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English 125
Literary Terms
Anadiplosis (an uh dih PLOH sis) Figure of speech in which a word or phrase at the end of a sentence,
clause, or line of verse is repeated at or near the beginning of the next sentence, clause, or line of verse.
Here are examples:
The peasant pledged the country his loyalty; loyalty was his only possession.
.
My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,
And every tongue brings in a several tale,
And every tale condemns me for a villain.–Shakespeare, Richard III
Allegory: A narrativetechnique in which characters representing things or abstract ideas are used
to convey a message or teach a lesson. Allegory is typically used to teach moral, ethical, or
religious lessons but is sometimes used for satiric or political purposes.
Examples of allegorical works include Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene and John Bunyan's
The Pilgrim's Progress.
(See also Exemplumand Fable.)
Allusion: A reference to a familiar literary or historical person or event, used to make an idea
more easily understood.
For example, describing someone as a "Romeo" makes an allusion to William Shakespeare's
famous young lover in Romeo and Juliet.
Analogy: A comparison of two things made to explain something unfamiliar through its
similarities to something familiar, or to prove one point based on the acceptedness of another.
Similes and metaphors are types of analogies.
Analogies often take the formof an extended simile, as in William Blake's aphorism: "As the
caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lays his curse on the fairest
joys." (Compare with Simileand Metaphor.
Anaphora (uh NAF uh ruh) Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of word groups
occurring one after the other. Examples: (1) Give me wine, give me women and give me song. (2) For
everything there is a season . . . a time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck
up what is planted.--Bible, Ecclesiastes. (3) To die, to sleep; to sleep: perchance to dream.--Shakespeare,
Hamlet. One of the most famous examples of anaphora in Shakespeare occurs in Act II, Scene I, Lines
40-68.
Anecdote A little story, often amusing, inserted in an essay or a speech to help reinforce the thesis.
Anthropomorphism: The presentation of animals or objects in human shape or with human
characteristics. The term is derived from the Greek word for "human form."
The Fables of Aesop, the animated films of Walt Disney, and Richard Adams's Watership
Downfeature anthropomorphic characters. (Compare with Personification.)
Aphorism Short, often witty statement presenting an observation or a universal truth; an adage.
Examples: (1) Fish and visitors smell in three days–Benjamin Franklin. (2) Many hands make light work.–
John Heywood. (3) In charity there is no excess–Francis Bacon. (4) Uneasy lies the head that wears the
crown–William Shakespeare. (See also Epigram.)
Apostrophe: A statement, question, or request addressed to an inanimate object or concept or to
a nonexistent or absent person.
Requests for inspiration from the musesin poetry are examples of apostrophe, as is Marc
Antony's address to Caesar's corpse in William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar:
"O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth,
That I am meek and gentle with these butchers!...
Woe to the hand that shed this costly blood!..."
(Compare with Monologueand Soliloquy.)
Assonance: The repetition of similar vowel sounds in Poetry.
The following lines from Gerald Manley Hopkins's "God's Grandeur" contain several patterns of
assonance:
The world is charged with the grandeur of God.
It will flame out, like shining from shook foil;
It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil
Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod?
(Compare with Alliteration, Dissonance, and rhyme.)
Asyndeton Use of words or phrases in a series without connectives such as and or so. Examples (1)
One cause, one country, one heart.--Daniel Webster. (2) Veni, vidi, vici (Latin: I came, I saw, I
conquered).--Julius Caesar.
Caesura Pause in a line of verse shown, in scansion, by two vertical lines ( || ).
Catharsis In literature and art, a purification of emotions. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
used the term to describe the effect on the audience of a tragedy acted out on a theater stage. This effect
consists in cleansing the audience of disturbing emotions, such as fear and pity, thereby releasing
tension. This purgation occurs as a result of either of the following reactions: (1) Audience members
resolve to avoid conflicts of the main character–for example, Oedipus in Oedipus Rex and Creon in
Antigone–that arouse fear or pity or (2) audience members transfer their own pity and fear to the main
character, thereby emptying themselves of these disquieting emotions. In either case, the audience
members leave the theater as better persons intellectually, morally, or socially. They have either been
cleansed of fear of pity or have vowed to avoid situations that arouse fear and pity. In modern usage,
catharsis may refer to any experience, real or imagined, that purges a person of negative emotions.
