Download Lecture S15 -- The Confederacy and the United States

Lecture S15 -- The Confederacy and the United States in 1861
The Development of American Secessionism:
John C. Calhoun: Representative, Senator, and Vice President, Calhoun’s career
reflects the gradual development of a distinct Southern regional interest based on
the protection of slavery, often using States Rights as a shield against Federal
authority. Calhoun began as one of the young National Republican nationalists in
the 1810s, putting forward a federal agenda of economic development. After
1820, however, his ambitions in the national arena fell short and he began to
position himself as a champion of the South.
Nullification: The failure of attempts to put forward Nullification as a way to
veto federal authority ultimately led to the beginnings of Southern secessionism,
though it remained a fringe movement for many years.
1850: The 1850 crisis enabled the ‘fire eaters’ to take the lead and begin pushing
for secession as a solution to the South’s problems in the Union. Calhoun in his
final speeches threatened that secession would be the final resort of the South if it
couldn’t meet its needs in the Union.
Nashville Convention: After the end of the Mexican War, various
congressmen and John Calhoun set things in motion to gather a
convention at Nashville to discuss the state of the South. 175 delegates
from nine states met in Nashville, June 3-12, 1850. They put forth a
platform for extension of the Missouri Compromise line and various
resolutions, then resolved to gather again if Congress did not meet their
demands. However, the passage of the Compromise of 1850 basically
knocked the wind out of the sails of the convention. It’s second meeting
made impotent noises about secession rights, but nothing came of it.
The Fire-Eaters vs. Cooperationists: Secession sentiments remained largely
mute in the 1850s, except among a group of radicals known as the Fire Eaters,
who continued to push for secession at every opportunity. Secessionism had
proved to be hampered, however, by the split between the most radical, willing to
secede with even a single state, and the cooperationists who favored united
Southern action. For most of the 1850s, however, the point was moot, as the
general Southern public did not favor secession.
Radical Success: This period of failure, however, built up a network of
secessionists who were swift to act in 1860, ensuring a degree of cooperation
which quickly brought together delegates from seceeding states and got the
cooperationists to go along with the whole thing.
Montgomery, Alabama—Birthplace of the Confederacy
The Convention Meets: Delegates from Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina,
Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana and Florida met on February 1, 1861 to begin
forming the Confederate States of America. These 7 states had 4,969,141 total
people (2,312,352 were slaves and 2,646,789 were free.)
The Delegates:
“The delegates who gathered in Montgomery mirrored, in their occupations,
their interest in politics, and in their stake in slavery, the elite of the society they
represented. In early March when the Texas delegation arrived, their numbers
rose to fifty. Of these, forty-two were lawyers and thirty-three described
themselves as planters (including twenty-seven of the lawyers). Forty-eight were
native Southerners, forty-nine were slave owners. Twenty-one owned at least 20
slaves and one owned 473. Thirty-eight were college graduates. Almost all had
extensive political experience: twenty-three had served in the U.S. Congress;
sixteen were former or sitting judges, including two state chief justices; two had
been in national cabinets, and a third had been in the cabinet of the Republic of
Texas. Oddly, one of the most influential members of the convention had no
political experience per se. Thomas R. R. Cobb, the "James Madison" of the
Confederate Constitution, had never held an elective office, although he had
been the first reporter of the Georgia Supreme Court. He was also one of the
South's foremost legal scholars and the author of the influential An Inquiry
into the Law of Negro Slavery (1858). “
(http://www.civilwarhome.com/csaconstitutionbackground.htm)
Radicals Pushed Aside: The first thing to take place was that the radicals, the
Fire Eaters who had done so much to make this possible, quickly found
themselves sidelined by moderates, and even ex-Unionists like Alexander
Stephens. This is because many of them were simply too radical, wishing to do
things like re-opening the slave trade and making the nation less democratic.
President Davis: On February 18, 1861, the convention elected Jefferson Davis
of Mississippi, who had renounced secession in the years leading up to the war, as
one year acting President of the Confederate States of America; Alexander
Stephens of Georgia, a former Unionist, was vice president.
Spirit of ‘No Party’: Like their forefathers, the Confederates put forward a spirit
of renunciation of party, hoping to avoid the Partisan divisions of previous years.
