Download PART B - Academic Skills

Writing technically
Skills
PART B
Writing Technically - an Interactive Grammar Guide
Summary of this Grammar Guide
This is a very short Grammar guide with some of the key features associated with
technical writing. There are activities in this guide and links to web sites with online
quizzes. It should be read in conjunction with Part A - Writing the Report.
Writing clearly and precisely are some of the key features of good technical writing. In
order to do this, you need to know your audience and what is expected in a
scientific/technical report (see Part A of Writing Technically - Writing the Report). You
also need to be able to write objectively. As a reader of your technical report, I want
to know what was done, the main findings and your conclusions. In order to display
objectivity you need to use the passive. You may find that Word underlines some of
your text in green. This is a query on your grammar, so you should always check it
out. However, it can also query the passive, so ignore it if you feel the passive is
correct.
Finally, check out some of the usual ‘grammatical sins’ to which we are all prone.
1.0
Improving your Technical Writing Style
2.0
Being Objective - The Passive
3.0
Writing Clearly
3.1
Understanding sentence basics: clause packets
3.2
Recognising signal words
3.1.1 describing cause and effect
3.1.2 indicating something similar or unexpected
3.1.3 comparing and contrasting
3.1.4 expressing degrees of certainty
3.1.5 being precise
3.1.6 writing about processes
4.0
Correcting your Grammatical Sins
4.1
Sentence fragments
4.2
Run on sentences
4.3
Agreement problems
4.4
Faulty parallelism
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1.0
Improving your Technical Writing Style
The mark of good technical writing lies in being able to write with: objectivity, clarity,
accuracy, criticality and appropriateness.
OBJECTIVITY| you make the underlying assumptions of your argument clear. You have
a balanced view given the data and results you have. You take care not to write your
opinions as though they were facts. You avoid words like: obviously, surely, and of
course. You critically reflect on your own work as well as that of others.
CLARITY| you write clearly with simple sentences that are put together logically
showing evidence of clear scientific thinking.
ACCURACY | the statements you make are related to the evidence -either your evidence
of that of other researchers. Your sentences are precise and not woolly and you don't
make general sweeping statements without evidence.
CRITICALITY| you are able to be dispassionate and evaluate your own work (and that of
others).
APPROPRIATENESs| you are aware of your reader and you know what information they
need to understand your work. You present your work clearly in order to facilitate
this. You understand the kind of report you are writing and you write with the
appropriate style.
2.0
Being Objective - The Passive
When you write your methods section, you will need to state what you did, the
conditions of experiment/investigation and the equipment you used. The reader will be
interested in
what was done
and not
PASSIVE
who did it.
ACTIVE
And since you carried out your procedure in the past, you will use the past tense.
An example (using the past tense for both active and passive forms)
Active:
From the moisture content, I calculated the
void ratio, the specific volume and the unit
weight of the sample at the end of the test. I
assumed that the sample was fully saturated
before doing this.
Passive:
From the moisture content, the void ratio, the
specific volume and the unit weight of the
sample were calculated at the end of the test.
It was assumed that the sample was fully
saturated before doing this.
NOTE: For a passive sentence you should have no personal pronouns, e.g. I, We.
Writing technically
Skills
NOTE: Your lab notebooks and professional diaries will not need the passive. There is
also a move to encourage simplicity by writing in the active form only. Some web
sites will say that it is bad practice to write in the passive. However, in the academic
world, passive is still used. You need to check with your tutor what is expected of
you.
An explanation!
Sentence
Focus
Remember your writing should be objective, accurate and precise. The passive makes it feel more
objective.
Past tense
The glass was strengthened.
subject: the glass
tense: the past
interest: what happened
This appears more objective.
Passive
Present
ttetense
The glass is strengthened.
subject: the glass
tense: the present or for all time
interest: what happened
This appears more objective.
Passive
Past tense
I strengthened the glass.
Subject:
tense:
Interest::
I
past
what I did
This appears more subjective
Active
NOTE If you get in a muddle with the passive, always choose CLARITY over the
passive.
3
Activity 1: writing in passive and active
Now you try some - convert to either passive or active.
Passive construction
Active construction
Mike weighed the gelatine.
We extended the beam.
