal by logging companies.
Why is the Forest Service losing money?
What were the facts revealed the 2000 case study by the accounting firm?
List an advantage and a disadvantage to logging in U.S. National Forests
Almost ___________ of the wood consumed in the United States is wasted.
Why does this wasting occur?
If we reduce the waste of wood and paper products by _____, we could eliminate the need to
remove any timber from national forests.
Where do tree-free fibers come from?
Why does kenaf need less herbicide than pulpwood?
Tropical forests cover about ______ of the earth’s land area- roughly the area of the lower _____
states.
Studies indicate that more than _______ of the world’s species of terrestrial plants and animals
live in tropical rain forests.
Brazil has about _____ of the world’s remaining tropical rain forest in the Amazon basin.
By 2003, almost _____ of the Amazon basin had been deforested or degraded.
How long do they say it will take for Brazil’s Amazon rain forest to largely disappear?
What three factors are causing disagreements about how rapidly the tropical forests and
being gdeforested and degraded?
What are the causes of tropical deforestation and degradation?
Pg. 213-215
Solutions: The Incredible Neem Tree
We must protect the plants of the tropical rainforest because, like the Neem tree of India, many
medicinal applications can improve health the world over.
1. The neem tree is a broadleaf evergreen of the mahogany family.
2. This tree can reforest degraded land quickly, supply fuelwood and lumber, provide natural
alternatives to pesticides, be used to treat various diseases, and help control population growth.
a. It is a native of India and Burma.
b. It is full-grown in 5–7 years, in poor soil and semiarid lands.
c. Chemicals in its leaves and seed repel/kill insects.
d. This tree is a “village pharmacy.”
d. Its oil is an effective spermicide and may contribute to development of a male birth control
pill.
e.
Ecologists caution against widespread planting of the tree outside its native habitat; it could
become an invasive species elsewhere.
11-7 National Parks
National parks, established by governments, are popular with people all over the world.
A. Several threats to national parks must have a sustainable response.
1. Parks, especially in developing countries, need protection.
a. People search for wood, game animals, etc.
b. Loggers, miners, and poachers take all they want from the parks.
c. Money must be available to protect parks from these rapists.
d. Parks are too small to sustain many large animals.
2. People illegally remove native species.
3. Nonnative species invade parks.
a. European wild boars threaten vegetation in parts of the Great Smoky Mountains National
Park; Mountain goats in Washington’s Olympic National Park trample vegetation and hasten soil
erosion.
4. Cars are congesting the roads; trails are eroded, causing stress for visitors instead of solitude.
5. Visitors often expect to have urban-type facilities in national and state parks.
6. Parks have too many tourists and not enough staff members, and rangers spend more time on
law enforcement than on conservation, management, and education.
7. Human activities compromise the environment everywhere; parks are no exception. They are
supporting mining, grazing, coal-burning power plants, polluted air, and urban development.
8. All kinds of vehicles: dirt bikes, dune buggies, snowmobiles, and OVRs (off road vehicles)
destroy vegetation and disturb wildlife and people.
B. To stabilize park conditions, the Gray wolf has been re-introduced to Yellowstone National
Park.
1. The wolves kept the populations of bison, elk, caribou, mule deer, and coyotes under control.
2. Without the wolves, a keystone species, the environment was being undermined by expanding
animal herds that devastated vegetation, increased erosion, and threatened the ecological niches
of other types of wildlife.
3. The re-introduced wolves have benefited the environment. Aspen and willow tree growth has
expanded and in doing so has attracted beavers to new areas. Wolves killing elk have provided
grizzlies another food source. The wolves have decreased the coyote population, which has
helped grow smaller animals like ground squirrels and foxes.
C. Private concessionaires provide campgrounds, restaurants, hotels, and other services while
paying 6–7% of gross receipts in franchise fees. Some analysts call for raising fees to 22% of
gross receipts.
11-8 Nature Reserves
In order to sustain the earth’s biodiversity, we need to establish and manage more nature
reserves.
1.
Conservation biologists call for a strict protection of at least 20% of earth’s global system
as biodiversity reserves that include multiple examples of all the earth’s biomes.
1. Some progress is occurring with Brazil, Gabon, and Canada establishing more national parks.
2. Developers and resource extractors generally oppose protecting any of the earth’s remaining
undisturbed ecosystems.
B. The most impressive country in conserving its land and natural resources has been Costa
Rica.
1. It has established a system of reserves and national parks that included one-fourth of its land
by 2003.