The result, as in colonial politics, was a politics of personality and faction.
Elite Leadership: The Southern leadership tended to distrust democracy;
Confederate politics tended to be dominated by the wealthy; many of the poorer
folks became Unionists and opposed the rich by less direct means. It is
noteworthy that no Southern state allowed the public to directly vote on secession.
Protection of Slavery: The central goal of the new government was the
preservation of slavery. This was the reasoning behind secession and it drove the
new constitution.
The Confederate Constitution
Modified US Constitution: What emerged was a slightly modified version of
the US Constitution, designed to avoid what was seen as the major problems of
the old Constitution.
No Right of Secession: It is perhaps noteworthy that the Confederate
Constitution held no right of Secession; many Secessionists felt to include such a
thing would be to admit it was illegitimate to have seceded from the US
Constitution.
Slavery:
Free Transit: It was explicitly guaranteed that slaveowners could take
their slaves anywhere in the Confederacy.
Fugitive Slave Law: Provisions for recovery of fugitive slaves were
provided.
Protected Slave Property: Congress could not make any law which
would deprive someone of their slaves.
Territorial Law: The Confederate constitution explicitly protected
slavery in the territories.
States Rights: The Confederate Constitution emphasized the sovereignty and
independence of each state; they thus sought to protect state rights more
thoroughly.
Impeachment: The States could impeach federal judges and officials
solely resident inside a state.
Ship Taxes: States could lay duties on water vessels to raise money for
harbor maintenance.
Suit Protection: States could not be sued by residents of other states.
Anti-Development: The Confederate government was explicitly
forbidden to spend money on promoting industry or other internal
improvements and protective tariffs were banned.
Focused Law: Every law had to be pertaining to only one subject; no
omnibus bills.
The Presidency:
Single Term: Presidents served a single six year term.
Line-Item Veto: The Confederate President was given a line-item veto
for appropriations bills.
Cabinet: Cabinet officers could be fired by the President at will.
Everyone else required cause--"dishonesty, incapacity, inefficiency,
misconduct, or neglect of duty." . Cabinet officers could serve in
Congress.
Jefferson Davis, Confederate President
From Petty Planter to Great Planter: Davis was one of many children of an
ambitious father who sought to break into cotton planting during the push west of
the Appalachians. Jefferson would himself eventually become a great planter; his
father was not so lucky.
West Point: Jefferson attended West Point and became an officer, serving in the
army in the 1820s and 30s as a low level officer. During that time, he befriended
Zachary Taylor and eventually left the army to marry Zachary’s daughter, Sarah
Knox Taylor, only to have her rapidly sicken and die.
Democratic Politician: In the 1830s-50s, Davis became a significant figure in
the politics of Mississippi. He served as both Representative and Senator.
National Expansionist: Davis then served in the Mexican war as commander of
the Mississippi Rifles, a volunteer unit, and fought with Taylor.
Southern Nationalist: Post-Mexican War, Davis flirted with Secessionism, but
eventually moved to opposition to it, seeing it as unnecessary. He went on to
serve as Franklin Pierce’s Secretary of War and Senator from Mississippi. .
Davis as Political Leader: Like John Quincy Adams, he was a kind, honest, just
individual who was poorly suited for any role which required flexibility or
compromise. Furthermore, as President, he tended to micromanage his
subordinates, especially a series of Secretaries of War he sent screaming into the
Wilderness. Conversely, if you earned his loyalty, he would stick by you, even if
you proved incompetent for your work, like Braxton Bragg. Davis was probably
better suited for the military service he had originally sought out, being
reasonably competent and effective in the role of officer.
And Yet...: Despite this, Davis was probably one of the best suited men for the
role in the Confederacy, which simply lacked men who were good at
compromise—those interested in compromise weren’t so likely to secede after all.
Confederate Resources:
Original Secession: The first seven states to secede had less than no chance of
victory in a war. They were hugely outnumbered by the remaining states, had no
good defensible frontiers, lacked industrial capacity and couldn’t even make their
own cannon.
The Upper South: The secession of the Upper South greatly increased the
South’s manufacturing capacity by adding Richmond and Nashville to the South’s
ranks, and increased its manpower, food, and wealth, adding 1,208,758 slaves and
2,935,433 free men to the population of the Confederacy, which ended up with
9,103,332 total residents (3,521,110 slaves and 5,582,222 free (almost all White).
