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Lecture S15 -- The Confederacy and the United States in 1861 The Development of American Secessionism: John C. Calhoun: Representative, Senator, and Vice President, Calhoun’s career reflects the gradual development of a distinct Southern regional interest based on the protection of slavery, often using States Rights as a shield against Federal authority. Calhoun began as one of the young National Republican nationalists in the 1810s, putting forward a federal agenda of economic development. After 1820, however, his ambitions in the national arena fell short and he began to position himself as a champion of the South. Nullification: The failure of attempts to put forward Nullification as a way to veto federal authority ultimately led to the beginnings of Southern secessionism, though it remained a fringe movement for many years. 1850: The 1850 crisis enabled the ‘fire eaters’ to take the lead and begin pushing for secession as a solution to the South’s problems in the Union. Calhoun in his final speeches threatened that secession would be the final resort of the South if it couldn’t meet its needs in the Union. Nashville Convention: After the end of the Mexican War, various congressmen and John Calhoun set things in motion to gather a convention at Nashville to discuss the state of the South. 175 delegates from nine states met in Nashville, June 3-12, 1850. They put forth a platform for extension of the Missouri Compromise line and various resolutions, then resolved to gather again if Congress did not meet their demands. However, the passage of the Compromise of 1850 basically knocked the wind out of the sails of the convention. It’s second meeting made impotent noises about secession rights, but nothing came of it. The Fire-Eaters vs. Cooperationists: Secession sentiments remained largely mute in the 1850s, except among a group of radicals known as the Fire Eaters, who continued to push for secession at every opportunity. Secessionism had proved to be hampered, however, by the split between the most radical, willing to secede with even a single state, and the cooperationists who favored united Southern action. For most of the 1850s, however, the point was moot, as the general Southern public did not favor secession. Radical Success: This period of failure, however, built up a network of secessionists who were swift to act in 1860, ensuring a degree of cooperation which quickly brought together delegates from seceeding states and got the cooperationists to go along with the whole thing. Montgomery, Alabama—Birthplace of the Confederacy The Convention Meets: Delegates from Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana and Florida met on February 1, 1861 to begin forming the Confederate States of America. These 7 states had 4,969,141 total people (2,312,352 were slaves and 2,646,789 were free.) The Delegates: “The delegates who gathered in Montgomery mirrored, in their occupations, their interest in politics, and in their stake in slavery, the elite of the society they represented. In early March when the Texas delegation arrived, their numbers rose to fifty. Of these, forty-two were lawyers and thirty-three described themselves as planters (including twenty-seven of the lawyers). Forty-eight were native Southerners, forty-nine were slave owners. Twenty-one owned at least 20 slaves and one owned 473. Thirty-eight were college graduates. Almost all had extensive political experience: twenty-three had served in the U.S. Congress; sixteen were former or sitting judges, including two state chief justices; two had been in national cabinets, and a third had been in the cabinet of the Republic of Texas. Oddly, one of the most influential members of the convention had no political experience per se. Thomas R. R. Cobb, the "James Madison" of the Confederate Constitution, had never held an elective office, although he had been the first reporter of the Georgia Supreme Court. He was also one of the South's foremost legal scholars and the author of the influential An Inquiry into the Law of Negro Slavery (1858). “ (http://www.civilwarhome.com/csaconstitutionbackground.htm) Radicals Pushed Aside: The first thing to take place was that the radicals, the Fire Eaters who had done so much to make this possible, quickly found themselves sidelined by moderates, and even ex-Unionists like Alexander Stephens. This is because many of them were simply too radical, wishing to do things like re-opening the slave trade and making the nation less democratic. President Davis: On February 18, 1861, the convention elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, who had renounced secession in the years leading up to the war, as one year acting President of the Confederate States of America; Alexander Stephens of Georgia, a former Unionist, was vice president. Spirit of ‘No Party’: Like their forefathers, the Confederates put forward a