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ESSC 108 Introduction to Astronomy
Chapter Outline of Comins text
Prof. Augensen
Fall 2004
Chapter 4 The Earth & Its Moon
The Earth
We begin our study of planets in solar system with most familiar planet: Earth
Q: Do processes on Earth occur on other worlds?
MASS & DENSITY OF EARTH
Diameter
(oblate)
12,714 km (poles)
12,756 km (equator)
Radius
6400 km (equator)
Avg Density
Surface
Core
5500 kg/m3 (= 5 times density of water)
2400 kg/m3
12,000 kg/m3
EARTH’S INTERIOR (*Information determined from earthquake waves)
1. Core
 central region, radius 3500 km (over half total)
 composition Fe, Ni
 T ~ 6000 K
2. Mantle
 middle region, 2900 km thick
 composition rocks of Fe, Mg, Si
 T ~ 3800 K (base) to 1300 K (top)
 Even though solid rock, behaves like plastic – flows over many millions yrs
3. Crust
 outermost region, 8 km thick (under oceans) to 70 km (continents)
 composition mostly igneous rocks – solidified from molten lava
 basaltic rocks mostly under oceans: contain silicates of Al, Mg, Fe
(high density)
 granite rocks comprise continents: contain silicates of Al, Na, K
(lower density)
 crust floats on mantle
EARTH’S AGE
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
determined by radioactive dating – yields age of Earth 4.6 billion years
differentiation – separates heavy elements (sink) from light ones (rise)
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Erosion/deposition (incl. glaciation)
Volcanism
Impact cratering
Plate Tectonics
Life
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
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magnetic field surround Earth – magnetic field lines similar to bar magnet
N. & S. magnetic poles – deviate 12 degr from geographic poles
Source of B field: fluid, rotating core of ferromagnetic metals (Fe, Ni)
Magnetosphere
 traps charged particle
 creates Van Allen radiation belts
 interaction w/ solar wind creates aurora borealis in skies near poles
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Composition:
N2
O2
Ar
H2O, CO2
78%
21%
1%
trace

albedo – ratio of light reflected to incoming light

greenhouse effect – visible rays from Sun pass through Earth' atmosphere,
strike surface and warm it, causing it to emit IR radiation, which is absorbed
by atmosphere

ozone layer – blocks harmful UV radiation

Coriolis effect – affects atmospheric & oceanic circulation
The Moon
Moon & planet Mercury are similar worlds, possessing little atmosphere & many craters.
MOON’S ORBIT, ROTATION, SIZE, & MASS
Diameter
Mass
3500 km
(1/4 Earth diameter)
22
7.4  10 kg (1/81 Earth mass)
Avg Density 3300 kg/m3 (cf. avg 5400 kg/m3 for Earth)
 same as rocks in Earth’s mantle – indicates few heavy metals
Elliptical orbit (e = 0.055)
perigee
356,000 km
apogee
407,000 km
average
384,000 km (30 Earth diameters)
Orbit period
27.3 days
29.5 days
(w/ resp. to stars)
(w/ resp. to phases)
Synchronous rotation – same side always faces toward Earth
Effects of Tidal Forces on Earth-Moon System:
1. Moon’s synchronous rotation – same side of Moon always faces Earth
2. Slowing of Earth’s rotation – day increasing by ~ 1.4  10-3 sec per century
(= 1.4 s per 105 yr = ~ 1 h per 250 million yr)
3. Recession of the Moon’s orbit – increase ~ 4 cm/yr
(= 4m per century = 40 m per Kyr = 40 km per Myr = 40,000 km per Gyr)
Roche limit for tidal disruption
MOON’S SURFACE ENVIRONMENT
Negligible atmosphere
 Moon’s mass only ~1% Earth’s – cannot gravitationally hold atmosphere
 Neon, helium (very sparse)
Extreme range in T
 sunlit side 375 K ( 100 C  boiling pt water)
 dark side 100 K ( -175 C = -280 F)
MOON’S SURFACE: PRE-APOLLO


