Download Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes
1) Prokaryotes
a) Unicellular
b) No nucleus
c) 2 kingdoms
i) Archaebacteria
ii) Eubacteria
2) Bacteria
a)
Identified by the following characteristics
i) Shape
(1) Bacilli – rod-shaped
(2) Cocci – sphere-shaped
(3) Spirilla – spiral-shaped
ii) Chemical make-up of cell walls
(1) 2 types of cell walls
(2) use gram stain to determine which type
(a) gram stain will turn cells blue or red
iii) Means of movement
iv) Means of getting energy
(1) some heterotrophs
(2) some autotrophs
b) reproduce asexually (binary fission)
c) some diseases are caused by bacteria
i) can be treated with antibiotics
3) Viruses
a) Genetic material is DNA or RNA
b) DNA/RNA surrounded by capsid (a protein coat)
c) Retroviruses – contain RNA as genetic info
i) Ex: AIDS
d) Considered non-living because they are not made up of cells and cannot live or reproduce on their own
e) Some diseases are caused by viruses
i) Cannot be treated with antibiotics because they are not living organisms
Kingdom Protista
1) Protists
a)
b)
c)
d)
Most are unicellular
Some are heterotrophs, others are autotrophs
Earth’s first eukaryotes
Have characteristics of animals, plants, and fungi, but are not organized to enough to be in those kingdoms
2) Animal-like Protists – Protozoans
a)
Most have structures (cilia or flagella) that allow them to be mobile
3) Plant-like Protists – Unicellular Algae
a)
Have chlorophyll
4) Plant-like Protists – Red, Brown, and Green Algae
a)
b)
c)
d)
Multicellular
Red algae – contains red pigments
Brown algae – contains brown pigments
Green algae – contains green pigments (chlorophyll)
5) Fungus-like Protists
a)
Thrive on dead/decaying organic material
Kingdom Fungi
1) Fungi
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Heterotrophs
Cell walls made of chitin
All are multicellular except for yeast
Reproduce sexually and asexually
Feed on dead and decaying organic materials
Some can cause diseases
Some can be beneficial
2) 4 types
a)
Common Molds (bread mold, water mold, mold on fruit)
b) Sac Fungi
c)
Club Fungi
d) Imperfect Fungi (called imperfect because scientists do not know how they reproduce)
3) Fungi Diagram
Kingdom Plantae
1) Plants
a) Multicellular
b) Have cell walls and chlorophyll
c) Life cycles have two phases
i) diploid (sporophyte when diploid)
ii) haploid (gametophyte when haploid)
d) plants evolved from ancient green algae organism
e) 4 types
i) Bryophytes
ii) Seedless Vascular Plants
iii) Gymnosperms
iv) Angiosperms
2) Bryophytes
a) Need water to reproduce
b) Do not have true leaves, stems, and roots
c) Ex: moss
3) Seedless Vascular Plants
a)
Have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
i) Xylem – transport water
ii) Phloem – transports food and nutrients
b) Have leaves, roots, and stems
c) Ex: ferns
4) Gymnosperms
a) Produce seeds
b) Seeds are not covered (“naked”
seeds)
c) Cone-bearing
d) Ex: pine trees
5) Angiosperms
a) Produce seeds
b) Produce fruits and flowers
c) Have pollen
6) Hormones and Plant Growth
a) Plants have hormones to help control and regulate life processes and functions
b) Types
i) Auxins – control growth
ii) Cytokinins – control growth
iii) Gibberellin – controls growth
iv) Ethylene – stimulates ripening of fruit
7) Plant Responses
Gravitropism – response to gravity
i) Plants grow away from pull of gravity
b) Phototropism – response to light
i) Plants grow towards light
a)
c)
Thigmotropism – response to touch
i) Touch can stunt the groth of some plants
ii) Touch can cause the leaves of some plants close or fold
8) Plant Adaptations
a)
Aquatic plants
i) Live in mud with little oxygen
ii) Have air-filled spaces in tissues for oxygen
b) Salt-tolerant plants
i) Live in salty environments
ii) Have cells that pump salt out of the plant and onto its leaves
iii) Prevents plant from dehydrating
c) Xerophytes
i) Live in desert
ii) Extensive root systems
iii) Big, thick stems that store water
iv) Reduced (smaller) leaves
v) Ex: cactus
d) Carnivorous plants and parasites
i) Grow in soil with few nutrients
ii) Carnivorous plants
(1) Trap insects and digest them to get proper nutrients
(2) Ex: venus fly trap, pitcher plant
e)
f)
iii) Parasites
(1) Get nutrients from host plant
(2) Ex: mistletoe
Epiphytes
i) Not rooted in soil
ii) Lives on other plants but does not harm them or get nutrients from them
iii) Most live in rainforests
Defense Mechanisms
i) Defend themselves by making toxins (chemical compounds with powerful effects)
ii) Some toxins are so strong that they are harmful to animals
(1) Ex: milkweed
Kingdom Animalia
1) Animals
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Multicellular
Eukaryotic
Heterotrophs
Cell membrane but NO cell wall
2 categories:
i) invertebrate – no backbone (95% of animals are invertebrates)
ii) vertebrate – have a boackbone (remaining 5%)
Carry out the following essential life functions
i) Feeding
ii) Respiration (take in oxygen, give off carbon dioxide)
iii) Circulation (have a system that circulates materials within the body)
iv) Excretion (empty waste products)
v) Response (respond to environment
vi) Movement
vii) Reproduction
g) Body symmetry
i) Radial symmetry – organism can be
divided into equal halves by drawing
any number of lines through its center
(1) Organism is usually round
(2) Ex: sand dollar
ii) Bilateral symmetry – organism can be
divided into two matching halves only
at one point
(1) Most animals have bilateral
symmetry
(2) Ex: humans
2) Classification of Animals (simplest to most complex)
i)