Chalmys In the drama of ancient Greece, sleeveless outer garment, or cloak, worn by some actors.
Chorus (Greek Play) Bystanders in a Greek play who present odes on the action. A parode (or parados)
is a song sung by the chorus when it enters. A stasimon is a song sung during the play, between
episodes of action. The chorus generally had the following roles in the plays of Sophocles and other
Greek playwrights: (1) to explain the action, (2) to interpret the action in relation to the law of the state and
the law of the Olympian gods, (3) to foreshadow the future, (4) to serve as an actor in the play, (5) too
sing and/or dance, and (6) to give the author's views. In some ways, the chorus is like the narrator of a
modern film or like the background music accompanying the action of the film. In addition, it is like text on
the film screen that provides background information or identifies the time and place of the action.
Classicism In literature, a tradition espousing the ideals of ancient Greece and Rome: objectivity,
emotional restraint, systematic thinking, simplicity, clarity, universality, dignity, acceptance of established
social standards, promotion of the general welfare, and strict adherence to formal rules of composition. A
classical writer typically restrained his emotions and his ego while writing in clear, dignified language; he
also presented stories in carefully structured plots. Classicism remained a guiding force in literature down
through the ages. Writers in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, as well as the first half of the 18th Century,
highly esteemed classical ideals. In the mid-18th Century, writers began to rebel against classical ideals
in what came to be known as the Romantic Movement, or romanticism, which advocated emotional
freedom, imaginative thinking, and individuality in writing. However, neither classical nor romantic writing
was always entirely faithfuly to its ideals. For example, a classical writer may have exhibited emotional
effusion from time to time or expressed himself with language less than dignified; conversely, a romantic
writer may have exhibited emotional restraint and cool objectivity on occasion. Writers today continue to
use many of the principles of both the classical and romantic schools of writing.
Cliché Overused expression. Examples: raining cats and dogs, snug as a bug in a rug, chills running up
and down my spine, warm as toast, short and sweet. Writers should avoid using clichés whenever
possible.
Concrete Poetry Poetry with lines arranged to resemble a familiar object, such as a Christmas tree.
Concrete poetry is also called shaped verse.
Deus Ex Machina See Machine.
Deuteragonist In Greek drama, the character second in importance to the main character, or protagonist
Didactic Adjective describing a literary work intended to teach a lesson or a moral principle.
Dithyramb In the drama of ancient Greece, a choral hymn that praised Dionysus, god of wine and
revelry, and sometimes told a story. In his great work Poetics, Aristotle wrote that dithyrambs inspired the
development of Greek tragic plays, such as those of Sophocles. The first "play" supposedly took place in
the 6th Century B.C. when Thespis, a member of a chorus, took the part of a character in a dithyramb.
The action shifted back and forth between him and the chorus. See also Thespian.
Doggerel Trivial or bad poetry.
Dramatic Monologue: Poem that presents a moment in which a narrator/speaker discusses a topic and,
in so doing, reveals his personal feelings to a listener. Only the narrator, talks–hence the term
monologue, meaning "single (mono) discourse (logue)." During his discourse, the speaker intentionally
and unintentionally reveals information about himself. The main focus of a dramatic monologue is this
personal information, not the speaker's topic. A dramatic monologue is a type of character study. Perhaps
the most famous dramatic monologue in English literature is Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess."
Encomium (Plural: Encomia) (1) In ancient Greece, a poem in the form of a choral song praising a
victor in the Olympic games. (2) In modern usage, any speech, essay, poem, etc., that praises a
person.
Enjambment Carrying the sense of one line of verse over to the next line without a pause. In the first four
lines of "My Last Duchess," by Robert Browning, enjambment joins the second and third lines (I call /
That) and the third and fourth lines (Pandolf's hands / Worked):
That's my last Duchess painted on the wall,
Looking as if she were alive. I call
That piece a wonder, now: Frà Pandolf's hands
Worked busily a day, and there she stands.