terminator – day-night boundary
limb – physical edge
Two main types surface material seen by Galileo:
 smooth (maria, or "seas") – lunar lowlands – cover 20 % of lunar surface
 rough (terrae, or "lands") – lunar highlands – cover 80 % of lunar surface
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maria & basins
appear dark, smooth, & circular or oval
found mostly on northern lunar hemisphere & on near side
fill up large shallow basins, which would be the oceans if moon contained
water
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craters
very common phenomenon on many solar system bodies
heavy bombardment period in early solar system – 4 billion yrs ago
each impact tosses up dust – covers smaller features

rays – extend outward from young, large craters

rilles – lunar valleys

mascons – concentrations of mass found beneath most maria
APOLLO MISSION RESULTS

regolith — lunar soil, 1-20 m deep
Categories of Moon Rocks
1. basalts – dark, fine-grained rocks similar to terrestrial basalts (Mg-Fe silicates) –
high density, found in mare, cooled rapidly, give youngest ages (3.2-3.8 billion
yrs)
2. anorthosites – light colored igneous rocks, containing visible grains (Al-Ca
silicates) – lower density, most common, found in highlands, cooled more slowly
– give oldest ages (4 - 4.6 billion yrs)
3. breccias - rock & mineral fragments bound together—formed by impacting
bodies hitting igneous rocks on surface, fragmenting & heating them, & also
binding fragments together
Abundances of Elements in Rocks on Moon

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volatile elements sparse – elements w/ low boiling pts – Hg, Cu, Ar, K
refractory elements most abundant – elements w/ high boiling pts – Al, Ti
Timetable for Formation
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Moon formed 4.6 billion yrs ago
present highlands solidified 4 billion yrs ago
several large impacts produced lunar basins (maria) 4 billion yrs ago
maria lava solidified 3 billion yrs ago
Lunar Interior
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large, probably solid, contains Fe-silicates
low seismic activity – what little detected most likely due to tidal stresses
weak magnetic field – core poor in heavy metals
ORIGIN OF THE MOON
Impact trigger hypothesis – “giant impact model”
ESSC 108 Introduction to Astronomy
Chapter Outline of Comins text
Prof. Augensen
Fall 2004
Chapter 5a The Inner Planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars
BASIC TYPES OF PLANETS
Terrestrial Planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
 orbit close to Sun
 relatively small
 rocky compositions & high densities
Jovian Planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
 orbit far from Sun
 relatively large, ~10x larger than terrestrials
 gaseous compositions & low densities
MERCURY: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Diameter
4900 km
(40% larger than Moon)
23
Mass
3.3  10 kg (4 Moon mass, 0.06 Earth mass)
Avg Density 5400 kg/m3 (same as for Earth, indicates heavy metallic core)
Elliptical orbit (sunlight 2.3 more intense at perihelion than aphelion)
perihelion
46 million km
aphelion
70 million km
Orbit period
Rotation period
88 days
59 days (slow compared w/ orbit – tidal effect)
Surface Temperature
T = 700 K
noon at perihelion
T = 425 K
sunset
T = 100 K
midnight
Escape speed 4.3 km/s
(only half of Earth's)
 atmospheric gases escape to space easily
 Mercury has little measurable atmosphere (like Moon)
Surface Features
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heavily cratered, like Moon, but fewer large craters
scarps – shallow cliffs 20-500 km long, formed as Mercury shrank over time
Caloris Basin – 1300 km, similar to Mare Orientale on Moon
Major differences in surface features compared w/ Moon:
1. no mountain ranges, but presence of scarps on Mercury
2. fewer basins, but find bare spots of craters even in heavily cratered regions –
uncratered plains
3. Mercury has both fewer very small and very large craters than Moon
Magnetic Field

