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Overview of 1840-1877
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny is the belief that Americans had the right, or even the duty, to expand
westward across the North American continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
This would spread the glorious institutions of civilization and democracy to the barbaric
Native Americans. In order to accomplish this destiny, Americans did not flinch at atrocities
such as provoking war with Mexico or slaughtering Indians.
Great American Desert: The "Great American Desert" was a nickname for the Great Plains.
This area, the present -day Midwest, was characterized by its arid climate, a flat topography,
and lack of trees. Because of these features, it was considered inhospitable and early settlers
chose to cross it on the way to the Willamette Valley of Oregon rather than settling there.
•"MANIFEST DESTINY": "Manifest Destiny" was the term used, throughout the 1840s, to
describe Americans’ belief that they were destined by God to spread their beliefs across the
continent. This sense of duty created a sense of unity among the nation and stimulated
westward expansion. The term itself was coined by John O’Sullivan in an 1845 magazine
article. The concept justified westward expansion in all its forms and ramifications, including
the Mexican War, the persecution of the Indians, and other such ethnocentric acts.
Was it Imperialism?: American annexation of territories such as Oregon are generally not
considered imperialistic because these lands were obtained by negotiation between two equal
powers and the people there were not opposed to joining the Union. However, lands gained by
force, such as the Mexican cession, are considered imperialistic conquests.
Horace Greeley: Greeley was a journalist and political leader. He opposed slavery, but he
was not an abolitionist. He was editor of the New Yorker and a Whig associated with
Governor Seward of New York. In 1841, he founded the New York Tribune. In 1872, he was
the Liberal Republican nominee for president.
Annexation of Texas, Joint Resolution under President Tyler: In 1843, Tyler started a
campaign to annex Texas, and in 1844 he succeeded in sending a treaty to Congress for the
annexation. This treaty was defeated in the Senate, but later, in early 1845, Congress passed a
joint resolution to annex Texas because of the growing popularity of annexation.
Reoccupation of Texas: After Congress voted to annex Texas, the Mexican government
began war preparations when Texans accepted annexation. In response, Polk sent troops to
occupy Texas and the disputed territory south of the Nueces River. Polk believed that the land
was part of the Louisiana Purchase, and therefore it belonged to the United States.
Reannexation of Oregon: Prior to 1846, America and Great Britain had jointly occupied the
Oregon Country. However, in 1844, Polk began to demand that America obtain the entire
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territory. In compromise, a treaty was signed in 1846 giving the United States all of Oregon
south of the 49th parallel.
•ELECTION OF 1844: In the election of 1844, the Whigs nominated Henry Clay. The
Democrats, however, were divided between Martin Van Buren and Lewis Cass. A deadlock at
the Democratic national convention resulted in the nomination of dark-horse candidate James
K. Polk. The Liberty party, consisting of a small group of northern antislavery Whigs who
were alienated by Clay’s indecisiveness, nominated James G. Birney. Also, large numbers of
Irish immigrants turned out to vote for Polk, and he won by a small margin.
•JAMES K. POLK: Polk was a slaveowning southerner dedicated to Democratic party. In
1844, he was a "dark horse" candidate for president, and he won the election. Polk favored
American expansion, especially advocating the annexation of Texas, California, and Oregon.
He was a friend and follower of Andrew Jackson. He opposed Clay’s American System,
instead advocating lower tariff, separation the treasury and the federal government from the
banking system. He was a nationalist who believed in Manifest Destiny.
54 40’ or Fight!: In the election of 1844, Polk used "54 40’ or Fight!" as a campaign
slogan, implying that the he would declare war if Britain did not give the United States all the
Oregon territory up to its northern boundary, the line 54 40’ N. latitude. However, in 1846
Polk agreed to negotiate, and the two countries divided Oregon at the 49th parallel.
Slidell Mission to Mexico: Slidell was a negotiator sent to Mexico by James Polk with orders
to gain Mexico’s recognition of the independence of Texas and to purchase California and
New Mexico. However, he was not received by the Mexican government because the threat of
military revolt left the Mexican president to weak to negotiate.
Rio Grande, Nueces River, Disputed Territory: A dispute over the southern boundary of
Texas contributed to the Mexican War. Mexico claimed that the Nueces River was boundary
of Texas, but Polk insisted that the Rio Grande River was the boundary line. The land
between these two rivers was uninhabited, but it was a significant slice of Mexican territory.
•MEXICAN WAR: The Mexican war lasted from 1846 to 1848. The main cause of the war
was American desire for territory, especially Texas and California. The war took place mainly
on Mexican soil. Partially because of disorganization and instability in the Mexican
government, the war resulted in and American victory. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
ending the war, made the southern boundary of Texas the Rio Grande, gave California and
New Mexico to the United States, and gave $15 million to Mexico in compensation.
General Zachary Taylor: Taylor was an American major general who became a war hero
during the Mexican War. His troops won important victories in northern Mexico at
Matamoros, Monterrey, and Buena Vista, and his resulting popularity helped him win the
presidential election in 1848.
Battle of Buena Vista: The battle of Buena Vista was a battle during Mexican War. Five
thousand American troops commanded by General Taylor defeated three times as many
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Mexican troops under Santa Anna. As a result of this battle, Taylor was put in control of all of
northern Mexico. This American victory also hastened end of the War.
Stephen Kearney: Kearney was an American colonel in the Mexican War. In 1846, he led an
army to Santa Fe and took the New Mexico territory without firing a shot. Kearny then
suppressed a rebellion of both Indians and Mexicans, and managed to send a detachment of
his army south into Mexico in time to join Taylor in the Battle of Buena Vista.
John C. Fremont: Fremont was an explorer, soldier, and politician known as "the Great
Pathfinder." In 1846, he assisted in the annexation of California by capturing insurgents,
seizing the city of Sonoma, and declaring the independence of the "Bear Flag Republic." In
1856, Fremont became the first presidential candidate for the Republican party.