2. It has consolidated its parks and reserves into eight megareserves, which sustain 80% of the
country’s biodiversity. Almost two-thirds of its yearly tourism business comes from eco-tourism!
3. Tourism may also undermine the protected areas without careful government control.
C. The Nature Conservancy, founded in 1951, has created the world’s largest system of private
natural areas and wildlife sanctuaries in 30 countries.
1. Private and corporate donations maintain a fund for buying ecologically important pieces of
land or wetlands.
2. Landowners who donate land to the Nature Conservancy in exchange for lifetime
occupancy rights also receive sizable tax deductions.
B. Large reserves are usually the best way to protect biodiversity, but in some locales, several
well-placed, medium-sized, isolated reserves may be a better way to protect a variety of habitats.
2.
Establishment of habitat corridors helps to support more species and allows migration of
vertebrates with large ranges.
1. Migration of individuals can occur when environmental conditions deteriorate within a
range.
2. They can also threaten isolated populations by allowing movement of pest species, disease,
fire, and exotic species between reserves.
3. They may be costly to acquire, protect, and maintain.
3.
Biosphere reserves have an inner protected core surrounded by two buffer zones that can
be used by people for sustainable extraction of resources, food, and fuel.
1. UNECSO created the Man and the Biosphere Programme in 1971 to establish biosphere
reserves in each of the 193 bio geographical zones.
2. The core area of the reserve is protected from all human activities except nondestructive
research and monitoring.
3. A buffer zone surrounds the core zone and protects it.
4. A second buffer zone/transition zone surrounds the inner buffer and can be used by local
people for sustainable forestry, grazing, hunting, fishing, agriculture, and recreation.
5. Presently most biosphere reserves are underfunded and fall short of the ideal.
6. A fund of about $100 million per year would help countries protect and manage biosphere
reserves.
4.
People with competing interests can work together to develop adaptable plans to manage
and sustain nature reserves.
1. One way to do this is with adaptive ecosystem management, based on using the following
four principles.
a.
Integrate ecological, economic, and social principles to maintain and restore diversity of
reserves.
b. Find a way to get diverse agencies, private conservation organizations, scientists, business
interests, and landowners to reach a consensus on achievement of common conservation goals.
c.
Look at all decisions as experiments, learn from failures, and improve.
d. Continually gather information, monitor, reassess, be flexible, adapt, and innovate when
faced with uncertainty.
2. Conservation biologists use an emergency action strategy to identify and protect
biodiversity hot spots. These are areas especially rich in biodiversity found nowhere else on
Earth and are in danger of extinction.
5.
Wilderness consists of undeveloped land affected primarily by forces of nature, and man
is a visitor.
1. Wilderness areas should be at least 1,500 square miles so as not to be affected by air, water,
and noise pollution.
2. People can enjoy nature’s beauty and observe the natural diversity. Wilderness areas can
also help the mental and physical health of visitors.
3. These areas are centers for evolution and the preservation of biological diversity, a type of
natural savings account.
4. Wild species that inhabit wilderness also have a right to exist without human interference.
The Wilderness Act was not passed in the U.S. until 1964. Only about 4.6% of U.S. land
is protected as wilderness with almost three-fourths of it in Alaska.
1. Only about 1.8% of the lower 48 states are protected as wilderness.
2. Only 81 of the 233 distinct ecosystems are protected in wilderness, and most are smaller
than the 1,500 square miles recommended.
3. About 150,000 square miles could qualify foe wilderness status, and about 60% of it is in
national forests.
4. Industries see these areas as sources of increased profits and short-term economic growth.
5. The Bush administration stopped protection of areas under consideration for wilderness
status in 2003.
6. Wilderness advocates call for creating wilderness recovery areas where roads would be
removed from public lands and wildlife habitats restored.
7. Strong opposition to these projects makes them unlikely to occur.
6.
Pg. 216-217
 Costa Rica’s parks and reserve are consolidated into eight mega reserves designed to
sustain about 80% of Costa Rica’s biodiversity
 Increased tourism can stimulate the building of too many hotels, resorts and other
potentially harmful forms of development.
 The nature Conservancy has created the world’s largest system of private natural areas
and wildlife sanctuaries in 30 countries. Large reserves usually are the best way to protect
biodiversity, but in some places several well-placed, medium-sized, and isolated reserves can
do the job.
 Establishing protected habitat corridors between reserves can help support more species
and allow migration of vertebrates that need large ranges.