spirit of renunciation of party, hoping to avoid the Partisan divisions of previous years. The result, as in colonial politics, was a politics of personality and faction. Elite Leadership: The Southern leadership tended to distrust democracy; Confederate politics tended to be dominated by the wealthy; many of the poorer folks became Unionists and opposed the rich by less direct means. It is noteworthy that no Southern state allowed the public to directly vote on secession. Protection of Slavery: The central goal of the new government was the preservation of slavery. This was the reasoning behind secession and it drove the new constitution. The Confederate Constitution Modified US Constitution: What emerged was a slightly modified version of the US Constitution, designed to avoid what was seen as the major problems of the old Constitution. No Right of Secession: It is perhaps noteworthy that the Confederate Constitution held no right of Secession; many Secessionists felt to include such a thing would be to admit it was illegitimate to have seceded from the US Constitution. Slavery: Free Transit: It was explicitly guaranteed that slaveowners could take their slaves anywhere in the Confederacy. Fugitive Slave Law: Provisions for recovery of fugitive slaves were provided. Protected Slave Property: Congress could not make any law which would deprive someone of their slaves. Territorial Law: The Confederate constitution explicitly protected slavery in the territories. States Rights: The Confederate Constitution emphasized the sovereignty and independence of each state; they thus sought to protect state rights more thoroughly. Impeachment: The States could impeach federal judges and officials solely resident inside a state. Ship Taxes: States could lay duties on water vessels to raise money for harbor maintenance. Suit Protection: States could not be sued by residents of other states. Anti-Development: The Confederate government was explicitly forbidden to spend money on promoting industry or other internal improvements and protective tariffs were banned. Focused Law: Every law had to be pertaining to only one subject; no omnibus bills. The Presidency: Single Term: Presidents served a single six year term. Line-Item Veto: The Confederate President was given a line-item veto for appropriations bills. Cabinet: Cabinet officers could be fired by the President at will. Everyone else required cause--"dishonesty, incapacity, inefficiency, misconduct, or neglect of duty." . Cabinet officers could serve in Congress. Jefferson Davis, Confederate President From Petty Planter to Great Planter: Davis was one of many children of an ambitious father who sought to break into cotton planting during the push west of the Appalachians. Jefferson would himself eventually become a great planter; his father was not so lucky. West Point: Jefferson attended West Point and became an officer, serving in the army in the 1820s and 30s as a low level officer. During that time, he befriended Zachary Taylor and eventually left the army to marry Zachary’s daughter, Sarah Knox Taylor, only to have her rapidly sicken and die. Democratic Politician: In the 1830s-50s, Davis became a significant figure in the politics of Mississippi. He served as both Representative and Senator. National Expansionist: Davis then served in the Mexican war as commander of the Mississippi Rifles, a volunteer unit, and fought with Taylor. Southern Nationalist: Post-Mexican War, Davis flirted with Secessionism, but eventually moved to opposition to it, seeing it as unnecessary. He went on to serve as Franklin Pierce’s Secretary of War and Senator from Mississippi. . Davis as Political Leader: Like John Quincy Adams, he was a kind, honest, just individual who was poorly suited for any role which required flexibility or compromise. Furthermore, as President, he tended to micromanage his subordinates, especially a series of Secretaries of War he sent screaming into the Wilderness. Conversely, if you earned his loyalty, he would stick by you, even if you proved incompetent for your work, like Braxton Bragg. Davis was probably better suited for the military service he had originally sought out, being reasonably competent and effective in the role of officer. And Yet...: Despite this, Davis was probably one of the best suited men for the role in the Confederacy, which simply lacked men who were good at compromise—those interested in compromise weren’t so likely to secede after all. Confederate Resources: Original Secession: The first seven states to secede had less than no chance of victory in a war. They were hugely outnumbered by the remaining states, had no good defensible frontiers, lacked industrial capacity and couldn’t even make their own cannon. The Upper South: The secession of the Upper South greatly increased the South’s manufacturing capacity by adding Richmond and Nashville to the South’s ranks, and increased its manpower, food, and