I stalled the airflow by adjusting the aerofoil.
I dropped the weights into the water.
My partner noticed that the string broke at this
point.
See Key to Activities
3.0
Writing Clearly
Clarity and accuracy are key features of technical writing. The activities below should
sensitise you to this. In order to revise your work, it is important that you understand
how sentences can be crafted.
3.1
Understanding sentence basics : clause packets
To know how to write clearly you must understand how sentences are constructed. A
sentence comprises one or more clauses. Every sentence is a clause packet and has
to have at least an independent (or main) clause. A complex sentence made up of
several clauses can be co-joined to form one sentence (e.g. two independent clauses
joined by ‘ and’, ‘ or’, ‘ but’). It can also be made up of an independent clause and
several dependent ones. Dependent clauses cannot form a sentence on their own.
Dependent clauses are recognised by words such as:
‘ although’, ‘ if’, ‘ despite’, ‘since’ and ‘….ing words’ such as – ‘considering’, ‘relating’,
‘defining’ etc. at the beginning of a clause.
An explanation!
Single Clause Sentence
1.
For the last hundred years the
climate [1] has been growing [2]
much warmer.
Multi-clause
Sentence
Comment
A single clause sentence.
[1] subject
[2] verb
Writing technically
Skills
2.
For the last hundred
years the climate [1]
has been growing [2]
much warmer and [3]
this [4] has had [5] a
number of different
effects.
3.
Since[1] the beginning
of the 20th century,
scientists [2] have
observed [3] that
glaciers [4] have been
melting [5] very
rapidly.
4.
Temperature increases
[1] have caused [2]
the snowline to retreat
on mountains all over
the world, resulting in
[3] the agricultural crop
line [4] shifting [5]
north, which [6] has
effected changes to
vegetation.
Two independent clauses
joined with ‘and’ to form
one sentence.
[1] subject of this clause
and the next one (replaced
by ‘this’)
[2] verb for that subject
[3] coordinator for next
clause .
[4] ‘this’ replaces ‘climate
much warmer’ and is also
the subject of this clause.
[5] verb for this clause
A two clause sentence: a
dependent and an
independent clause
forming one sentence.
[1] link word introducing a
dependent clause
[2] subject of the
dependent clause
[3] verb for dependent
clause
[4] subject of main clause
[5] verb of main clause
A three clause sentence
comprising: independent
clause, dependent clause
and a clause dependent on
the dependent clause
(known as a relative
clause)
[1] the subject of the
main clause
[2] verb for main clause
[3] introducing the
dependent clause
[4] subject of dependent
clause
[5] verb for dependent
clause
[6] introducing the relative
clause giving you more
information about the
effect of shifting the crop
line.
Remember! Every sentence must have an independent (main) clause for it to be
complete.
See also: Capital Community College’s excellent site:
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#coordinating_conjunctions and try
out their quizzes.
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Activity 2 : Sentence Combining : test your sentence knowledge by
combining the sentences into ONE sentence.
Combine two sentences into one
A.
i.
ii
To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organised as a series of
layers or levels.
Each level in a network is built upon its predecessor.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
B.
i.
ii.
Each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below
it.
Data and control information is passed all the way to the lowest layer.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Combine more sentences into one sentence:
C.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The
The
The
The
number of layers differ from network to network.
name of each layer differs from network to network.
content of each layer differs from network to network.
function of each layer differs from network to network.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
D.
i.
ii.
iii.
Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use.
It attaches its own headers.
It passes data to layer 2.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Writing technically
Skills
E.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
There is a difference between humans and animals.
There is a difference between humans and plants.
The difference is significant.
Each takes up a niche.
Each niche is determined.
Humans determine their own niche.
Humans can manipulate their niche.
The niche of an animal is determined by genes.
The niche of a plant is determined by genes.
Example taken from :
http:// www.wvmccd.cc.ca.us/wcv/la/pelican/schelp.html
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
See Key to Activities
For more exercises like this, check out:
http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/combining_quiz2.htm
3.2
Recognising Signal Words
As proficient readers we all recognise signal words. If you see first in a text you know
there will be a list of items to follow and you possibly scan the text to find second and
third so that you can quickly obtain an overview of the list. There are many signal
words that link ideas, join clauses and signal meaning, e.g. cause and effect,
something unexpected, compare and contrast, degrees of certainty, and processes.