 Biosphere reserves have an inner protected core surrounded by two buffer zones that can
be used by local people for sustainable extraction of resources for food and fuel.
 The core area contains an important ecosystem that government legally protects from all
humans activities except nondestructive research and monitoring.
 A buffer zone surrounds and protects the core area.
 The second buffer or transition zones surround the inner buffer.
 People with competing interests can work together to develop adaptable plans for
managing and sustaining nature reserves.
Pg. 218-220
 Adaptive ecosystem management- Four principles1. Integrate ecological, economic and social help maintain a restore the sustainability and
biological diversity of reserves while supporting sustainable economics and communities.
2. Seeks ways to get government agencies, private conversation organizations, scientist, etc. to
reach a consensus on how to achieve common conservation objectives.
3. View all decisions and strategies as scientific and social experiments and use failures as
opportunities.
4. Emphasize continual information gathering, monitoring, reassessment, flexibility, etc. in the
face of uncertainty and usually unpredictable change.
 We can prevent or slow down losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on
protecting hotspots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat.
 Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough are to prevent or minimize harm
from human activities.
 Only a small percent of the land areas in the USA has been set aside as wilderness only
4.6% 3/45 of Alaska.

The wilderness and project (TWP) is to establish a network of protected wilderness and
ecosystems throughout the USA as much as possible.
 Scientists have developed a number of techniques for rehabilitating and restoring
degraded ecosystems and creating artificial ones.
 Ecological restoration- the process of repairing damages causes b humans to the
biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems
Example: Replanting forests, restoring grasslands
 How natural ecosystems recover-Rehabilitation- attempts to turn degraded ecosystems back into functional or useful ecosystems.
-Restoration- - Trying to return a habitat or ecosystem to a condition close to the natural
state.
-Remediation- cleaning up chemical contaminants
-Replacement- replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.
-Creating artificial ecosystem- creation of artificial wetlands as an example.
5 basic science based principles for carrying out ecological restoration:
1. Mimic nature and natural processes and ideally let nature do its thing.
2. Recreate important ecological niches that have been lost.
3. Rely on pioneer species, keynote species, foundation species and natural ecological
succession to facilitate the restoration process.
4. Control or remove harmful nonnative species
5. If necessary, reconnect small patches to form large ones and create corridors where existing
patches are isolated.
Pg. 221-222
·
A degraded tropical dry forest in Costa Rica is being restored in a cooperative venture
between tropical ecologists and local people.
o Daniel Janzen recognized that ecological restoration will fail unless people in surrounding
areas believe they will benefit from such efforts.
o If children understand the ecological importance of their environment, they are more likely to
protect and sustain it.
·
Biodiversity expert Edward O. Wilson has proposed eight priorities for protecting most of
the world’s remaining ecosystems and species.
o Take immediate action to preserve the world’s biological hot spots.
o Keep intact the world’s remaining old-growth forests and cease all logging of such forests.
o Complete the mapping of the world’s terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity so we know what we
have and can make conversation efforts more precise and cost-effective.
o Determine the world’s marine hot spots and assign them the same priority for immediate
action as for those on land.
o Concentrate on protecting and restoring everywhere the world’s lake and river system, which
are the most threatened ecosystems of all.
o Ensure that the full range of the earth’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are included in a
global conversation strategy.
o Make conservation profitable.
o Initiate ecological restoration products worldwide to heal some of the damage we have done
and increase the share of the earth’s land and water allotted to the rest of nature.
·
Such conservation strategies would cost about $30 billion per year-an amount that could be
provided by a tax of one cent per cup of coffee.
·
We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as
a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.
APES Guided Notes p.224-234
Species can become extinct locally, ____________, and globally.
_______________________ occurs when a species is no longer found in an area it once
inhabited but still found elsewhere in the world.
_______________________ is when so few members of a species are left that it can no
longer play its ecological roles in the biological communities where it is found.
_______________________ when a species is forever lost, and when a species is no
longer found anywhere on Earth
_______________________ have so few individual survivors that the species could soon
become extinct
_______________________ are still abundant in their natural range but because of
declining numbers are likely to become endangered
List 3 endangered species.
About ______ of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. This is partially due to
__________________________, in which large numbers of species are lost over a period of a
few centuries or at most 1,000 years.
List 3 reasons it is difficult for biologists to catalog extinctions.