Senator Thomas Hart Benton: Senator Benton was an American statesman. He represented
Missouri in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. His daughter, Jessie Benton,
married adventurer John C. Fremont, and Benton used his influence to have records of
Fremont’s explorations published as government documents.
General Winfield Scott: General Scott commanded American troops during the Mexican
War, and led those troops victory at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and Chapultepec. He also led
the final defeat of Santa Anna when he captured Mexico City in 1847. He ran for president of
United States in 1852.
Nicholas Trist: Trist was the chief clerk of state department and a peace officer. He was sent
to Mexico by Polk to negotiate with Mexican president Herrera. They wanted Trist to
convince Herrera to lower the price he was asking for California and to give Americans the
right of movement over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In 1846, Herrera rejected the offer.
All Mexico Movement: Many Senators in Congress wanted the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
to include all of Mexico, because they believed that to have control of all of Mexico would
give the United States more power. However, this movement failed because the acquisition of
California and her ports satisfied Polk.
•MEXICAN CESSION: The Mexican Cession was the land that Mexico ceded to the United
States in the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo in 1848. This territory included California, New
Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Texas, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The addition of
so much land to the United States exacerbated conflict over the expansion of slavery because
some Northerners feared that the extension of slavery into California and New Mexico would
deter free laborers from settling there.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty: The Webster-Ashburton Treaty was a treaty negotiated by Lord
Ashburton of Great Britain and Daniel Webster of the United States in 1842. It settled a
dispute over the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. The treaty was very popular
in the North because the United States got more than half of the disputed territory.
Caroline Affair: The American steamboat, the Caroline, was being used by Canadian rebels
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when it was attacked by the government of Canada in late 1837 in American waters. In 1842
Daniel Webster asked for an apology from British government. The event heightened tensions
between the United States and Britain, but this tension was soon eased.
Aroostook War: The Aroostook War was a boundary dispute between settlers in Maine and
New Brunswick from 1838 to 1839. Full-scale war was avoided through an agreement in
1839, and the issue was settled by Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842.
•OREGON FEVER: During the 1830s and 1840s, many Americans traveled to the Oregon
Territory in order to start a new life. The fertile farmland available in the Willamette Valley
attracted many farmers. People in the East heard exaggerated, enthusiastic reports from
missionaries and pioneers, convincing them that Oregon was a "pioneer’s paradise." Many
settlers traveled to Oregon overland by way of the Oregon Trail or around Cape Horn in the
newly invented clipper ships. This was an important part of westward expansion.
John Jacob Astor: Astor was a wealthy New York merchant who invested in real estate. He
became involved in the fur business and organized a fur trading empire from the Great Lakes
to the Pacific Ocean and to China and Japan. He created the American Fur Company and
established Astoria, the first major fur trading post in Oregon.
Oregon Trail: The Oregon Trail was an overland route to the Oregon territory, stretching
almost 2,000 miles from Independence, Missouri to the Willamette Valley. The pioneers who
traveled this trail in wagon trains faced many dangers. It is estimated that about 11,500
emigrants used overland trails like the Oregon Trail to reach Oregon between 1840 and1848.
Willamette Valley: The Willamette Valley was an area of fertile farmland in the Oregon
Territory which attracted large numbers of farmers in the 1830s and 1840s, especially those
from the Mississippi River Valley. Reports of the abundance of this land sparked the
movement of many pioneers to the West Coast.
Oregon Territory: Congress made the Oregon Territory an official territory of the United
States in 1848. Prior to 1846, the Oregon Territory had been jointly occupied by Great Britain
and the United States with its northern boundary the line 54°40’. In a 1846 treaty, the two
countries split the territory, dividing it at the 49th parallel.
49th Parallel: The 49th parallel was the line of latitude dividing the United States’ and Great
Britain’s portions of the Oregon Territory after 1846. Originally they had jointly occupied the
entire territory, but a compromise was forged in 1846 because president Polk demanded title
to this territory and neither side wanted to go to war over it.
Election of 1848: Cass, Taylor: Zachary Taylor was the Whig candidate in the election of
1848, and his platform was based solely on personal popularity because he was a war hero.;
Lewis Cass was the Democratic candidate. Both parties avoided making the issue of slavery a
campaign issue. Taylor won election on his popularity.
Joseph Smith: Joseph Smith was the founder of the Mormon church. He translated the Book
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of Mormon in 1827, after which, he and his followers set up a model city and temple in
Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith saw himself as a prophet, increasing the negative sentiment towards
Mormonism. After being charged with treason and jailed, he was killed by a mob in 1844.
Brigham Young: Brigham Young was the patriarch of the Mormon church who took control
of the church after Joseph Smith was killed. After the Mormons were forced out of Illinois,
Young led them to Utah in 1846, where they prospered. Young has been criticized for both
his support of polygamy and his intolerance towards opposition.
Mormons: The Mormon religion was founded in 1827 by Joseph Smith. Their church is
based in Utah and they believe that the Book of Mormon is the supplement for the Bible. The
Mormons are characterized by their preference to be set apart from the rest of the community,
apparent in their views, which were antebellum in the time the religion was born.
John Sutter: John Sutter was granted 49,000 acres of land by the Mexican government in
1834 and established a sawmill on the land in 1846. In 1848, he discovered gold. This
discovery led to the onset of the California Gold Rush. Land squatters disputed over Sutter’s
land claims and, subsequently, Sutter’s holdings were found invalid by the Supreme Court.
forty-niners: In 1849, 100,000 Americans, along with immigrants from Europe, Asia and
South America rushed to California in search of easy riches. Competition led to violence and
greed. As a result of inadequate shelter and food and the lack of medical supplies, 10,000 died
the first year and few even benefited from the expedition.
Walker Tariff, 1846: The Walker tariff was created by Robert J. Walker, Polk’s secretary of
the treasury, in 1846. The bill slashed all duties to the minimum necessary for revenue. It also
reversed the trend of replacing certain specifics for ad value duties and dropped the minimum
valuation principle. The tariff was signed July 30, 1846.