This is not a full list, but enough to give you an understanding of the importance of
these words. These words signal to the reader how you are developing your argument.
Without these words, it would be very difficult for the reader to follow your line of
reasoning. These useful lists below have been adapted from Cooper, Janelle (1979)
Think and Link, Edward Arnold, London.
Try writing some sentences with these link words….
3.2.1
DESCRIBING CAUSE [C]
Link word
AND EFFECT
[E]
Your sentence
[E] because XXX [C].
The reason for XXX is that XXX [C]
[C]. Therefore, [E].
7
So, [E].
Consequently, [E].
Hence, [E].
[C], as a result of which, [E].
[C], as a consequence of which, [E].
One effect of XXXX was that [E].
One result of XXXX was that [E].
As a consequence of XXX, XXX [E].
3.2.2
INDICATING SOMETHING SIMILAR OR UNEXPECTED
Try building your own sentences with these words
Something similar
Something unexpected
xxx. In addition to xxx,
xxx. However, xxx
xxx and [also] xxx
Xxx but xxx
As well as xxx, xxx
Despite xxx, xxx
in spite of xxx, xxx
Xxx not only, but also xxx
xxx. Nevertheless, xxx
3.2.3
COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
Try building your own sentences with these words
Similarities
Differences
Xxx is the same as xxx
Xxx is different from xxx
Xxx differs from xxx
Xxx resembles xxxx in xxx
Xxx whereas xxxx
Xxx while xxxxx is xxx
Xxx is as xxxxx as
Xxx is less than xxx
Xxx is more than xxx
Similarly, xxx
On the other hand, xxx
However, xxxx
Introducing the concept for comparison:
As regards temperature, xxx
With regard to temperature, xxx
As far as temperature is concerned, xxx
With respect to temperature, xxx
Writing technically
3.2.4
Skills
EXPRESSING DEGREES OF CERTAINTY
%
Frequency
Certainty
Verb
100%
always
certainly
undoubtedly
will
must
simple present tense
usually
generally
as a rule
0%
3.2.5
should
ought to
often
probably
likely
presumably
sometimes
occasionally
possibly
perhaps
rarely
seldom
hardly ever
unlikely
can
could
may
might
will not
cannot
could not
simple present tense
(negative)
never
BEING PRECISE
Make the following vague sentences more precise. Look at your own work and add some of your
own examples.
Frequency
Vague
Quantity
Precise
Vague
The measurements
were recorded at
frequent intervals.
A substantial
amount of reagent
was applied.
The apparatus was
stable, so it was
rarely checked.
A huge amount of
Sulphur was
added.
Precise
The smallest
possible
amount of water
was
used.
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3.2.6
WRITING ABOUT PROCESSES
You may refer to a : process, steps or stages within a process (procedure)
Putting things in order:
Previously, xxx
Earlier, xxx
Beforehand, xxx
Before this xxx
Prior to this xxx
Firstly, xxx
First of all, xxx
To begin with xxx
The first step/stage is xxx
Secondly, xxx
Next, xxx
Then, xxx
After this, xxx
The next step is xxx
Finally, xxx
The final step/stage is xxx
The last………
4.0
Grammatical Sins
Some of the most common grammatical errors that people make are: sentence
fragments, run-on sentences, agreement problems, and faulty parallelism (Capital
Community College: Guide to Grammar and Writing:
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/sins.htm). These errors usually occur when you do
not fully understand the basics of sentence construction and the idea of clause
packets.
Information in this section is important during your editing stage.
So, what are these grammatical sins and do they apply to you? Take some writing
you have done in the past and see if you can spot any of these errors.
4.1
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
These are bits of text that fail to make a complete sentence. Very often this is
because the writer will start his or her sentence with a dependent clause and then
forget to add the independent (main) clause. But there are other reasons as well.
Writing technically
Skills
Activity 3 Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragment
What is wrong?
Can you repair it?
When the system logs the activity.
Calling up the local telephone company
office at 9600 bps.
Another potentially revolutionary difference
between satellite and terrestrial links.