wealth, adding 1,208,758 slaves and 2,935,433 free men to the population of the Confederacy, which ended up with 9,103,332 total residents (3,521,110 slaves and 5,582,222 free (almost all White). North vs. South: Wealth: South had 25% of the nation’s wealth. Farmland: South had 25% of the nation’s farmland. Railroad Milage: South had 29% of the railroad lines. Factory Production: South had 9% of the nation’s industrial capacity Population: South had 29% of the nation’s population, but a large chunk of that was black, and thus wouldn’t fight and had to be guarded against. Northern Soldiers: Some 2.1 million men served the Union; 50% of the men of military age. Only 8% were drafted. Southern Soldiers: Some 900,000 men served the South; 90% of those of military age. 20% of those were drafted. Cotton: Many Southerners counted on Cotton sales to fund the nation’s war and to force intervention by European governments. ‘Cotton is King’. France and Britain were both heavily dependent on Southern Cotton. Unfortunately, the years before the war saw a Cotton glut, and France and Britain both were able to draw on reserves; the British then pushed cotton growth in India and other nations began taking up the slack. Nevertheless, smuggled Southern cotton did help to fund the war. Military Experience: One of the few areas where the South had superiority was that the South was disproportionately home to ex-military officers compared to the North, relative to population. Many Southern officers had gained military experience in the Mexican War. State and Federal Armories: Each state had state armories; they also seized all the federal armories and forts they could; this provided a lot of the early weaponry for the South. Slaves: Slaves were both a liability and an asset. They freed up more of the White males to fight, but at the same time, the fear of slave rebellion hung over the nation. Also, constitutional provisions made it hard for the Confederate government to tap them as a resource. War Nationalism and States Rights The Necessities of War: The central problem of the Confederacy was that it was born in the crucible of war, and the necessities of prosecuting that war encroached steadily on States’ Rights and on the spirit of minimal government in general. State and Federal Regulation of Economic Production: States and the Confederate government increasingly encroached on free economic activity. Key Resources: Key resources, such as salt, iron, guns, ammunition, etc, were brought under governmental control, and either heavily regulated or else brought under direct government control. Food Production: The Confederate and state governments sought to push plantation owners to produce food to meet the increasing food deficit of the South; unfortunately, planters fought back hard, and food became increasingly inflated in value. Slave Labor: Because slave labor was controlled by planters and protected by law, it was often unavailable to meet national and state needs, though both tried to direct its use as best they could. Civil Liberties: The Confederate Government sometimes trampled on civil rights. Suspension of Habeas Corpus: Congress frequently allowed Davis to impose martial law and/or suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, thus allowing for arbitrary arrest. Davis was not the type to abuse this too heavily, though. The Draft: The Confederacy imposed the first draft in American history; eventually, 20% of Confederates would serve via the Draft. This crushed a traditional American liberty underfoot, and was challenged, but not successfully. It also made state authorities crazy. States Rights Issues: The Draft: The Draft claimed priority of the Confederate Government over states; they could direct the military manpower called by it as they saw fit. This included drafting those in the service of the state. Governors really hated that. Confederate/State relations: Governors jockeyed to keep as much control of state resources as possible; Davis frequently became quite wroth over this. State Self-Defense: Each state’s government resisted any effort to send resources out, especially manpower, and screamed bloody murder if any Yankees showed up without an immediate confederate response. Similarities to problems in the War of 1812 at times. North Carolina and Georgia: The governors of NC and Georgia tended to be the biggest trouble-makers. Summation: Built for Peace; Doomed to War: The Confederacy might have proved viable if it had been left to go peacefully, though without war, it would have lacked the Upper South, and would likely have ended up poor and backwards. Instead, the Confederacy faced the stress of war, forcing it to change. Erosion of Ideals: Confederate ideals of states’ rights and minimal government had to go in the face of war. Despite the opposition of those willing to lose in order to avoid such measures, Davis consistently managed to push through the measures needed