Independent Treasury System, Van Buren: The system was introduced by Martin Van
Buren in 1837 and it passed through Congress in 1840. The bill had the federal government
keep their revenue, and by doing this, kept public money from private business corporations.
This also kept the government’s money out of state banks.
Independent Treasury System, Polk: After Van Buren was defeated in the election of 1840
by William Henry Harrison, the Independent Treasury System was repealed. However, when
Polk was elected in 1844, he brought back the Independent Treasury System. This intensified
the divisions between the Whigs and Democrats.
Expansion and Slavery
The expansion of slavery into new territories and onto the western frontier became a major
issue after the Mexican-American War. Southerners fought to assert their rights while many
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Northerners wished to prevent the expansion of slave labor into new states.
panic of 1857: The causes of the panic were overspeculation in railroads and lands, false
banking practices, and a break in the flow of European capital to American investments as a
result of the Crimean War. The South’s less industrial economy suffered less than the North,
who viewed this as a proof of superiority in both Southern economy and slavery.
Wilmot Proviso: David Wilmot, a Congressman from Pennsylvania, proposed that slavery be
banned in land acquired from the Mexican War. The proviso was given to Congress in August
1846. It never passed the Senate, but passed the House. It was taken out of the War
Appropriations bill in order for Senate to pass the actual bill.
Barnburners: The Barnburners were a part of the Democratic party in New York. They left
in 1848 to form the Free Soil Party but rejoined after the election of 1848. They believed
slavery should not be extended into the newly acquired U.S. territory and were pro-Wilmot
Proviso. Their party slogan was "Free Trade, Free Labor, Free Speech, Free Men."
•TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO: This was the peace treaty between the United
States and Mexico that ended the Mexican War. Through the treaty, Mexico gave Texas with
Rio Grande boundary, California , and New Mexico to the United States. The U.S. assumed
all claims of the American people against the Mexican government and also paid Mexico 15
million dollars. The treaty was signed on February 2, 1848. In the end, the treaty worked to
expand the U.S. territory to include parts of Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada.
Free Soil Party: The Free Soil Party created by the Barnburners, Conscience Whigs, and the
former Liberty party members in the election of 1844. They nominated Martin Van Buren on
a platform of opposition to any kind of slavery. Although they were unable to carry any state,
they had enough influence in North to convey their point.
California applies for admission as a state: Because the population grew during the gold
rush and they were in need of a better government, California decided to petition to become a
state in September of 1849. There was controversy on the issue of it being a free or slave
state, but through the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted as a free state.
•COMPROMISE OF 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was an eight part compromise
devised by Henry Clay in order to settle the land disputes between the North and South. As
part of the compromise, California was admitted a free state, while a stricter Fugitive Slave
Law was enforced. Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, while slavery itself
was not abolished and sectional peace returned to the northern and southern states for a few
years. The issue of slavery eventually did lead to future conflicts, though.
Omnibus bill: The omnibus bill is a term used to describe a bill that has many unrelated and
separate topics within it. The bill most commonly known for being omnibus is the
Compromise of 1850. Henry Clay introduced the bill as a whole, but it was later pushed
through Congress as separate measures. Today, most states do nor allow omnibus bills.
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Henry Clay: Henry Clay was an influential American politician who earned the title of "The
Great Pacificator" with his development of three compromises. He ran, unsuccessfully, for
president six times and devised the "American System" that favored a protective tariff and
federal support of internal improvements.
Webster’s 7th of March speech: Webster’s speech was an eloquent one presented in favor
of the Compromise of 1850. Webster argued that years of tension built up from the North’s
growing power would be relieved by the compromise and that the North would make the
South its equal, thus saving the Union. Despite his efforts, the speech made few converts.
John C. Calhoun: Calhoun is most known for the "nullification crisis" in 1828 between he
and president Jackson over the tariff of 1828 (tariff of abominations). He supported the
Compromise of 1850 on the basis of the theory of nullification. He was a senator during the
debates over the compromise. Calhoun was also a war hawk.
Fugitive Slave Law: Unlike the previous 1793 slave law, the 1850 slave law was more
strictly enforced. The results of the law were that the North became a hunting ground for
slaves and slaves were denied a trial by jury and other protections they were entitled to. The
anger of the slaves led to riots and other acts of violence.
•PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS: Discontent with the injustice of the Fugitive Slave Law of
1850, northern states passed "personal liberty laws" in order to strengthen the use of the
habeas corpus writs and prohibit state officials from accepting jurisdiction under federal law.
The laws included the prohibition of the use of state jails to confine alleged fugitives.
Southern states objected to the laws because they violated sectional equity and reciprocal
trust. Northern resistance demonstrated that the slavery issue could not be ignored.
Gadsden Purchase: The Gadsden Purchase was the 1853 treaty in which the United States
bought from Mexico parts of what is now southern Arizona and southern New Mexico.
Southerners wanted this land in order to build southern transcontinental railroad. The heated
debate over this issue in the Senate demonstrates the prevalence of sectional disagreement.
Perry and Japan: Commodore Perry opened relations with Japan, a country closed to the rest
of the world for 2 centuries, in 1853. The treaty he forged protected the rights of sailors
shipwrecked in Japanese territory from inhumane treatment, permitted American ships to buy
coal in Japan, opened Japanese ports of to U.S. commerce, and ended Japan’s isolation.
Anthony Burns: Burns was an American slave who escaped in 1834. He was arrested on
charges of theft and violation of the Fugitive Slave Law. During the trial, a mob of Boston
abolitionists stormed into the courthouse to attempt, unsuccessfully, to rescue Burns.
President Pierce sent him back to his master, but Burns was resold to friends who freed him.