Considering all the problems associated
with
landfills, including the time needed for
finding suitable locations, obtaining public
acceptance and constructing the landfills.
Can you find one from your own writing?
See Key to Activities
For more activities like this see: http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/sins.htm
4.2
RUN ON SENTENCES
These are independent clauses that have been pushed together to create a sentence.
However, the correct linking has not been used. As a result the sentence turns out to
be a bit of a muddle.
11
Activity 4 Run on Sentences
Sentence run on
What is wrong?
Can you repair it?
The wave responded to the stimulus, it performed to
within 5% of its predicted value.
Large improvements in the water supply and sanitation
sector of Estonia and Romania have been achieved,
therefore, from an environmental perspective these
projects are considered successful.
In general, the investment programmes have been
successfully undertaken, we have found that 80% of the
project components have been completed to high
engineering standards.
The results of the first experiment supported the
hypothesis, it was decided to continue with the
second experiment.
Can you find one from your own writing?
See Key to Activities
For more activities like these ,try some online quizzes at:
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/runons.htm
Writing technically
Skills
4.3
AGREEMENT PROBLEMS
Subject-verb agreement refers to an alignment of the subject with the verb, e.g.
Sentence
Explanation
The experiment was successful.
Experiment is a singular noun and the verb ’
to be’ - was - agrees with the noun and is
also singular.
The results are positive
Results - a plural noun needs the verb also
to be in plural form – are.
Everyone
Someone
Each of
All of us
None of us
is/has
are/have
Takes the singular form of the verb.
Takes the plural form of the verb.
Either of the results is acceptable.
Neither of the journals was appropriate.
Either and neither take singular.
Everyone involved in experiments is
expected to carry out a risk analysis.
Although experiments is plural, the agreement
is governed by everyone and always the
singular form. The same applies to: someone
and each of.
Activity 5 subject - verb agreement
What is the pattern for using the singular or plural form of the verb in examples
below?
Sentence
An explanation - can you find the rule?
Some of (or 5% of) the acid was spilt.
Some of (or 5% of) the cells were
destroyed.
Some of (or 5% of) the data were rejected.
The majority of (or 10% of) the journals
were
available.
The majority of (or 10% of) the fluid was
preserved.
See Key to Activities
Sometimes you have lots of words between subject and the verb. When this happens
it is easy to forget which word the verb has to agree with.
13
Professor Smith, new member of staff in Oceanography, founder of the Oceanic Society and
famous for many important theories in this area, is holding an introductory lecture today.
NOTE: ‘Data’ is a Latin word with datum being the singular and data the plural.
For more activities like these, try some online quizzes at:
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/sv_agr.htm
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/pronouns.htm
4.4
FAULTY PARALLELISM
Parallelism refers to how you express a group of ideas that have equal importance.
This may sound a bit vague, but when you see a bad example of parallelism, you know
immediately that something is wrong because the text just does not read well.
Here is an example of poor parallelism. Read this sentence out loud. Does it seemed disjointed to
you?
Therefore, Matlab is well suited to the analysis of brain potentials and of the function of
the autonomic nervous system during workload.
As a reader, you may find you have to read it several times to understand it. This is
because the sentence structure isn't parallel. How would you improve the sentence?
Try the correction yourself before looking at the suggested correction.
And analysis of the sentence above.
Therefore, Matlab is well suited to
This introduces a list of items
the analysis of brain potentials
Item 1: the analysis of…..
And
Link word (coordinator)
of the function of the autonomic nervous system during
work load.
Item 2: this should also start with
‘the + noun’ in order to balance
construction of item 1, i.e. a parallel
structure.
Suggested correction:
Therefore, Matlab is well suited to the analysis of brain potentials and [to] the analysis
of the function of the autonomic nervous system during workload.
OR (with slight modification to the rule!)
Therefore, Matlab is well suited to the analysis of brain potentials and the functional
analysis of the autonomic nervous system during workload.
Writing technically
Skills
When you want to make lists, compare and contrast things or link things together with
and/or/both/neither etc, then this is a signal to you that you need to think about
parallel structures.
Activity 6 Parallelism
a. Bulleted lists
How could you improve this list?
The main causes of land contamination are:
 Poor industrial practices resulting in spillage of chemicals.