A __________________________ helps biologists project future extinction rates by
observing how the number of species present increases with the size of an area. It suggests that
_______________ species will become extinct in tropical forests during the next few decades.
Biologists estimate that the current rate of extinction is at least 1,000 to __________ times
the rate before we arrived, which amounts to an annual extinction rate of __________________.
List 3 reasons the extinction rates above are not accurate for future human activity?
It will take at least 50 million years for ______________ to rebuild the biodiversity we are
likely to destroy during this century.
Species have an instrumental value based on their ______________________ (food crops,
__________ and lumber, paper, and _________), ______________________ (genetic
information, and recreational pleasure.
Worldwide there are _______ known species of bats
___________ are the only mammals that can fly
About _________% of all bats species feed on crop-damaging nocturnal insects and other
insect pest species such as mosquitoes.
_______________________ bats pollinate flowers, and ________________________ bats
distribute plants throughout tropical forests by excreting undigested seeds.
Bats are vital for maintaining plant __________________ and for regenerating large areas
of tropical forest cleared by human activities
Biologist Edward O. Wilson believes most people feel obligated to protect other species
and the Earth’s biodiversity because most humans seem to have a natural affinity for nature that
he calls __________________.
___________________ asserts that each individual organism has a right to survive
without human interference.
Some conservation biologists focus more on the true foundation of the earth’s ecosystems
and ecological processes are the invisible __________, and the __________,__________ and
other microorganisms
Conservation biologists sometimes summarize the mains secondary factors leading to
premature extinction using the acronym HIPPO for habitat destruction and fragmentation,
invasive or alien species, population growth, pollution, and overharvesting.
The greatest threat to wild species is ________________, ________________,
________________.
Species are more vulnerable to extinction when their habitats are divided into smaller,
more ______________ patches.
What is habitat fragmentation?
About ____% of 9,800 known bird species are declining in numbers. One in ____ birds
species are threatened with extinction because of habitat loss and fragmentation.
Nonnative species are the _______ greatest threat to birds.
_____% of U.S. food supply was nonnative species like corn, wheat, rice, cattle, wheat,
rice, cattle, poultry, and other food crops and livestock
Estimated _____________ nonnative species introduced to the U.S. have caused
ecological or economic harm
Nonnative species threaten almost half of _________endangered or threatened species in
the United States and 95% in Hawaii.
___________of fish extinctions in the United States are because of nonnative species.
Kudzu Vine is a deliberately introduced plant from Japan to help
control__________________. The plant is now almost impossible to control.
The _______________________controls erosion but it is also prolific and difficult to kill.
It engulfs hill sides, gardens, trees, abandoned houses and cars. It is mostly in the southern states
in the U.S.(“The vine that ate the south”)
Degraded natural capital- reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species mostly result of
habitat loss and hunting.
Threats to natural capital- some nonnative species that have been deliberately or
accidentally introduced into the United States
Pg 235-238
1. A growing number of accidentally introduces species are causing serious ___________
and_____________ damage.
2. Many unwanted nonnative _______________ arrive from other continents as stowaways on
aircraft, in the ballast water of tankers and cargo ships, and as packing crates.
3. Where ever fire ants have gone they have wiped out _____ of native ant populations.
4. Preventions are the best way to reduce the treats from nonnative species because once they
had arrived it was ___________ and __________ to slow their speed.
5. In suburban areas we can trap and move deer somewhere else, put them on ________ control,
sterilize them, or not plant their favorite _______ around houses.
6. Some protected species are killed for their _____________ parts or are sold live to collectors.
7. Characteristics of successful invader species
· High reproductive rate and short generation time
· Pioneer species
· Long lived
· High ____________ rate
· Release growth-inhibiting ___________ into soil
· Generalists
8. High genetic variability Characteristics of Ecosystems vulnerable to invader species
· Similar climate to habitat of invader
· Absence of predators on invading species
· Early successional systems
· Absence of fire
· Disturbed by human activities
Page 238-240
 Suburbanization has created an all-you-can-eat edge ____________ for deer.
 Deer kill and injure more people each year in the U.S. than any other wild species.
 Poverty is one reason behind the illegal _______________ of wild species. Some poor
people struggling to survive in areas with rich stores of wildlife kill or trap.

In 1950, an estimated ___________ tigers existed in the world. Despite international
protection, today fewer than ________ tigers remain in the wild, mostly because of habitat
loss and poaching for fur and bones.
 As commercially valuable species become endangered, their black market demand soars
increasing their chance of premature ___________ from poaching.