North vs. South:
Wealth: South had 25% of the nation’s wealth.
Farmland: South had 25% of the nation’s farmland.
Railroad Milage: South had 29% of the railroad lines.
Factory Production: South had 9% of the nation’s industrial capacity
Population: South had 29% of the nation’s population, but a large chunk
of that was black, and thus wouldn’t fight and had to be guarded against.
Northern Soldiers: Some 2.1 million men served the Union; 50%
of the men of military age. Only 8% were drafted.
Southern Soldiers: Some 900,000 men served the South; 90% of
those of military age. 20% of those were drafted.
Cotton: Many Southerners counted on Cotton sales to fund the nation’s war and
to force intervention by European governments. ‘Cotton is King’. France and
Britain were both heavily dependent on Southern Cotton. Unfortunately, the
years before the war saw a Cotton glut, and France and Britain both were able to
draw on reserves; the British then pushed cotton growth in India and other nations
began taking up the slack. Nevertheless, smuggled Southern cotton did help to
fund the war.
Military Experience: One of the few areas where the South had superiority was
that the South was disproportionately home to ex-military officers compared to
the North, relative to population. Many Southern officers had gained military
experience in the Mexican War.
State and Federal Armories: Each state had state armories; they also seized all
the federal armories and forts they could; this provided a lot of the early weaponry
for the South.
Slaves: Slaves were both a liability and an asset. They freed up more of the
White males to fight, but at the same time, the fear of slave rebellion hung over
the nation. Also, constitutional provisions made it hard for the Confederate
government to tap them as a resource.
War Nationalism and States Rights
The Necessities of War: The central problem of the Confederacy was that it was
born in the crucible of war, and the necessities of prosecuting that war encroached
steadily on States’ Rights and on the spirit of minimal government in general.
State and Federal Regulation of Economic Production: States and the
Confederate government increasingly encroached on free economic activity.
Key Resources: Key resources, such as salt, iron, guns, ammunition, etc,
were brought under governmental control, and either heavily regulated or
else brought under direct government control.
Food Production: The Confederate and state governments sought to push
plantation owners to produce food to meet the increasing food deficit of
the South; unfortunately, planters fought back hard, and food became
increasingly inflated in value.
Slave Labor: Because slave labor was controlled by planters and
protected by law, it was often unavailable to meet national and state needs,
though both tried to direct its use as best they could.
Civil Liberties: The Confederate Government sometimes trampled on civil
rights.
Suspension of Habeas Corpus: Congress frequently allowed Davis to
impose martial law and/or suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, thus
allowing for arbitrary arrest. Davis was not the type to abuse this too
heavily, though.
The Draft: The Confederacy imposed the first draft in American history;
eventually, 20% of Confederates would serve via the Draft. This crushed
a traditional American liberty underfoot, and was challenged, but not
successfully. It also made state authorities crazy.
States Rights Issues:
The Draft: The Draft claimed priority of the Confederate Government
over states; they could direct the military manpower called by it as they
saw fit. This included drafting those in the service of the state. Governors
really hated that.
Confederate/State relations: Governors jockeyed to keep as much
control of state resources as possible; Davis frequently became quite wroth
over this.
State Self-Defense: Each state’s government resisted any effort to send
resources out, especially manpower, and screamed bloody murder if any
Yankees showed up without an immediate confederate response.
Similarities to problems in the War of 1812 at times.
North Carolina and Georgia: The governors of NC and Georgia tended
to be the biggest trouble-makers.
Summation:
Built for Peace; Doomed to War: The Confederacy might have proved viable if
it had been left to go peacefully, though without war, it would have lacked the
Upper South, and would likely have ended up poor and backwards. Instead, the
Confederacy faced the stress of war, forcing it to change.
Erosion of Ideals: Confederate ideals of states’ rights and minimal government
had to go in the face of war. Despite the opposition of those willing to lose in
order to avoid such measures, Davis consistently managed to push through the
measures needed to fight on.
Built on Slavery: Slavery was the core of the Confederacy. The interests of
slaveowners trumped everything else, though in the end, even those were
somewhat abridged to try to survive.
