Download Brief History and Theory of Speaking

Brief History and Theory of Speaking
Storytelling
Long before humankind even conceived of written language, history and tradition were kept
through storytelling. Many of the oldest stories and religious traditions of today were
retold as stories countless times before they were ever written down. With no script or
written word to follow, storytellers weaved detailed anecdotes about the world around them
entirely from memory. These tales explained the mysteries of the world, recounted the
heroes of the past, and informed early tribal members of the daily happenings around them.
For thousands of years, storytellers were the keepers of the history of humankind. They
held a highly respected role in the community. In addition to keeping the culture,
storytellers acted as educators, newscasters, and entertainers.
Even after written language developed, many societies rejected writing for religious or
cultural reasons. It is believed that the early Israelites may have thought that the Second
Commandment (Thou shalt have no graven images before Me) forbade them from using the
written word. This sentiment has been shared by many throughout history (including an
early American sect known as the Dunkers).
Unfortunately, the lack of written records has left many questions about who these people
were and what they believed. But at least their complex oral traditions have left us a verbal
image of times that may have otherwise been forgotten.
Oral Communication in Colonial America
Many scholars believe that colonial America was a golden age of rhetoric. Early settlers
eagerly attended presentations that often lasted for several hours. The famous debates
between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas often took over three hours. Ironically,
these marathon discussions were considerably shorter than the orators were accustomed
to. At one previous meeting, the two shared an address lasting a total of seven hours.
Even the early American stump speakers (unscheduled presenters standing on tree stumps
or other available podiums) would sometimes talk for two to three hours. The audiences
were both respectful and attentive, but would often fire questions or shout encouragement
back to the presenter. Unlike the public addresses most of us are accustomed to, colonial
speeches were a multi-faceted anthology of complex rhetorical art. Elaborate metaphors,
intricate paradoxes, and exhaustive examinations of current issues were presented in an
articulate and candid fashion.
The meetings eventually became major social gatherings as well. Entire carnivals would often
spring up. Yet the attendees always kept their focus on the speakers. Both the presenters
and the audiences delivered an amazing level of concentration and critique that will likely
never be seen again.
Aristotle's Rhetoric
Over 2300 years ago, Aristotle laid the groundwork for modern public communication. His
teacher, Plato, hated the way that public speakers skillfully manipulated audiences with no
apparent regard for truth. Plato saw little value for the mere rhetoric used by the fasttalking speakers of his day.
Aristotle, however, saw great potential in rhetoric (one person addressing many). He
believed it was an art that could and should be studied and that good rhetoric was not only
persuasive, but also ethical. He stated that all public presentations are some balance of
three rhetorical proofs: ethos (ethical), pathos (emotional), and logos (logical).
The ethos is the speaker and his or her character as revealed through the communication.
The pathos is the audience and the emotions felt by them during the rhetoric. The logos is
the actual words used by the speaker.
Although no presenter today would speak without considering the audience, Aristotle's
pathos was a novel idea in his time. He is the earliest record of a rhetorician identifying the
audience and their perception as an important part of public speaking. In fact, he believed
that a speech was effective only if it stirred up emotions in its audience.
Kenneth Burke's Dramatism
Although Kenneth Burke never received a college degree, his Dramatism Theory has become
an important addition to mainstream communication theory. Burke believed that all of life
and all communication is a drama. His primary concern is with a speaker's ability to identify
with an audience. If there is a perceived similarity between the speaker and the listener,
the audience is more likely to believe that the speaker was "talking sense". This is the key
to persuasive speaking, according to Burke.
Burke's pentad identifies five crucial elements of our human drama (communications). The
act is what has been done by the communicator. The scene gives the context or background
surrounding the act. The agent is the person who performed the act. The agency is the
means that was used to "get the job done". The purpose is the stated or implied goal of the
address.
To understand a communication through Dramatism, you must examine the situation through
all five elements. Burke further claims that all public speaking is an attempt to purge one's
self from an ever-present sense of guilt. The speaker only has two choices: purge guilt
through self-blame or blame their problems on someone else.
Walter Fisher's Narrative Paradigm
Although most communicators will argue that narratives are only one part of communication,
Walter Fisher believes that all communication is a form of storytelling. His Narrative
Paradigm asserts that people are essentially storytelling animals and our reason is best
appealed to through stories. Fisher defines narration as symbolic actions, words, and/or
deeds that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create or interpret them.
Obviously, his broad definition that everything with sequence and meaning is a narrative
leaves little room to argue with his claim that all meaningful communication is storytelling.
Fisher says that not all stories are created equally. He thinks that everyone has the same
innate ability to determine the narrative rationality (interpreted value) of the stories we
hear based upon two aspects. First we examine the narrative coherence. This is our way of
determining if the story holds together and makes sense in our world. Then we check the
narrative fidelity. Here we see if the story matches our own beliefs and experiences and,
hence, portrays the world we live in.
The traditional paradigm of the rational world claims that:
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People are essentially rational
We make decisions on the basis of arguments
The type of speaking situation determines the course of our argument
Rationality is determined by how much we know and how well we argue
The world is a set of logical puzzles that we can solve through rational analysis
Fisher believes that this viewpoint is too limited and suggests a new paradigm. His builds
upon the narrative foundation of communication:
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People are essentially storytellers
We make decisions on the basis of good reasons
History, biography, culture, and character determine what we consider good reasons
Narrative rationality is determined by the coherence and fidelity of our stories
The world is a set of stories from which we choose, and thus constantly re-create,
our lives
Shannon and Weaver's Model of Communication
Information Source ===> Message Sent
Transmitter =====> Signal Sent
Sources of Noise ===> Signal Received
Receiver ===> Message Received
Destination
Claude Shannon was a research scientist at Bell Telephone Company trying to achieve
maximum telephone line capacity with minimum distortion. He had never intended for his
mathematical theory of signal transmission for anything but telephones. But when Warren
Weaver applied Shannon's concept of information loss to interpersonal communication, one
of the most popular models of communication was created.
According to Shannon and Weaver's model (as seen above), a message begins at an
information source, which is relayed through a transmitter, and then sent via a signal
towards the receiver. But before it reaches the receiver, the message must go through
noise (sources of interference). Finally, the receiver must convey the message to its
destination.
Suppose you have an idea in your head (information source) that you want to tell someone
about. You must first move the idea from your brain to your mouth (transmitter). Since you
cannot actually share your gray matter, you must select words for your transmitter to use.
Once you speak, your voice (signal) is carried through the air toward the listener's ear
(receiver). Along the way, your signal is joined by a myriad of other sounds and distractions
(noises). The receiver then takes everything it receives and tries to maximum the message
and minimize the noise. Finally, the receiver conveys its message to the other person's mind
(destination).
Shannon and Weaver's model clearly demonstrates why even the simplest communications
can be misunderstood. Transmitting a signal across additional media only adds to the
complexity of the communication and increases the chance for distortion. It is suddenly
easier to understand why other people just can't grasp what we already know.