 Leakage from underground and above-ground storage tanks.
 Deposits of wastes in the ground.
b. Lists in the text
How could you improve this?
Contaminated land is a major environmental issue which has been neglected due to a poor
understanding of its implications and fears that land values may inversely affect businesses.
For more information on bulleted lists see:
Online Technical Writing from Brooklyn College: interactive quiz for list writing.
http://www.io.com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/listq.html
Punctuation for lists see http://www.klariti.com/business-writing/Guidelines-BulletLists.shtml - from Ivan Walsh, who runs Klariti.com and specializes in Professional Writing Services
C.Parallel structures
How could you improve these sentences?
Students will be introduced to the various sediment sampling and acquisition techniques and
equipment employed in such studies.
The lecturer complained that one of his bright students handed his work in late, produced a
messy copy and was failing to complete all the activities.
See Key to Activities
Parallelism is important for the reader because information flows more naturally and
information is easier to identify. During the editing phase skim for:
 Conjunctions like: and/or/but.
 Places where you compare and contrast information.
 Lists of information, either as a bullet list or a list in the text.
15
Make sure the information around these constructions is presented in a parallel form.
When reading your work aloud, notice where you stumble over certain areas and
check it out.
For more activities like these, try some online quizzes at:
http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/parallelism.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_parallel.html
NOTE: As with everything, you don't have to be too rigid. If you find parallelism is
getting in the way of clear communication, select ‘clear communication’ in preference
and make modifications.
Writing technically
Skills
Key to Activities
Activity 1: Writing in Passive and Active
Passive construction
Active construction
The gelatine was weighed.
Mike weighed the gelatine.
The beam was extended.
We extended the beam.
The airflow was stalled by adjusting the aerofoil.
I stalled the airflow by adjusting the aerofoil.
The weights were dropped into the water.
I dropped the weights into the water.
It was noticed (noted) that the string was broken
at this point.
My partner noticed that the string broke at this
point.
Activity 2: Sentence Combining
There is more the one solution to combining the sentences -here it is an example…
A.
To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organised as a
series of layers or levels, each one built upon its predecessor.
Use a comma to link the sentences, then ‘each one’ replaces ‘Each level
in a network..’
B.
Each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately
below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
‘ until’’, a subordinating conjunction, is used to join the two sentences.
C.
The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer
and the function of each layer differ from network to network.
The key thing is that all these elements differ from network to network.
List them by putting, a comma after each one and an AND for the last one.
D.
Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use, attaches its own
headers, and passes the data to layer 2.
You're listing three things that layer 3 does using a comma and a AND for the
final one. The same format as C above.
E.
The significant difference in this is that the niche humans take up is a selfdetermined and can be manipulated, where as the niche of an animal or
plant is genetically determined.
Key pieces of information are in bold. You don't need to add all the sentences
Together. Just take the key ideas and make a new sentence.
17
Activity 3:
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragment
A solution
When the system logs the activity.
When the system logs the activity, it sends
a message to its base station, which then
allocates unavailable frequency to it.
‘ when’ signals a dependent clause. The
independent clause was missing. In
example above the independent clause has
been further modified with the relative
clause (starting with ‘which’) to add more
information.
Calling up the local telephone company
office at 9600 bps
Calling up the local telephone company
office at 9600 bps will never give more
bandwidth than 9600 bps, no matter how
wide the intermediate link is.
‘ Calling up the local telephone company
office at 9600 bps’ is the subject of the
sentence, so the next thing we want is the
verb. In the sentence above it is there ‘will never give ’.
Another potentially revolutionary difference
between satellite and terrestrial links
Another potentially revolutionary difference
between satellite and terrestrial links is the
bandwidth available.
There was no verb sentence fragment and
the sentence was incomplete as we didn't
know what this revolutionary difference
was.
Considering all the problems associated
with landfills, including the time needed for
finding suitable locations, obtaining public
acceptance and constructing the landfills.
Considering all the problems associated
with landfills, including the time needed for
finding suitable locations, obtaining public
acceptance and constructing the landfills, a
timely decision on the eventual construction
of new controlled landfills must be made.
adapted from: Waste Management Policies
in Central and Eastern European countries:
current policies and trends (final report),
October 2001, p.49.