The American Civil War: Beginning
The Structure of Armies:
ARMY- composed of several corps, commanded by a general
CORPS- composed of three divisions, commanded by a general
DIVISION- composed of three to four brigades, commanded by a general
BRIGADE- composed of four to six regiments, commanded by a
general
REGIMENT- composed of ten companies, commanded by
a colonel
COMPANY- 100 officers and men, commanded by
a captain.
(“What is a regiment?”, http://www.nps.gov/archive/gett/gettkidz/cwarmy.htm)
Union Military Strategy:
The Anaconda: The first General-in-Chief was Winfield Scott, who designed the
basic Union strategy—The Anaconda. The essence of this strategy was first to
blockade the Confederate coastline, then to move up from New Orleans and down
from Cairo, IL to seize the Mississipi. Cut off from trade, unable to produce its
own goods, the South would then collapse and could be devoured at leisure.
The Blockade: While the North couldn’t afford a leisurely strategy, the blockade
aspect was implemented, and the Mississippi seized; it was not, of itself, though,
decisive.
On to Richmond: One of the obsessions of Union strategists was to capture
Richmond. It was the Confederate capital for most of the war, and many hoped it
would knock out the Confederacy; furthermore, campaigns against it would
ideally prevent attacks on Washington. Both nations had vulnerable capitals.
Lack of Strategic Direction in West: An on-going problem for the Union was
the basic failure to effectively coordinate western operations. Divided into
multiple departments, generals sometimes competed instead of cooperating.
Simultaneous Onslaught: This was Grant’s strategy. He realized the best way
to win was to press the Confederacy everywhere at once, so as to exploit Union
superior numbers. This was his 1864 and 1865 strategy. It had mixed success
because not all the army commanders were very good.
The Union Army:
Command Issues: The Union started out with a lot of losers in high places, and
only gradually did the best rise and the poor fail themselves out.
Political Officers: One of these problems was that many politicians had to be
rewarded with a generalship—Ben Butler, Banks, etc.
Volunteer Army: Union forces were largely volunteers; only 8% of Union
soldiers were drafted.
Ground Down: One problem was that units typically did not get
reinforced by new recruits; new recruits formed new units, so all the old
ones were slowly worn down to virtually nothing.
The Draft: The Draft law proved to be very unpopular, as the 300 dollar
fine + substitute system to get out of it favored the well off and left the
poor to serve without escape. However, only a relatively small number of
soldiers were drafted.
The Democratic Spirit: The volunteer soldiers were not as strictly
disciplined as professional soldiers; they often wanted to elect their
officers and were sometimes inclined to talk back, so to speak.
Confederate Strategy:
King Cotton: The South hoped to use its cotton to gain foreign intervention by
France and Britain to force a peace.
Foreign Intervention: Some Southerners were very confident about winning by
fighting, but many admitted the South would likely need outside help, or at least it
would make things easier.
Naval Construction: While Europe never intervened, Britain and France
did allow the South to acquire commerce raiders in Europe.
Why no intervention?: The French would not act without Britain, and
the British public had little interest in assisting a slave state. Furthermore,
a pre-war Cotton glut ensured King Cotton was weaker than usual in
1861-2. After Gettysburg/Vicksburg, the South was too clearly losing.
Offensive-Defensive War: The base Southern strategy was to remain on the
strategic defensive, while seizing chances for local offensives within the
Confederacy.
Interior Lines: In theory, the Confederacy could exploit interior
communications to more easily consolidate its forces.
Communications Flaws: But the Southern railroad network was poor of
quality and the Confederacy so big that distant theatres could not readily
cooperate.
States’ Demands: Every inch of the Confederacy had to be defended,
which hampered the ability of the Confederacy to exploit Interior Lines.
States could not be denied defense, in a states-rights oriented nation.
Loss of Manpower: The tendency of Confederate generals to attack cost
the Confederacy men it couldn’t afford.
The Limits of the Offensive:
Napoleonic Tactics: The tactical drill of the armies was based on tactics
perfected by Napoleon for use in an age of short-range muskets
Limits of the Musket: Muskets were inaccurate at any range, and
especially inaccurate beyond 50-100 yards. This imposed several things:
Massed Fire: To overcome inaccuracy, you had to mass men
together in tight ranks. This, however, made them also vulnerable
to counter-fire.