very weak, but measurable – indicates metallic core, but solid
VENUS: ORBITAL & PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Diameter
Mass
12,100 km (5% smaller than Earth diameter12,800 km)
0.82 Earth mass (18% less than Earth's mass)
Density (avg)
5200 kg/m3 (cf. avg 5400 kg/m3 for Earth)
infer Venus’ interior similar to Earth, w/ smaller core
Orbit radius (avg)
Orbit period
Rotation period
0.72 AU (very circular)
225 days
243 days (retrograde)
Magnetic Field
none detected (perhaps rotation is too slow)
Surface pressure
90 atm
Surface temperature 740 K
ATMOSPHERE OF VENUS
Atmospheric Composition
CO2
N2, Ar
H2O
96%
3%
trace
Clouds & Winds
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surface completely cloud covered – not directly visible
yellow-white, composed of sulfuric acid droplets
two layers clouds
 upper layer, 5 km thick
 lower, dense layer at 50 km height, gradually thinning to 30 km height
 from surface to 30 km height, atmosphere clear of clouds
strong jetstream winds blow clouds around planet in 4 days, powered by Sun
winds transport heat – little variation (10 K) between day & night sides
powerful greenhouse effect produced by abundant CO2 in atmosphere
Albedo 76%
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only 3% sunlight reaches surface – enough to power greenhouse warming
Examples of high & low albedo surfaces
snow
dry earth
water
0.90
0.05
0.3 - 0.5
Earth
Moon
Mercury
0.39
0.05
0.06
SURFACE OF VENUS – info based on spaceprobe lander & orbiter, radar
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surface has similar features as Earth, but flatter, w/ little elevation differences
mountains, plateaus, canyons, volcanoes, ridges, impact craters
northern half Venus mountainous, w/ uncratered plateau – resembles continents
on Earth
most of southern surface consists of flat, volcanic plains w/ many volcanoes (not
sure if active)
surface in general very young, modified by volcanism over past few hundred
million yrs
no major global plate tectonic activity any longer, but local activity
impact craters present
MARS: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
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most likely of planets to harbor extraterrestrial life
observed to have polar caps (shrink in summer, grow in winter) & signs changing
seasons
space probes show ancient craters, giant canyons, huge volcanoes
no liquid water on surface today
Diameter
Mass
Avg Density
6800 km
(0.53 Earth)
6.4  1023 kg (0.11 Earth mass)
3900 kg/m3 (similar to Moon)
 indicates small Fe core
 mantle similar to Earth’s
Orbit radius
Orbit period
Rotation period
Axis inclination
1.52 AU
687 days
24h 37m
25
Magnetic field
extremely weak
puzzling, since Mars believed to have rotating molten core

(fairly eccentric)
(about 2x Earth's)
(similar to Earth 24h)
(similar to Earth 23.5)
Atmospheric pressure 1/2000th Earth surface pressure
Surface Temperature (from Earth-based & also Viking measurements)
T = 310 K
( 98 F)
max noon temp in tropics
T = 244 K
(-20 F)
typical day temp, midlatitudes
T = 187 K
(-123 F)
typical night temp, midlatitudes
Atmospheric Composition – similar to Venus, but much less dense
CO2
N2
Ar
H2O
95%
2-3%
1-2%
trace
REMOTE SENSING OF MARTIAN SURFACE
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Much learned about Mars from space probes
Mariner probes in late 1960s & early 1970s
Viking orbiter & lander probes July & September 1976
Mars Pathfinder July 1997
Martian Deserts
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contain sand coated w/ FeO – rust
“greenness” detected by early observers an optical illusion – less red sand seen in
contrast
Global Dust Storms