 Killing wild animals for bushmeat has become more widespread for four reasons. 1 and
eightfold increase in Africa’s population during the last century has led more people survive
be hunting _________ animals 2. Logging roads have allowed miners, rancher, and settlers to
move into once inaccessible forest 3. Restaurants in many parts of the world have begun
serving bushmeat dishes 4. Many people living in poverty find that selling wild animals or
their valuable parts to collectors, meat suppliers and poachers is a way to make enough
money to survive.
 People try to ______________ species that compete with them for food and game
animals
 Collecting ___________ plants and pets kills large numbers of them and endangers many
of these species and others that depend on them
 Most climate changes happen over a long period of time
 Global warming could increase ___________ be altering one-third of the word’s wild life
habitats by 2100
 Pollution threatens ____________ and species in a number of ways
Pages 241-243
·
One of the world’s most far reaching and a controversial _________________ law is the
U.Ss endangered species act passed in 1973.
·
Lacy act of 1900. It prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or their parts across
state boarders without federal permit.
·
Endangered species act of 1973 which was amended in 1982 1985 and 1988.
·
The national marine fisheries service is responsible for identifying and listing endangered
and ___________ ocean species and the U.S fish and wildlife service’s identifies and lists all
other endangered and threatened species.
·
The endangered species act requires protecting the critical habitat and developing a
recovery plan for each listed species, but lack of ___________ and political opposition hinder
these efforts.
·
Critical habitats have been _______________ for only about one third of the species on the
ESA list, mostly because of the political pressure and lack of funds.
·
About half of the current ____________ plans only on paper because of political
oppositions and limited funds
·
There is controversy over whether the ______________ should compensate private
property owners who suffer financial losses when it restricts how the can use their land because
of presence of threatened or endangered species
·
5th amendment gives the government the power to force a citizen to sell property needed for
a public good
·
Congress has amended the _____________ species act to help land owners protest
endangered species on their land
·
Voluntary candidate conversion agreements in which land owners agree to help conserve a
species whose _______________ is declining but not yet and endangered species officially.
·
Some believe the ______________ species act should be weakened or replaced because it
has been failure tramples on private property rights and hinder economic development of private
land
244-246
·
Desired changes to the Endangered Species Act include:
o Greatly increase the meager funding for implementing the act
o Develop __________ plans more quickly
o When a species is first listed, establish a core of its survival habitat as a temporary emergency
measure that could support the species for 25-50 years.
·
Biologists and wildlife ___________________ believe the United States should modify the
Endangered Species Act to emphasize protecting and sustaining biological diversity and
ecological functioning rather than attempting to save individual species.
o Find out what species and _____________ the country has
o Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species within such systems
o Put more emphasis on ______________ species from becoming threatened and ecosystems
from becoming degraded
o Provide private landowners who agree to help protect endangered ecosystems with significant
financial incentives and technical help
·
The National Wildlife Refuge System has 542 refuges
·
About one-fifth of U.S. endangered and threatened species have habitats in the refuge
system
·
The National Wildlife Refuge Association found that invasions by nonnative species are
wreaking havoc on many of the nation’s wildlife refuges
·
Gene or seed banks preserve ___________ information and endangered plant
·
Botanical gardens and arboretums contain living plants representing almost one-third of the
world’s known plant species.
·
Zoo’s aquariums can help protect endangered animal species but lack funding and storage
space.
·
Butterfly farms in Papua New Guinea where many _____________ species are threatened
by habitat destruction and fragmentation, commercial overexploitation, and
environmental degration.
·
2 techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species are egg pulling and captive
breeding.
o Egg pulling: collecting wild eggs laid by critically _____________ bird species and then
hatching them in zoos or research centers
o Captive breeding: some or all of the wild individuals of a critically endangered species are
captured for breeding in captivity, with the aim of reintroducing the offspring into the wild
·
Artificial insemination: surgical implantation of eggs of one species into a surrogate
mother of another species.
·
Proponents urge zoos and ___________ managers to collect and freeze cells of endangered
species for possible cloning.
·
After more than 2 decades of captive breeding, only a handful of ___________ species
have been returned to the wild.
·
Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways to share the places we dominate with other
species.
·
Some people are finding creative ways to practice reconciliation ____________ in their
neighborhoods and cities.
o Practicing reconciliation ecology begins by looking at the habitats we prefer.
species by storing their __________ in refrigerated, low-humidity environments