Short Range Fire: Men would plug away at each other at short
range in volleys until one side broke.
Line and Column: Men learned to march in Column and fight in Line;
Napoleon also used Columns for bayonet charges; the short range of
muskets made such tricks viable.
Cavalry Shock: Once the enemy line broke, cavalry would move in and
exploit the gap, ensuring the enemy line rolled up and collapsed.
Converging Columns: Napoleon’s forces were highly manueverable,
and a lot of Napoleonic campaigns/battle plans exploited this to have
many forces converge on a single location to apply maximum force.
Rifle Ranges and Multi-Shot Rifles: Rifles had better range than muskets, but
the tactics of the day were adapted for muskets. Using Musket tactics against
rifles led to higher casualties. Rifles easily had 2 to 4 times the killing range, and
they could be loaded quicker. Multi-shot rifles were especially vicious
Ascendency of Defensive: This longer range made it easier for smaller forces to
hold off larger ones; if they entrenched, they could be especially deadly. The
Confederates gradually came to adopt this tactic.
Excessive Offense: But most generals continued to think in offensive terms, and
too often ordered suicidal frontal attacks on defensive positions.
Naval Innovation:
The Ironclad: The key innovation of the war was development of ironclad
vessels. Union forces held the advantage at sea in ironclads, but the Confederates
were able to compete a little better on the rivers. Ironclads could pretty much
destroy wooden ships at will.
Steam-Driven Vessels: This was the first war in which steam-driven navies were
significant. This aided river warfare.
Commerce Raiding: This was the last major US war in which US people
engaged in commerce raiding; the Alabama and other raiders did a lot of damage.
Ironically, most of the crews were not American.
Riverine Warfare: This was the first US war in which control of rivers was a
major component, though 1812 had seen fighting for the lakes. Many of the
campaigns in the West were joint Army/Navy operations as a result.
The War Begins: 1861
One-Shot Victory Hopes: Most Americans foolishly thought the other side
would simply fall over and die if it lost a single battle. This caused many to
overreact to what few battles happened in 1861.
Short-Term Volunteers: The initial months of the war reflected this; most
soldiers volunteered for either 3, 6, or at most 9 months. Both sides, as a result,
had to act swiftly or not at all.
First Bull Run: July 21, 1861. General Irwin McDowell confronted Joseph
Johnson and Beauregard a little to the southwest of DC near Manasses Junction.
Both sides planned to bluff with their left and strike with the right; McDowell
moved first and might have won, but reinforcements arrived and the Union army
broke and ran back to DC. But the Confederates were too strung out to exploit
this.
No Easy Victory: The Confederates now expected the Union to roll over on its
back and show its belly. Instead, Lincoln called for more volunteers and the
struggle for the border states heated up.
A Change of Command: General George McClellan now took command in
Virginia, then pushed out Scott and became General-in-Chief. He spent most of
the next year or so building up his forces.
Battle for the Border States:
Kentucky: Kentucky officially declared itself neutral, refusing to support either
side. However, General Leonidas Polk decided to seize the Mississippi port city
of Paducah to strength defenses against Grant’s forces in Illinois. This angered
Kentuckians, who declared for the Union; some Confederates in the state fled to
the southeastern region of it and declared Kentucky seceded.
Missouri: Missouri’s governor was pro-secession, but union forces moved
swiftly to squelch any attempt at secession, seizing control of most of the state
early on. A disaster at Wilson’s Creek in the late summer was followed by a
failed Confederate counterattack into the center of the state. Things were not
resolved until the Battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas in 1862, after which, the Union
held the state but faced near-continual guerilla warfare in which many future old
west bandits were involved. A rump of Missourians declared secession, for what
that was worth.
Maryland: Western and Northern Maryland was strongly pro-Union; the east
and south were pro-Confederate. After rioting in Baltimore, Lincoln moved
troops to squelch secessionist supporters and secure the rail lines; that fall, a ProUnion governor and legislature were elected.
Delaware: Barely a slave state, it was easily secured.
West Virginia: West Virginians hated the planters of the east; they rose up in
conjunction with a federal invasion in the summer and fall of 1861 and
established their own state government for Virginia. In 1863, they were formally
organized into a state.