Once again when writing a long dependent
clause, it is easy to forget the independent
clause that is needed to make it a complete
sentence. ‘Considering’ at the beginning of
sentence signals a dependent clause.
Writing technically
Skills
Activity 4: Run on Sentences
Sentence run on
What is wrong?
Can you repair it?
The wave responded to the stimulus, it
performed to within 5% of its predicted
value.
The wave responded to the stimulus and performed
as expected.
Large improvements in the water supply
and sanitation sector of Estonia and
Romania have been achieved, therefore,
from an environmental perspective these
projects are considered successful.
Large improvements in the water supply and
sanitation sector of Estonia and Romania have been
achieved. Therefore, from an environmental
perspective these projects are considered successful.
In general, the investment programmes
have been successfully undertaken, we
have found that 80% of the project
components have been completed to high
engineering standards.
In general, the investment programmes have been
successfully undertaken. We have found that 80% of
the project components have been completed to high
engineering standards.
The results of the first experiment
supported the hypothesis, it was decided to
continue with the second experiment.
The results of the first experiment supported the
hypothesis, so it was decided to continue with the
second experiment.
Two independent clause is joined with a comma is
incorrect. Use a coordinator like ‘ and’ to join the
sentences. Some other links you can use are: but,
for, nor, yet, or, so. You can also join small
independent clauses using a semi colon.
‘ Therefore’ should be the start of a new sentence.
The same applies to ‘however’. You can also ‘front’
‘however’ and ‘therefore’ e.g. “From an
environmental perspective therefore, ….….
Again a comma is linking two independent clauses.
You can make two separate sentences as suggested
above, or join the sentences correctly with ‘and’.
Again a comma is linking two independent clauses.
Linking with ‘so’ or ‘and’ can solve this.
However, the version below is correct since it starts
with a dependent clause signalled by ‘As’:
As the results of the first experiment supported the
hypothesis, it was decided to continue with the
second experiment.
Can you find one from your own writing?
19
Activity 5: subject-verb agreement
Sentence
Explanation
Some of (5% of) the acid was spilt.
Acid, and fluid are all things you can't
count, i.e. they can't answer the question
“ how many?” Therefore, you use singular
form of verb. These are called ‘ noncountable’ nouns.
Some of (5% of) the cells were destroyed.
Some of (5% of) the data were rejected.
The majority of (10% of) the journals were
available.
The majority of (10% of) the fluid was
preserved.
Journals, data and cells are things you can
count and can answer the question “ how
many?” So, if a countable noun is singular,
you must use a verb in the singular form. If
it is plural, then the verb must also be in
the plural form.
Activity 6: Parallelism
a. Bulleted lists
Here is a suggested improvement of the list.
Original
Change
The main causes of land contamination are:
Poor industrial practices resulting in spillage
of chemicals
Leakage from underground and aboveground storage tanks
Deposits of wastes in the ground
The main causes of land contamination are:
Poor industrial practices resulting in
spillage of chemicals
Underground and above-ground
leakage from storage tanks
Waste deposits in the ground
The list needs to align with the first one.
b. Lists in the text
Original
Change
Contaminated land is a major
environmental issue which has been
neglected due to
Contaminated land is a major
environmental issue which has been
neglected due to
a poor understanding of its implications
a poor understanding of its implications
and
and
fears that land values may inversely affect
businesses.
a fear that land values may inversely affect
businesses.
This last part is not parallel
Writing technically
Skills
C.Parallel structures
Original
Change
Students will be introduced to the various
sediment sampling and acquisition techniques
Students will be introduced to the various
sediment sampling and acquisition techniques
and the equipment employed in such studies.
and
equipment employed in such studies.
Simply add ‘ the’ so that it parallels ‘ the
various sediment….. techniques’ used
earlier.
Always check the structure before and after
a conjunction like: and/or/but. These
conjunctions signal information of an equal
status and therefore should be written in
the same way.
The lecturer complained that one of his
bright students handed his work in late,
produced a messy copy and was failing to
complete all the activities.
The lecturer complained that one of his
bright students handed his work late,
produced a messy copy and failed to
complete all the activities.
Here there is a lack of parallelism within the
list.
This reads much better now
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