responsible for most of erosion on surface
Canals & Polar Caps
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seen by Schiaparelli (1877) – observed “canali” – became "canals"
observed by P. Lowell – theory of dying Martian civilization channeling water
from polar caps to cities
Different Hemispheres have different characteristics:
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southern old, relatively flat & heavily cratered
northern younger w/ huge volcanoes & extensive lava flows
two hemispheres separated by huge canyon; see below
Valles Marineris
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huge canyon on equator – extends 5000 km (length U.S.) & 500 km wide in
places
similar to rift valley in E. Africa, suggests local tectonic activity
Arroyos & Outflow Channels
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named after arroyos found in desert U.S. southwest when sudden rains flood
desert & carve channels
discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971
lengths up to 1500 km & widths 100 km
cut by running water over short time, during warmer wetter period – approx 1
billion yrs ago
Volcanoes
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found primarily in N. hemisphere, several large ones on Tharsis Ridge
Olympus Mons – 27 km (15 miles) high, 600 km across at base
formed ~ 3 billion yrs ago
most originate just north of Valles marineris, in cratered highlands
Cratered Southern Hemisphere
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cratered terrain resembles ancient lunar highlands or plains Mercury
craters shallower than those on Moon, filled w/ windblown dust
MOONS OF MARS – Phobos & Deimos
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discovered U.S. Naval Observatory 1877
cratered surfaces, albedos darkest in solar system ~ 0.02
ESSC 108 Introduction to Astronomy
Course Outline of Comins text
Prof. Augensen
Fall 2004
Chapter 5b Outer Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto
JUPITER
Physical Characteristics
Diameter
Mass
Density (avg)
140,000 km (10x Earth diameter)
318 Earth mass
1300 kg/m3 (slightly greater than water)
Orbit radius (avg)
Orbit period
Rotation period
5.2 AU
12 yrs
10 h (differential rotation)
Atmospheric Features
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belts – light, cold, higher
zones – dark, warmer, lower
differential rotation
Great Red Spot
 color from chemical reactions
 larger than Earth
Atmospheric Composition – similar to Sun & Stars
H
He
CH3, NH4, H2O, H2
82%
18%
trace
Model of Interior
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solid core heavy elements – T ~ 40,000 K
followed by mantle liquid metallic H
followed by layer liquid H
followed by clear atmosphere H & He
followed by visible clouds
Magnetic Field
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10x stronger than Earth’s
generated by rapidly rotating liquid metallic H region
Other Discoveries
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Auroras – similar to Earth’s
Lightning bolts detected
Rings detected around Jupiter
MOONS OF JUPITER
Four Galilean moons largest – Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto
 Densities 3500, 3000, 1900, 1800 kg/m3 respectively
 indicates inner moons more rocky, outer more icy (frozen gases)
 all have synchronous rotation w/ orbital periods
Io
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thin atmosphere SO2
active volcanism on young surface
Europa
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water ice surface w/ cracks
crisscrossed by long, but shallow (less than 100 m deep) cracks
Ganymede
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*largest moon in solar system,
most resembles Earth’s moon in appearance
numerous craters w/rays, landscape ~ 4 billion yrs old
low density – more ice than rock composition
Callisto
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similar to Ganymede, w/ numerous craters, low density
SATURN
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similar to Jupiter, but has beautiful system of rings
slightly smaller than Jupiter, but 1/3 mass
lowest density of planets, 700 kg/m3 – must have interior consisting only of light
elements
Atmosphere
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basically same as Jupiter’s
clouds less colorful than on Saturn, lie lower in atmosphere (since colder at
Saturn)
wind speeds much higher
interior structure mostly liquid, similar to Jupiter, but w/ smaller core & zone
metallic H
Other Similarities to Jupiter
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both Jupiter & Saturn emit ~2x energy received from Sun (in IR)