to fight on. Built on Slavery: Slavery was the core of the Confederacy. The interests of slaveowners trumped everything else, though in the end, even those were somewhat abridged to try to survive. The American Civil War: Beginning The Structure of Armies: ARMY- composed of several corps, commanded by a general CORPS- composed of three divisions, commanded by a general DIVISION- composed of three to four brigades, commanded by a general BRIGADE- composed of four to six regiments, commanded by a general REGIMENT- composed of ten companies, commanded by a colonel COMPANY- 100 officers and men, commanded by a captain. (“What is a regiment?”, http://www.nps.gov/archive/gett/gettkidz/cwarmy.htm) Union Military Strategy: The Anaconda: The first General-in-Chief was Winfield Scott, who designed the basic Union strategy—The Anaconda. The essence of this strategy was first to blockade the Confederate coastline, then to move up from New Orleans and down from Cairo, IL to seize the Mississipi. Cut off from trade, unable to produce its own goods, the South would then collapse and could be devoured at leisure. The Blockade: While the North couldn’t afford a leisurely strategy, the blockade aspect was implemented, and the Mississippi seized; it was not, of itself, though, decisive. On to Richmond: One of the obsessions of Union strategists was to capture Richmond. It was the Confederate capital for most of the war, and many hoped it would knock out the Confederacy; furthermore, campaigns against it would ideally prevent attacks on Washington. Both nations had vulnerable capitals. Lack of Strategic Direction in West: An on-going problem for the Union was the basic failure to effectively coordinate western operations. Divided into multiple departments, generals sometimes competed instead of cooperating. Simultaneous Onslaught: This was Grant’s strategy. He realized the best way to win was to press the Confederacy everywhere at once, so as to exploit Union superior numbers. This was his 1864 and 1865 strategy. It had mixed success because not all the army commanders were very good. The Union Army: Command Issues: The Union started out with a lot of losers in high places, and only gradually did the best rise and the poor fail themselves out. Political Officers: One of these problems was that many politicians had to be rewarded with a generalship—Ben Butler, Banks, etc. Volunteer Army: Union forces were largely volunteers; only 8% of Union soldiers were drafted. Ground Down: One problem was that units typically did not get reinforced by new recruits; new recruits formed new units, so all the old ones were slowly worn down to virtually nothing. The Draft: The Draft law proved to be very unpopular, as the 300 dollar fine + substitute system to get out of it favored the well off and left the poor to serve without escape. However, only a relatively small number of soldiers were drafted. The Democratic Spirit: The volunteer soldiers were not as strictly disciplined as professional soldiers; they often wanted to elect their officers and were sometimes inclined to talk back, so to speak. Confederate Strategy: King Cotton: The South hoped to use its cotton to gain foreign intervention by France and Britain to force a peace. Foreign Intervention: Some Southerners were very confident about winning by fighting, but many admitted the South would likely need outside help, or at least it would make things easier. Naval Construction: While Europe never intervened, Britain and France did allow the South to acquire commerce raiders in Europe. Why no intervention?: The French would not act without Britain, and the British public had little interest in assisting a slave state. Furthermore, a pre-war Cotton glut ensured King Cotton was weaker than usual in 1861-2. After Gettysburg/Vicksburg, the South was too clearly losing. Offensive-Defensive War: The base Southern strategy was to remain on the strategic defensive, while seizing chances for local offensives within the Confederacy. Interior Lines: In theory, the Confederacy could exploit interior communications to more easily consolidate its forces. Communications Flaws: But the Southern railroad network was poor of quality and the Confederacy so big that distant theatres could not readily cooperate. States’ Demands: Every inch of the Confederacy had to be defended, which hampered the ability of the Confederacy to exploit Interior Lines. States could not be denied defense, in a states-rights oriented nation. Loss of Manpower: The tendency of Confederate generals to attack cost the Confederacy men it couldn’t afford. The Limits of the Offensive: Napoleonic Tactics: The tactical drill of the armies was based on tactics perfected by Napoleon for use in an age of short-range muskets Limits of the Musket: Muskets were inaccurate at any range, and especially inaccurate beyond 50-100 yards. This imposed several things: Massed Fire: To overcome inaccuracy, you had to