Ableman v. Booth: Booth was arrested for aiding the escape of a fugitive slave in 1859. The
Wisconsin Supreme Court issued a writ of habeas corpus to release him, but habeas corpus
was not valid as a result of Chief Justice Taney’s decision that a court or judge has certain
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limits of power. In turn, the battle for federal supremacy commenced.
Prigg v. Pa., 1842: This case resulted when Pennsylvania attempted to ban the capture and
return of runaway slaves within its territory, a challenge to the fugitive slave law of 1793.
Because article IV, section 2 of the Constitution deems the return of fugitive slaves a federal
power, the state law was declared unconstitutional.
Ostend Manifesto: American ambassadors to Great Britain, France, and Spain met in Ostend,
Belgium in 1854 to issue an unofficial document that gave the United States permission to
attain Cuba by any necessary means, even force, and include the island in the Union.
President Pierce, however, rejected the manifesto.
Stephen A. Douglas: American politician known for his debates with Abraham Lincoln prior
to the election of 1860. Douglas was an advocate of the annexation of Mexico, who aroused
the question of slavery in territories with the development of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in
1854. He was also a strong supporter of the Compromise of 1850.
•KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT, 1854: The Kansas-Nebraska Act ended the peace established
between the North and South by the Compromise of 1850. It was proposed by Stephen A.
Douglas of Illinois and repealed the Missouri Compromise. The act enforced popular
sovereignty upon the new territories but was opposed by Northern Democrats and Whigs. It
was passed, however, because President Pierce supported it. The purpose of the bill was to
facilitate the building of the transcontinental railroad on a central route.
popular sovereignty: this compromise solution was first proposed during the time of the
Wilmot Proviso: the residents of each territory had the option of determining whether it would
be a free or slave state; a part of the Compromise of 1850 and Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854.Stephen Douglas a strong advocator.
36 30’ line: The 36 30’ line was established by the Missouri Compromise and drew on parts
of California and New Mexico. The Wilmot Proviso sought to extend the boundary line
westward, blocking slavery and territory north of that line. Polk supported the idea of
expansion to end the discussion of whether the new territory acquired was slave or free.
"Bleeding Kansas" and Lawrence: Topeka and Lecompton were the two rival governments
of Kansas. Each claimed to be the lawful one, thus armed themselves and commenced guerilla
warfare. In 1856, Missouri "border ruffians," those who supported slavery, sacked the town of
Lawrence. John Brown, an abolitionist, also led a retaliation two days later .
"Beecher’s Bibles": Because the abolitionist government in Kansas was organized in 1856, a
pro-slavery posse armed with guns mobbed through the town. Ridiculing the free staters, they
dubbed their guns "Beecher’s Bibles," following the advice of an antislavery minister that
rifles would do no more than Bibles to enforce morality in Kansas.
Pottawatomie Massacre: John Brown led a small group of abolitionists into a pro-slavery
settlement in 1856 to kill unarmed men and boys at Pottawatomie Creek in retaliation to the
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border ruffians’ invasion and sacking of the abolitionists’ town of Lawrence. The retaliation
was preceded by a pro-slavery posse’s armed raid through Kansas.
Lecompton Constitution: This constitution was devised by the anti-slavery delegates of
Congress in 1857 to protect the rights of the slaveholders in Kansas and advocate popular
sovereignty. Buchanan disapproved of it, but supported it so that Kansas could be admitted as
a state.
New England Emigrant Aid Company: Aiming to prevent the expansion of slavery into
Kansas, Northerners sent antislavery settlers into this area in 1854, but their attempt was
unsuccessful. Settlers from New England arrived slowly, though the majority of settlers
originated from Missouri and the Midwest. Settlers were mixed in their views on slavery.
Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 during Illinois senatorial campaign: The LincolnDouglas debates were a series of seven, where Douglas argued on the basis of his opposition
to the Lecompton Constitution and depicted Lincoln as a radical abolitionist. Lincoln
condemned Douglas for not taking a moral stand against slavery.
Lincoln’s "house divided" speech: The "house divided" speech was a speech presented
before the Republican party’s state convention in 1858 in Springfield, Illinois. It warned the
people that a "house divided against itself cannot stand," referring to the slavery issue.
Lincoln predicted in his speech that there would mean eventual freedom for the slaves.
Freeport Doctrine: Stephen A. Douglas’ "Freeport Doctrine" stated that exclusion of slavery
in a territory could be determined by the refusal of the voters to enact any laws that would
protect slave property. In 1858, southerners rejected the doctrine because it did not insure the
rights of slaves, a reaction that hurt him in the election.
The 1850s: The Road to Secession
During the 1850s, sectional issues such as slavery became very divisive. The issue of slaver
polarized people, and Southern slaveowners felt that their rights and interests were no longer
being fairly represented. Northerners began to increasingly support free soil and even
abolition, so tensions between the two-sided mounted until Southerners became convinced
that nothing short of secession could protect them Northern persecution.
Nashville Convention: Delegates of the northern and southern states assembled in the
summer of 1850 to decide on the issue of the Compromise of 1850. Fire-eaters discussed
southern rights, while suspicion of their secession rose amongst the northerners. The meeting
itself led to the ultimate decision on the compromise.
fire-eaters: The fire-eaters were extreme advocates of southern rights. They walked out on
the Nashville convention in 1850, raided a mass of Irish canal workers, and whipped and
lynched slaves in the 1860s. They were labeled "fire-eaters" due to their recklessness and by
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making their presence strongly felt by all those around.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Harriet Stowe, a Northern abolitionist outraged by the Fugitive Slave
Law, wrote this novel to illustrate the evils of slavery. Though the South denounced the novel,
500,000 copies were sold in the U.S. and others were translated into 20 languages. The novel
stimulated Northern action against slavery, contributing to the Civil War.