Epigram Wise or witty saying expressing a universal truth in a few words. Following are examples of
epigrams from Shakespeare:
There's small choice in rotten apples.–The Taming of the Shrew: Act I, Scene I.
A goodly apple rotten at the heart, O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath!–The Merchant of
Venice: Act I, Scene III.
They are as sick that surfeit with too much as they that starve with nothing.–The Merchant of
Venice: Act I, Scene II.
How far that little candle throws his beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world.–The
Merchant of Venice: Act V, Scene I.
Every cloud engenders not a storm.–Henry VI, Part III: Act V, Scene III.
Words pay no debts.–Troilus and Cressida: Act III, Scene II.
O! it is excellent to have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous to use it like a giant.–Measure for
Measure: Act II, Scene II.
Epigraph (1) Quotation inserted at the beginning of a poem, a novel, or any other literary work; (2) a
dedication of a literary work or a work of art such as a painting; (3) words inscribed or painted on a
monument, building, trophy, etc.
Euphemism Word or phrase that softens the hard reality of the truth, such as senior citizen for old
person, passed away for died, misstatement for lie, previously owned car for used car, collateral damage
for civilian deaths during war, and pleasingly plump for fat. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency once
used the euphemism Health Evaluation Committee for assassination team. In general, good writers avoid
euphemisms.
Hamartia Serious character flaw of the main character (protagonist) of a Greek tragedy. Often, this flaw is
great pride, or hubris. But it may also be prejudice, anger, zealotry, poor judgment, an inherited
weakness, or any other serious shortcoming.
Kenning Compound expression, often hyphenated, representing a single noun. For example, the Old
English epic Beowulf uses the two-word term whale-road to refer to the sea or ocean. Other examples of
kennings include devil's helper for sinner and widow-maker for gun.
Leitmotiv See Epithet and Motif.
Litotes Creation of a positive or opposite idea through negation. Examples: (1) I am not unaware of your
predicament. (2) This is no small problem. (3) I'm not forgetful that you served me well.--John Milton.
Mask In the drama of ancient Greece, a face covering with exaggerated features and a mouth device to
project the voice. Actors wore masks to reveal emotion or personality; to depict the trade, social class or
age of a character; and to provide visual and audio aids for audience members in the rear of the theater.
Malapropism Unintentional use of an inappropriate word similar in sound to the appropriate word, often
with humorous effect. Examples of Dogberry's malapropisms are the following:
Comparisons are odorous. (odious)
Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons." (apprehended,
suspicious)
O villain! thou wilt be condemned into everlasting redemption for this. (perdition)
Motif Recurring theme in a literary work; recurring theme in literature in general.
Nihilism Nihilism (a term derived from the Latin word nihil, meaning nothing) is a philosophy that calls for
the destruction of existing traditions, customs, beliefs, and institutions and requires its adherents to reject
all values, including religious and aesthetic principles, in favor of belief in nothing. The term was coined in
the Middle Ages to describe religious heretics. It was resurrected in mid-19th Century Russia to describe
radicals and revolutionaries. Supporters of this philosophy saw it as a stage in the struggle against
tyranny and injustice
Onkos Headdress worn by some actors in ancient Greece to increase their height and, thus, visibility to
theater audiences.
Otiose Writing [OH she ohss] Extremely wordy writing in which the author is too lazy to edit for
conciseness.
Oxymoron Combining contradictory words to reveal a truth. Oxymoron is a form of paradox. However,
unlike paradox, oxymoron places opposing words side by side. Examples: (1) Parting is such sweet
sorrow.--Shakespeare. (2) Working in a coal mine is living death. (3) The hurricane turned the lush island
retreat into a hellish paradise.
Parabasis (puh RAB uh sis): In the drama of ancient Greece, an ode in which the chorus addresses the
audience to express opinions of the author, including his views on politics, social trends, and other
topics.
Parodos (pronunciation: PAIR uh doss): In the drama of ancient Greece, a song sung by the chorus
when it enters; also, the moment when the chorus enters.