See pictures of these various organisms in your book and notice the following:
(1) How similar all animals are to one another
(2) How different each phyla is from one another
(3) Adaptations each animal has for its environment
(4) How animals become more complex when comparing all of them together
b) Sponges
i) Only animal without body symmetry
c)
Cnidarians
i) Hydras, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals
d) Flatworms
i) Turbellarians, flukes, tapeworms
e)
Roundworms
i) Ascarid worms, hookworms
f)
Annelids
i) Earthworms
g) Mollusks
i) Pond snails, land slugs, clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, octopus, squid
h) Arthropods
i) Crustaceans – crabs, lobsters, crayfishes, barnacles
ii) Horseshoe crabs, spiders, ticks, scorpions
iii) Insects – grasshoppers, termites, ants, bees
i)
Echinoderms
i) Sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars
j)
Chordates
i) Have a hollow nerve cord (e.g. spinal cord in humans)
ii) Most are vertebrates
iii) Classifications
(1) Fish
(a) Jawless fish (no true teeth)
(i) Lampreys, hagfish
(b) Cartilaginous fish (skeleton made of cartilage)
(i) Sharks, rays, skates
(c) Bony fish (skeleton made of bone)
(i) Goldfish, bass, trout
(2) Amphibians
(a) Salamanders, frogs and toads, caecilians
(3) Reptiles
(a) Dinosaurs (extinct), lizards and snakes, crocodilians (alligators, crocodiles, caimans, gavials),
turtles and tortoises, tuatara (only found in New Zealand)
(4) Birds
(a) Paleontologists believe that birds evolved from reptiles that are now extinct
(5) Mammals
(a) Monotremes – egg-laying mammals
(i) Duckbill platypus
(b) Marsupials – bear live young, young born at an early stage of development, live in mother’s
pouch until they can live on their own
(i) Koalas, kangaroos
(c) Placentals – live birth, mother supplies embryo with nutrients until time for offspring to be
born
(i) Dogs, whales, humans
3) Primates and Human Origin
a)
Characteristics of primates:
i) Binocular vision
ii) Well-developed cerebrum
iii) Relatively long fingers/toes
iv) Arms that rotate in broad circles around shoulder
joints
b) 2 divisions of primates
i) New World Monkeys
(1) Found in Central and South America
(2) Have prehensile tail (tail can tightly wrap around
a branch to serve as a 5th hand)
ii) Old World Monkeys and Great Apes
(1) No prehensile tail
(2) Includes gorillas, chimpanzees, humans
(3) Hominids – organisms that have evolved
adaptation for walking upright
(a) Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) –
disappeared 30,000 years ago
(b) Humans (Homo sapiens)
4) Animal Behavior
Behavior – the way that an organism reacts to change
i) Stimulus – a change that occurs (can be inside or outside the body)
ii) Response – reaction to the stimulus
(1) Can involve a number of body systems interacting and working together
b) 2 Types of Behavior
i) Innate behavior – behaviors animals are born with
(1) Ex: spider weaving a web, sucking of a newborn mammal
ii) Learned behavior – behaviors that are acquired over time as a result of the animal’s experiences (not
born with these behaviors
(1) 4 Types
(a) Habituation – response is slowed or stopped after being exposed to a stimulus a number of
times and the animal is neither harmed nor rewarded
(i) Most simple form of learning
(ii) Ex: Ragworms
1. Ragworms will retreat into their burrows when a shadow passes over them. When
shadows continually pass over them, they will stop retreating into their burrows.
(b) Classical Conditioning – mental connection made between stimulus and an event
(i) Ex: Pavlov’s Dog
1. Everytime Pavlov fed his dog he would ring a bell. Eventually, the dog would start
salivating every time it heard the bell ring (even if food was not present).
(c) Operant Conditioning – animal learns behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment
(i) Ex: training a dog
1. Most dogs are trained by giving a dog s reward (treat, toy, affection) when they
perform the desired behavior. Dog will not get the reward if it does not do the
behavior.
(d) Insight Learning – animal applies something it has already learned to a new situation
(i) Most complex form of learning
(ii) Performed mostly by humans
(iii) Ex: Chimpanzee experiment
1. When researchers put some bananas high and out or reach, the chimps stacked boxes
on top of one another and climbed on top of them to reach the bananas.
a)
c)
Most behaviors are due to a combination of innate and learned behaviors
i) Ex: Imprinting
(1) Newborn ducks have innate desire to follow first moving object they see (usually a parent)
(2) They do not know what the object will look like when they are born
(3) Must learn from experience which object to follow
d) Patterns of Behavior
i) Many animals respond to periodic changes in the environment (daily or seasonal cycles of behavior)
(1) Ex: dormancy/hibernation, migration, circadian rhythm (daily pattern)
ii) Behaviors help animals reproduce
(1) Ex: courtship – reproductive strategy that helps many animals identify healthy males
iii) Social behavior – how animals interact with members of their own species
iv) Some behaviors protect territories
(1) Ex: competition, aggression
v) Communication
(1) Use visual signs
(a) Ex: movement, color
(2) Pheromones – chemicals that affect the behavior of a species
(a) Ex: animals “marking” their territory
(3) Vocal communication
(a) Ex: birds chirping, humans speaking
(4) Language – combines sounds, symbols, and gestures
(a) Most complex form of communication
(b) Known to be only used by humans