Harriet Beecher Stowe: Stowe was an abolitionist writer who wrote powerful novels
attacking slavery both before and after the Civil War in such novels as Dred, A Tale of Great
Dismal Swamp (1856) and The Minister’s Wooing (1859). The novels are rambled in
structure, yet rich in pathos and dramatic incident. She also wrote short stories and poetry.
election of 1852: The election of 1852 was the end of the Whig Party. Enforcement of the
Fugitive Slave Act split the Whig Party, and the nomination of General Winfield Scott
exacerbated the sectional split. The loss of votes from the South was the result of Scott’s
campaign. Franklin Pierce of the Democratic party won the election with 27 of 31 states.
birth of the Republican Party: The party was formed in 1854 by northern Democrats who
left the party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Former Whigs and Know-Nothings were
party members, also. All opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act and believed that slavery should
be banned from all territories of the nation, except those states where slavery already existed.
election of 1856: Republican Party, Know-Nothing Party: This election was between John C.
Fremont of the Republican Party, Millard Fillmore of the Know-Nothing Party, and James
Buchanan of Democratic Party. Fillmore’s inexperience weakened his party, increasing the
popularity of the Republicans. Buchanan won the election.
John Brown’s raid: The raid took place at Harper’s Ferry in 1859, and was conducted by an
abolitionist to raid the federal arsenal and start a slave uprising. It failed and Brown was
convicted of treason and hanged because he had ties with the northern abolitionists. At his
death, southern fear of future slave uprisings increased, leading to the cruel treatment slaves.
Sumner-Brooks affair: Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts, made a speech titled,
"The Crime Against Kansas," denouncing slavery, and, at the same time, ridiculing the South
Carolina senator, Charles Butler, in 1856. Preston Brooks, Butler’s nephew came into the
Senate chamber and hit him on the head, making Brooks a hero in the South.
•DRED SCOTT DECISION: Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen
because he was a slave in 1856, therefore, he did not have the right to sue in federal court. It
was determined that temporary residence in an area did not make one free, and that the
Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it violated the fifth amendment, which
did not allow Congress or territorial governments to exclude slavery from any area.
Republicans became more suspicious of Slave Power in Congress.
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney: Taney was a Southerner appointed by Jackson as the 5th
justice of the Supreme Court. He is well-known for handing down the Dred Scott decision.
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Under his leadership, the federal government had increased power over foreign relations.
Taney ruled in 1861 that Lincoln exceeded his authority in suspending habeas corpus.
John Brown: John Brown was an American abolitionist who attempted to end slavery
through the use of violence. This increased the tension between the North and South. He was
the leader of John Brown’s raid and the Pottawatomie massacre. His life ended when he was
hanged for murder and treason. He is regarded a martyr to the cause of human freedom.
Compact Theory of Government: This theory involves the idea that the United States of
America was founded by the union of thirteen individual states creating a federation of states.
This plays a major role in justifying the secession of the Southern states by stating that a state
had the right to withdraw from the political entity it created.
•ELECTION OF 1860: candidates, parties, issues: A united republican party attempted to
appeal more to the North in order to win the campaign and developed an economic program
to amend the damages of the 1857 depression. They nominated Abraham Lincoln, who held a
moderate view on slavery. The democrats nominated two candidates, Douglas and
Breckenridge, each with opposing viewpoints on the slavery issue. The constitutional party,
created by Whigs, nominated John Bell, who had the desire to preserve the Union.
Democratic Party conventions: The first assembly of delegates in Charleston in 1860
resulted in the split of the Democratic party as the Southern "fire-eaters" left the convention.
They were unable to agree on a platform based on the protection of slavery. An unsuccessful
second attempt to reach a consensus in Baltimore led them to nominate two candidates.
John Bell: Opposed to both Lincoln and Douglas, Whigs nominated Bell in 1860, an opposer
of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Lecompton constitution. Bell created the new
Constitutional Union party, which had a platform based on the preservation of the Union, and
not on the controversial slavery issue.
John Breckenridge: A division in the Democratic Party led to the nomination of two
candidates for the 1860 election. Breckenridge, Buchanan’s vice president, was nominated by
secessionists on a platform based on protection of slavery in territories. His nomination
completed the split of the Democratic party.
Republican Party of 1860: In order to lure votes from Northern states to their party, an
economic system based on protective tariffs, federal aid for internal improvements and the
distributing of 160-acre homesteads to settlers in order, was organized in favor of the
Northerners. Lincoln’s nonchalant views towards slavery led them to victory.
Buchanan and the secession crisis: Buchanan declared secession of states illegal, yet he had
no power to prevent it. He refused Southern demands to remove troops from Fort Sumter.
Because his efforts to supply the fort failed and due to failure of a constitutional plan, he left
the office disappointed and discredited.
Crittenden Compromise proposal: The compromise was proposed by John Crittenden in an
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attempt to preserve the Union. The amendments were to bar the federal government from
intervening in southern states’ decision of slavery, to restore the Missouri Compromise, and to
guarantee protection of slavery below this line. It also repealed personal liberty laws.
The Civil War
The Civil War was a terrible, bloody war fought mainly over the issue of slavery. It divided
the nation and resulted in the death of more Americans than all other wars combined. The
Union, with advantages such as greater organization and prosperity, eventually won, but not
before 620,000 Americans died and thousands of fields, homes, and entire towns were
destroyed.
secession: Slavery fueling the states’ rights issue along with the loss of Congress and
Northern opposition to the new Fugitive Slave Law made the election of 1860 the straw that
broke up the union. By March 1861, Lincoln’s innauguration South Carolina, Mississippi,
Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded.
•South’s advantages in the Civil War: The Confederate States of America had a strong
advantage in the fact that they were fighting a defensive war in familiar territory, but it also
had advantages buried deep within its much stronger military tradition. Southerners came
from a rural rather than urban environments and therefore had more men experienced in the
use of firearms and horses. This allowed the Confederacy to produce a more able corps of
officers, such as Robert E. Lee.
Tredegar Iron Works: guided by Joseph Reid to success during a time when the economy in
the North and South began to plunge because of their increased divergence. It became the
nation’s fourth largest producer of iron products. During the Civil War the company
contributed to the Confederacy cause.