both have strong magnetic fields
MOONS OF SATURN
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low densities ( 2000 kg/m3)  composed of ice (60-70%) & rock (30-40%)
cratered, more modifications on larger moons, less on smaller ones
*Note: most bodies in outer solar system (planets, comets) composed of ices (frozen
gases) and dark, carbonaceous material.
Titan
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Saturn’s largest moon
has dense atmosphere N2 (80%), plus methane, argon, & other gases
T ~ 94 K, P ~ 1.5 atm
RINGS OF SATURN
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discovered by Huygens 1659
believed to result from moon disrupted at Roche’s limit
several large bands A, B, C
Cassini’s division – gap between bands
Voyager revealed numerous small ringlets, composed rocky particles coated w/
water ice
shepherd satellites keep ring particles in narrow range
URANUS
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first planet to be discovered in historical times, by Wm. Herschel in 1781
blue-green color
Physical Characteristics
Diameter
Mass
Avg Density
4 Earth radii
15 Earth mass
1300 kg/m3 (similar to Jupiter)
Orbit radius
Orbit period
19.2 AU
84 yrs
Rotation period
Axis inclination
Magnetic Field
17h (retrograde)
98 (produces extreme seasons & retrograde rotation)
inclined 59
Faint ring around planet
Atmospheric Composition
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mostly H & He (similar to Jupiter & Saturn)
blue green color produced by methane in atmosphere absorbing red light &
reflecting blue-green
Interior Composition
water, methane, ammonia ices
rocky materials – silicates & Fe
H + He
60%
25%
15%
Satellites
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low densities, consisting ices & rocky materials
Miranda largest & most interesting
contains many different types terrain jumbled together – faults, tall (5 km) cliffs,
grooved terrain
NEPTUNE
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8th planet, not much known until Voyager 2 flyby 1989
discovered independently by J.C. Adams & U. Leverrier 1846
similar to Uranus in color (more blue than Uranus), composition, & size
has ring, similar to Uranus
Physical Characteristics
Diameter
Mass
Avg Density
4 Earth radii
17  Earth mass
1640 kg/m3
(same as Uranus)
(slightly greater than Uranus)
(slightly greater than Uranus)
Orbit radius
Orbit period
30 AU
165 yr
Rotation period
Axis inclination
16 h
29
Magnetic field
inclined 47
(similarly extreme to Uranus 59)
same strength as Earth’s field
Atmospheric Features (seen by Voyager 2)
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bright cirruslike clouds – probably condensed methane
Great Dark Spot
 large high-pressure system rotating CCW
 30,000 km across (slightly smaller than GRS on Jupiter)
 lacks methane, so appears dark
Triton
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largest satellite
surface N2 ice, gives high albedo 0.70
PLUTO & CHARON
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9th planet, usually most distant
discovered Lowell Observatory 1930 by C. Tombaugh
no spacecraft has yet reached Pluto, although Hubble Space Telescope has
observed it
Physical Characteristics
Diameter
0.17 Earth radii
Mass
0.002  Earth mass
Avg Density 2100 kg/m3
(smaller than Earth's Moon)
(~1/50 of Earth's Moon!)
(greater than Jovian planets)
Orbit radius 39.44 AU
Orbit period 248 yrs
Orbit inclined to ecliptic 17
(very eccentric)
Rotation period
Axis inclination
6d
98 (same as Uranus)
Surface of Pluto
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little or no atmosphere due to low gravity
surface coated mainly w/ methane ice, but also N2 & CO ices
very cold ~ 40 K (-387 F)
Satellite Charon
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discovered at U.S. Naval Observatory 1978 by Christy & Harrington
synchronous orbit w/ Pluto
orbit of Pluto-Charon system allowed determination of masss
~1/5 mass of Pluto
ESSC 108 Introduction to Astronomy
Chapter Outline of Comins text
Prof. Augensen
Fall 2004
Chapter 6 Comets & Asteroids
Makeup of materials in outer solar system consists of :
(1) light-colored ices
(2) dark-colored silicates (same as moons of outer planets)
ASTEROIDS
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irregular, rocky body smaller in size & mass than terrestrial planet
typical sizes < 100 km
over 2000 known, ~106 estimated total in asteroid belt
combined mass all asteroids probably few % of Moon’s mass
density 3000 kg/m3, similar to Moon
largest asteroid Ceres
 diameter 1/3 Moon
 mass 1/100 Moon