Periakti In the drama of ancident Greece, a prism having surfaces painted with pictures. When it
revolved, it could change the scenery on a stage.
Peripeteia In a stage tragedy in ancient Greece, a sudden reversal of fortune from good to bad.
Poetics Important work by Aristotle written about 335 B.C. It analyzes Greek theater and outlines its
origin and development. One of its theses is that literature and other forms of art imitate the activity of
humans. Tragedy is the higher form of the playwright's craft, Aristotle says, because it imitates the action
of noble persons and depicts lofty events. Comedy, on the other hand, focuses on ordinary humans and
events.
Protagonist (Greek Play) Main character in an ancient Greek play who usually interacts with the chorus.
In a tragedy, the protagonist is traditionally a person of exalted status--such as a king, a queen, a political
leader, or a military hero--who has a character flaw (inordinate pride, for example). This character flaw
causes the protagonist to make an error of judgment. Additionally, the typical protagonist experiences a
moment of truth in which he or she recognizes and acknowledges his or her mistakes, failures, or sins.
Protagonist (Modern Sense) Main character of a novel, play, or film.
Protasis Opening part of a stage drama in which the characters and focus of the play are introduced.
Quatrain Stanza or poem of four lines. A quatrain usually has a rhyme scheme, such as abab, abba, or
abcb.
Satire Literary work that attacks or pokes fun at vices and imperfections; political cartoon that does the
same. Satire may make the reader laugh at or feel disgust for the person or thing satirized. The TV
program Saturday Night Live often uses satire to expose abuses and follies.
Spoonerism Slip of the tongue in which a speaker transposes the letters of words. Pee little thrigs is a
spoonerism for three little pigs
Syncope Omitting letters or sounds within a word. The word bos'n as a shortened version of boatswain (a
naval officer) is an example of syncope.
Synecdoche Substitution of a part to stand for the whole, or the whole to stand for a part. Examples: (1)
The Confederates have eyes in Lincoln's government. (The word "eyes" stands for spies.) (2) Jack
bought a new set of wheels. ("Wheels" stands for a car.) (3) The law pursued the bank robbers from
Maine to Florida. ("Law" stands for police.)
Theater, Greek Open-air structure in which plays were performed. The stage faced the afternoon sunlight
to illuminate a performance while allowing the audience to view the action without squinting. A Greek
theater consisted of the following:
Skene: Building behind the stage. First used as a dressing area for actors (and sometimes an
entrance or exit area for actors), the skene eventually became a background showing appropriate
scenery.
Paraskenia: Extensions or annexes on the sides of the skene.
Proscenium: Acting area, or stage, in front of the skene.
Orchestra: Ground-level area where the chorus performed. It was in front of the proscenium.
Parados: Passage on the left or right through which the chorus entered the orchestra. (Also, a
song sung by the chorus when it entered or the moment when the chorus enters.
Thymele: Altar in the center of the orchestra used to make sacrifices to Dionysus.
Theatron: Tiered seating area built into a hillside in the shape of a horseshoe.
Machine: Armlike device on the skene that could lower a "god" onto the stage from the heavens.
Tragedy (Greek) Verse drama written in elevated language in which a noble protagonist falls to ruin
during a struggle caused by a flaw (hamartia) in his character or an error in his rulings or judgments.
Following are the characteristics of a Sophocles tragedy: (1) It is based on events that already took place
and with which the audience is familiar. (2) The protagonist is a person of noble stature. (3) The
protagonist has a weakness and, because of it, becomes isolated and suffers a downfall. (4) Because the
protagonist's fall is not entirely his or her own fault, the audience may end up pitying him or her. (5) The
fallen protagonist gains self-knowledge. He has a deeper insight into himself and understands his
weakness. (6) The audience undergoes catharsis, a purging of emotions, after experiencing pity, fear,
shock and other strong feelings. The people go away feeling better. (7) The drama usually unfolds in one
place in a short period of time, usually about a day.
Zeugma Use of one word (usually an adjective or a verb) to serve two or more other words with more
than one meaning. Example: The dance floor was square, and so was the bandleader’s personality.
Explanation: Square describes the dance floor and the bandleader’s personality with different meanings.