•North’s advantages in the Civil War: The Union clearly had more military potential with
its larger population of 22 million. In addition to that, the Union had more advantages in
terms of material goods such as money and credit, factories for manufacturing war goods,
food production, mineral resources, and an established railroad system to transport these
material resources. The North in comparison with the South in these areas makes the North
seem more advantageous.
Fort Sumter: Fort Sumter is a fort in Charleston harbor, South Carolina and it was the site of
the first conflict of the Civil War on Apr. 12, 1861. The Confederates under Beauregard
bombarded the fort and were eventually victorious, but the fort was eventually retaken by
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Union forces in 1865.
Bull Run: On July 16, General McDowell began to move on Confederate General
Beauregard at Manassas Junction. McDowell attacked Beauregard’s soldiers, with aid from
the forces of Johnston, near the bridge over Bull Run River and drove them to the Henry
House Hill, but Jackson checked the advance and routed the raw Union troops.
Monitor and the Merrimac: March 8, 1862 was the date of first naval battle between ironclad
ships. The Confederate ironclad frigate Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and defeated the
Congress in Hampton Roads but was forced to withdraw March 9 after an engagement with
the Union’s ironclad Monitor, built by John Ericsson.
Lee: Commanding the Army of N. Virginia, he took the offensive in the 7 Days Battle and
beat the Union army at the 2nd battle of Bull Run. Lee repulsed Union advances at the battles
of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville and Grant’s assaults in the Wilderness Campaign. Lee
surrendered to Grant at Appomatox Courthouse.
Jackson: At the 1st battle of Bull Run Jackson earned his nick name when he and his brigade
stood "like a stone wall." Serving under Lee, Jackson flanked the Union army to set up the
Confederate victory at the second battle of Bull Run. At Chancellorsville Jackson again
flanked the Union army but was mortally wounded by his own troops.
Grant: In 1862 he captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee, barely escaped
defeat at the Battle of Shiloh and ended Confederate control of the Mississippi in Vicksburg.
Commanding in the West, he thoroughly defeated Bragg at Chattanooga. He directed the
Union army in the Wilderness Campaign and he received Lee’s surrender.
McClellan: He was criticized for overcaution in the unsuccessful Peninsular Campaign and
removed from command. Called on again in 1862, he checked Lee in the Antietam Campaign,
but he allowed the Confederates to withdraw across the Potomac and was again removed. He
would run for president in 1864.
Sherman: He fought in the Vicksburg and Chatanooga campaigns and ge undertook the
Atlanta Campaign. He burned Atlanta and set off, with a force of 60,000, on his famous
march to the sea, devastating the country. After capturing Savannah, he turned north through
S. Carolina, and received the surrender of General Johnston.
Meade: He made himself known in 1862 at Seven Days Battle and the battles of Bull Run,
Antietam, and later at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. He commanded of the Army of
the Potomac from 1863, and won the battle of Gettysburg, but he was criticized for not
following up his victory.
Vicksburg: It was a battle fought for control of the Mississippi River. By late 1862, the
Union controlled all of the river except for the 200 miles south of Vicksburg. In May of 1863
U.S. Grant opened siege, and after 6 weeks the Confederates surrendered. Vicksburg’s fall
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completed the encirclement of the Confederacy.
Gettysburg: It was Lee’s second invasion of the North. Meade and Lee met just west of
Gettysburg. First, the Union was pushed to Cemetery Hill. Then the South took the Peach
Orchard but were repulsed. On July 3 Lee ordered George E. Pickett’s division forward in its
infamous disastrous charge against the Union center.
Antietam: In September 1862, trying to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, Lee sent Jackson
to capture Harpers Ferry, but Lee’s own advance was halted by McClellan, who attacked him
at Antietam Creek, Maryland., on September 17, the so-called bloodiest day of the war. It was
a Union victory only in that Lee’s advance was stopped.
Appomattox: Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union Gen. U.S. Grant at
Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865. The surrender at Appomattox virtually ended the
Civil War, but the rest of the Confederate forces did not surrender until May 26 at Shreveport,
Louisiana.
Jefferson Davis: He left Washington after the secession of Mississippi. As president of the
Confederacy, he assumed strong centralized power, and weakened the states’ rights policy for
which the South had seceded. He had many disputes with Confederate generals, and Lee
surrendered without his approval.
Alexander Stephens: He was a U.S. congressman from Georgia and was opposed to
secession but he remained loyal to Georgia when the state seceded. He was elected vice
president of the Confederacy, and he was against many of the policies of President Davis.
After the war he was interned for several months.
cotton versus wheat: Efforts by the Confederate government during the Civil War to
convince planters to grow to wheat instead of cotton received little success. While some
planters heeded the government’s pleas, many clung to the belief that cotton would never fail
them. As a result, food shortages plagued the Confederacy.
Copperheads: Copperheads were Northerners who sympathized with the South during the
Civil War. The term Copperheads was also used to label all Democratic opponents of Lincoln.
The group was led by Clement L. Vallandigham and was especially strong in the states of
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
Congressman Clement L. Vallandigham: Vallandigham was the leader of the Copperheads
during the Civil War. He was briefly imprisoned in 1863 for maintaining in a speech that the
war was being fought to free African-American and enslave whites. The 1864 Democratic
platform reflected his pro-Southern views.
suspension of habeas corpus: Writs of habeas corpus are court orders requiring that the a
cause of imprisonment be demonstrated before a person is jailed. This basic civil liberty was
suspended by both Lincoln and Davis during the war to deal with dissent. Lincoln used it to
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intimidate border states into rejecting secession.
Republican legislation passed in Congress after Southerners left: banking, tariff,
homestead, railroad: After the South seceded, northerners in Congress enacted legislation
such as the Pacific Railroad Act authorizing a transcontinental railroad and the Homestead
Act granting free land in the west. Acts such as these had been blocked by southerners.