mass men together in tight ranks. This, however, made them also vulnerable to counter-fire. Short Range Fire: Men would plug away at each other at short range in volleys until one side broke. Line and Column: Men learned to march in Column and fight in Line; Napoleon also used Columns for bayonet charges; the short range of muskets made such tricks viable. Cavalry Shock: Once the enemy line broke, cavalry would move in and exploit the gap, ensuring the enemy line rolled up and collapsed. Converging Columns: Napoleon’s forces were highly manueverable, and a lot of Napoleonic campaigns/battle plans exploited this to have many forces converge on a single location to apply maximum force. Rifle Ranges and Multi-Shot Rifles: Rifles had better range than muskets, but the tactics of the day were adapted for muskets. Using Musket tactics against rifles led to higher casualties. Rifles easily had 2 to 4 times the killing range, and they could be loaded quicker. Multi-shot rifles were especially vicious Ascendency of Defensive: This longer range made it easier for smaller forces to hold off larger ones; if they entrenched, they could be especially deadly. The Confederates gradually came to adopt this tactic. Excessive Offense: But most generals continued to think in offensive terms, and too often ordered suicidal frontal attacks on defensive positions. Naval Innovation: The Ironclad: The key innovation of the war was development of ironclad vessels. Union forces held the advantage at sea in ironclads, but the Confederates were able to compete a little better on the rivers. Ironclads could pretty much destroy wooden ships at will. Steam-Driven Vessels: This was the first war in which steam-driven navies were significant. This aided river warfare. Commerce Raiding: This was the last major US war in which US people engaged in commerce raiding; the Alabama and other raiders did a lot of damage. Ironically, most of the crews were not American. Riverine Warfare: This was the first US war in which control of rivers was a major component, though 1812 had seen fighting for the lakes. Many of the campaigns in the West were joint Army/Navy operations as a result. The War Begins: 1861 One-Shot Victory Hopes: Most Americans foolishly thought the other side would simply fall over and die if it lost a single battle. This caused many to overreact to what few battles happened in 1861. Short-Term Volunteers: The initial months of the war reflected this; most soldiers volunteered for either 3, 6, or at most 9 months. Both sides, as a result, had to act swiftly or not at all. First Bull Run: July 21, 1861. General Irwin McDowell confronted Joseph Johnson and Beauregard a little to the southwest of DC near Manasses Junction. Both sides planned to bluff with their left and strike with the right; McDowell moved first and might have won, but reinforcements arrived and the Union army broke and ran back to DC. But the Confederates were too strung out to exploit this. No Easy Victory: The Confederates now expected the Union to roll over on its back and show its belly. Instead, Lincoln called for more volunteers and the struggle for the border states heated up. A Change of Command: General George McClellan now took command in Virginia, then pushed out Scott and became General-in-Chief. He spent most of the next year or so building up his forces. Battle for the Border States: Kentucky: Kentucky officially declared itself neutral, refusing to support either side. However, General Leonidas Polk decided to seize the Mississippi port city of Paducah to strength defenses against Grant’s forces in Illinois. This angered Kentuckians, who declared for the Union; some Confederates in the state fled to the southeastern region of it and declared Kentucky seceded. Missouri: Missouri’s governor was pro-secession, but union forces moved swiftly to squelch any attempt at secession, seizing control of most of the state early on. A disaster at Wilson’s Creek in the late summer was followed by a failed Confederate counterattack into the center of the state. Things were not resolved until the Battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas in 1862, after which, the Union held the state but faced near-continual guerilla warfare in which many future old west bandits were involved. A rump of Missourians declared secession, for what that was worth. Maryland: Western and Northern Maryland was strongly pro-Union; the east and south were pro-Confederate. After rioting in Baltimore, Lincoln moved troops to squelch secessionist supporters and secure the rail lines; that fall, a ProUnion governor and legislature were elected. Delaware: Barely a slave state, it was easily secured. West Virginia: West Virginians hated the planters of the east; they rose up in conjunction with a federal invasion in the summer and fall of 1861 and established their own state government for Virginia. In 1863, they were formally organized into a state.