Asteroid Class (based on albedos & composition)
S-type
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(stony)
relatively bright albedos (15%)
consist of silicate materials
found mainly within orbit of Mars
C-type
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(carbon)
dark albedos (2-5%)
contain substantial amt carbon compounds
exist mainly in asteroid belt & outer solar system
M-type (metallic)
 moderate albedos (10%)
 contain metallic substances
 only 5% of asteroids are this type
General Rule: asteroids in inner belt have high albedos, those in outer belt low albedos
Types of Asteroids (based on location)
1. Belt Asteroids (vast majority)
 orbit in belt between orbits Mars & Jupiter
2. Trojan Asteroids
 orbit within orbit Jupiter, 60 on either side
3. Apollo Asteroids
 asteroids with eccentric orbits, crossing orbit of Earth
 best example Icarus
COMETS
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appears as fuzzy star in telescope
snowballs in space
masses only 10-8 Moon
comet loses typically 1/1000 of its mass during each perihelion passage
Major Components
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Coma – bright cloud visible
Nucleus – bright starlike point near center of nucleus
Tail – ion tail & dust tail
Cometary Tails
Ion tail
 straight, consisting of plasma of CO, CO2, N2, CH4, NH3
 small gas particles affected directly by solar wind, points away from Sun
Dust tail
 curved, larger grains
 more massive dust grains following Keplerian orbits, affected by photons
Cometary Nuclei
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consists of small, 10-20 km diameter icy chunk, on very elliptical orbit about Sun
as comet approaches perihelion, frozen gases begin to sublimate to form coma
"dirty snowball" cometary model – Fred Whipple (1950)
The Oort Comet Cloud
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proposed by astronomer J. Oort (1950)
large reservoir comets (~1011 - 1014) at ~50,000 AU from Sun
extreme elliptical orbits, P ~ 107 yr
The Kuiper Belt
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hypothesized to exist by astronomer G. Kuiper (1951)
smaller reservoir than Oort Cloud, & nearer to solar system
extends from ~ 40 AU (orbit of Pluto) to 500 AU
Example: Halley’s Comet
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estimated mass ~3 x 1014 kg, loses ~1011 kg (1/1000)each passage
P = 75-76 yr,
most recent close passage April 1986, rp = 0.59 AU, d = 0.42 AU
visited by Europe’s Giotto spacecraft, w/ results:
 most of coma gas H2O (80%), CO, formaldehyde (H2CO)
 size of nucleus 8  16 km
 extremely dark, albedo ~4%
 jets gas (H2O) & dust
METEOROIDS, METEORS AND METEORITES
Terminology
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meteoroid -- rocky or icy object in space, before entering atmosphere
meteor -- bright steak of light created when meteoroid enters atmosphere
meteorite -- rock fragment which survives plunge to Earth
Viewing Meteors
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before midnight – meteors must catch up to Earth, speeds only 12 km/s
after midnight – facing toward direction of orbital motion, speeds up to 42 km/s –
best time for viewing
Origin & Nature
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origin of 99% meteors – cometary debris, remaining 1% asteroid fragments
most are sand-grain size, burn up ~ 60 - 100 km altitude
most meteorites, rocks which reach Earth’s surface, originate from asteroids
Types of Meteorites
Irons
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highest densities (7500 - 8000 kg/m3)
contain 90% Fe, 9% Ni
most common finds, but in reality very rare
Widmanstatten figures – large crystalline patterns appear when etching w/
acid (perhaps result from impact shock (which broke it apart)
Stones
 lowest densities (3000 - 3500 kg/m3)
 composed light silicates, similar to Earth’s crustal rocks (therefore difficult to
distinguish from ordinary rocks)
 most stones contain spherical chondrules, such stones called chondrites
 carbonaceous chrondrites – contain much carbon & water
Stony-Irons
 medium densities (5500 - 6000 kg/m3)
 rarest type
Meteorites found in Antarctica – origin Mars or Moon
Collisions with Earth
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1 km object each 105 yr
10 km object every 108 yr
INTERPLANETARY GAS & DUST
Zodiacal Light – scattered sunlight off tiny dust particles in plane of ecliptic
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seen before sunrise & after sunset
source: disintegrating comets & colliding asteroids
Earth accretes ~106 tons of this dust /yr