Homestead Laws: The Homestead laws were laws passed in Congress in 1862. They
permitted almost any American citizen to acquire a homestead of up to 160 acres of land in
the West, on the condition that the homesteader cultivate the land for 5 years. This allowed
poor farmers to obtain land in the west and increased westward expansion.
Northern blockade: During the Civil War, the north attempted to establish a blockade of all
Southern ports in order to stop the flow of essential supplies to the Confederacy. The Union
navy was fairly weak, so at first the blockade was not as effective as northerners had hoped it
would be and blockade-running was a common way for Southerners to obtain supplies
Anaconda Plan: The Anaconda Plan was a Union strategy in the Civil War calling for the
establishment of a naval blockade around the Confederacy to prevent the importation of
supplies from Europe. It was slowly implemented and only partially successful, but the
blockade did contribute to the Northern victory.
Submarine: Four submersible vessels were built during the American Civil War by the
Confederates for use against the federal fleet. One of these submarines successfully dragged a
mine through the water to sink a northern ship, but sunk itself as well. Submarines were used
only to a limited degree in the Civil War, and they were far from perfected.
Black Soldiers: It was not until late in the Civil War that African American soldiers were
allowed to participate in combat, and when they were, they suffered a far higher mortality rate
than white troops. Despite the many hardships that it entailed, military service was a source of
pride for blacks because it symbolized their freedom.
Gatling Gun: The Gatling gun was one of the earliest machine guns, but it was the most
effective of early models. The Gatling gun was created created a man by the name Gatling,
who intended to make war so horrible that it would make peace. This weapon contributed to
the high number of casualties in the Civil War.
Rifle: An improved rifle was one of the important technological advancements that
transformed the Civil War. They were able to hit targets more accurately at large distances
than previous guns, making open fields a hazard, so that trench warfare became a necessity.
This also contributed to the high number of casualties during the war.
conscription, draft riots: The Federal Militia Act of 1862 and the Confederate Conscription
Act of 1862 allowed for conscription, but contained many loopholes. Riots in 1863 by anticonscription protesters and impeded the process of drafting soldiers, but the establishment of
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a draft prompted volunteering.
•Emancipation Proclamation: The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order
ending slavery in the Confederacy. It was issued by President Lincoln after the battle of
Antietam. The Emancipation Proclamation only freed slaves residing in the territories in
rebellion against the government of the United States. This proclamation had the dual purpose
of injuring the Confederacy and preventing Great Britain from entering the war in support of
the Confederacy. It also pushed the border states toward abolishing slavery.
Charles Francis Adams: Adams was an American diplomat who, as ambassador during the
Civil War, helped to keep the British from recognizing the Confederacy. In the Trent affair,
he was instrumental in averting hostilities between the two nations, although he failed to stop
the sailing of the Alabama, a raider built in Great Britain for the Confederacy.
Alabama claims: There were a series of claims for indemnity made by the United States upon
Great Britain in 1862. The claims were for compensation for damages inflicted on Union
property by a Confederate steamship built by the British, the Alabama. The claims were not
resolved until the Treaty of Washington in 1871.
Trent Affair: In Nov., 1861, A Union captain stopped and boarded a British vessel, the
Trent, and removed Mason and Slidell, two Confederate emissaries who were on board and he
interned them in Boston. President Lincoln released Mason and Slidell, but the issue increased
tension between the Union and Britain.
Laird rams: The Laird rams were two double-turreted, ironclad steamers, built by a company
in England for the Confederate navy. The United States threatened war if these ships were
released to the South, so the British purchased them for the royal navy. This was another
source of diplomatic tension during the Civil War.
"continuous voyage": The concept of "continuous voyage" involves the idea that a voyage
intended for an enemy port, regardless of the number of stops made before arrival in the port,
contains contraband. During the Civil War the Union embraced this idea, seizing ships
traveling from England to the West Indies with the final destination of Confederate ports.
election of 1864: In 1864, a number of Republicans sought to prevent Lincoln’s
renomination. In order to balance Abraham Lincoln’s Union ticket with a Southern Democrat,
the Republicans nominated Andrew Jackson for vice president. Lincoln was able to overcome
Democratic candidate George McClellan and win a second term in office.
financing of the war effort by the North and the South: In order to pay for the Civil War,
both the Confederate and Union governments were forced to sell public lands and tax. The
fear that heavy taxation would cause unrest and corrode support of their cause, the
governments issued bonds and, in the North, greenbacks. This led to high inflation.,
Clara Barton: Clara Barton, a Union nurse during the Civil War, was known as "the Angel
of the Battlefield." She not only helped the war effort by nursing; she also helped the Union
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obtain medical supplies. After the War, Barton worked for the International Red Cross in the
Franco-Prussian War, and organized the American Red Cross, which she headed until 1904.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction was the process of bringing the southern states that had seceded during the
Civil War back into the Union. There were many disagreements about the best way to
accomplish this and many important pieces of legislation emerged as a result. Reconstruction
lasted from the end of the Civil War in 1865 until the Tilden-Hays Compromise in 1877
restored the Democrats to power in the South.
•Lincoln’s ten percent plan: In it all southerners, except high-ranking Confederate officials,
could get a full pardon and restoration of rights after taking an oath, pledging loyalty to the
Union and accepting the end of slavery. When ten percent of the 1860 voting population had
taken this oath, citizens could vote in elections that would create new state governments and
new state constitutions. After that the state would once again be eligible for representation in
Congress and readmitted to the Union.
assassination of April 14, 1865: President Lincoln wass assassinated while attending a
performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. The assassin,
John Wilkes Booth, escaped with a broken leg, but he was shot later. Lincoln was succeeded
by his vice president, Andrew Johnson.
John Wilkes Booth: Booth was a Southern sympathizer during the Civil War, who plotted
with six fellow-conspirators to assassinate Union leaders. On Apr. 14, 1865, he shot President
Lincoln during a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C.
He escaped, but was later shot and killed.
Ex parte Milligan: Ex parte Milligan was an 1866 Supreme Court limiting the authority of
martial law and the suspension of habeas corpus in times of war. In this case, the court
declared that "martial law can never exist where the courts are open in the proper and
unobstructed exercise of their jurisdiction."
•Radical Republicans: The Radical Republicans were a group of Republicans unhappy with
the corruption and policies of Grant’s administration. Among their leaders were Carl Schurz,
Horace Greely, and Charles Sumner. The party nominated Greeley for president. Greely was a
choice acceptable to the Democrats, but unpopular with many of the leaders of his party, so
Grant won reelection despite the corruption within his administration and his poor leadership.
Wade-Davis bill, veto, Wade Davis Manifesto: Congress, in July 1864, passed the WadeDavis Bill, calling for a stricter form of Reconstruction than that proposed by Lincoln. After
Lincoln pocket vetoed this bill, radicals sought to displace him. They issued Wade-Davis
Manifest, which declared the primacy of Congress in matters of the Reconstruction.
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Joint Committee on Reconstruction: The Joint Committee on Reconstruction was the
Congressional committee consisting of leaders of both houses of Congress which led
Congressional Reconstruction after the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 were passed. This
committee would exist until after Hayes was elected president.
•Reconstruction acts, 1867: The Reconstruction Acts divided the Confederate states except
Tennessee into five military districts. Military commanders in the districts were appointed to
oversee constitutional conventions in the districts and the creation of state constitutions. This
military occupation would last until the states created new constitutions that included black
suffrage, the permanent disfranchisement of Confederate leaders, and ratification of the 14th
Amendment.
conquered territory theory: The conquered territory theory was a popular theory held by
many Reconstruction policy makers after the Civil War that the southern states which seceded
from the Union to form the Confederate States of America should be treated as if they were
territories conquered from a foreign nation.
Texas v. White, 1869: The trial of Texas v. White in 1868, was a case which involved the
disposition of Civil War bonds used by Texas, which had left the Union. It was held that
states in rebellion did not lose their existence or identity. The decision also declared secession
unconstitutional.
the unreconstructed South: This term refers to failure of Reconstruction to permanently
reform the South. Even after Republicans withdrew, there was corruption in the states, and
exploitation of African-Americans was common. When the states were readmitted into the
Union, civil rights legislation was practically overturned with open discrimination.
scalawags: A scalawag was a white Southerner who joined the Republican party during the
Reconstruction period. Scalawags were considered traitors to the Southern cause and were
condemned by Southern Democrats. The term scalawag was applied both to entrepreneurs
who supported Republican economic policies and Whig planters who had opposed secession.
carpetbaggers: Carpetbaggers were Northerners who went to the South during
Reconstruction. They carried their belongings in carpetbags, and most intended to settle in the
South and make money there. The African-American vote won them important posts in
Republican state governments.
"forty acres and a mule": "Forty acres and a mule" refers to the desire of Radical
Republicans such as Thaddeus Stevens to carry out land redistribution in the South. He
wanted to subdivide confiscated land and distribute it among the freedmen. Proposals such as
these failed in Congress and state legislatures.
black codes: The black codes were local laws intended to force African-Americans to
continue working as plantation laborers. They imposed prohibitive taxes, harsh vagrancy laws
meant to intimidate the freedmen, restrictions on blacks’ ability to own property. Essentially,
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they condemned the newly-freed slaves to conditions not unlike slavery.
Ku Klux Klan: The KKK was an organization formed by ex-Confederates and led by Nathan
B. Forrest. It was founded in the South in 1866 in opposition to Reconstruction. Members
used disguises, rituals, whippings and lynchings, to terrorize African-Americans and their
supporters. Forrest disbanded the Klan in 1869.
Thaddeus Stevens: As a leader of the radical Republicans’ Reconstruction program after the
Civil War, Stevens saw the Southern states as "conquered provinces." He sincerely desired the
betterment of the lives African-Americans. He proposed the Fourteenth Amendment,
guaranteeing civil rights and was a leader in the impeachment of President Johnson.
Charles Sumner: Sumner was the aggressive abolitionist who was physically assaulted by
Preston Brooks after making a strong antislavery speech. He was one of the leaders of the
radical Republicans’ Reconstruction program and was also an active participant in the
impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
Andrew Johnson: As president he was denounced by the radical Republicans for his
Reconstruction program. When Johnson tried to force Stanton out of office, the radical
Republicans passed a resolution of impeachment against him for violation of the Tenure of
Office Act, but the Senate failed to convict him by one vote.
Freedmen’s Bureau: The Freedmen’s Bureau furnished food and medical supplies to blacks,
and to needy whites as well. It was also concerned with the regulation of wages and working
conditions, the maintenance of schools for illiterate former slaves, and the distribution of
lands abandoned by or confiscated from Southern proprietors.
General Oliver O. Howard: Howard was a Civil War general who took part in the Bull Run,
Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Chattanooga campaigns. As commissioner of the
Freedmen’s Bureau after the war, he was unable to prevent many abuses to freedmen, but
managed to provided needed food and medical and employment aid to many people.
Civil Rights Act: This act was passed in Congress with nearly unanimous Republican support
in March 1866, and it attempted to redress the issue of slavery by defining all persons born in
the nation as citizens. It also specified the rights of citizens, the right to sue, make contracts,
give evidence in court, hold, convey, and inherit property.
Thirteenth Amendment: The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in
1865. It prohibited "slavery or involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime whereof
the party shall have been duly convicted." This amendment guaranteed freedom for African
Americans.
Fourteenth Amendment: The Fourteenth Amendment was passed in 1868. It said that no
state can make or enforce any law which "deprives any person of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law." Also, states could not "deny to any person within its jurisdiction
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the equal protection of the laws."
Fifteenth Amendment: Secretary of State Hamilton Fish ratified the Fifteenth Amendment to
the Constitution of United States on March 30, 1870. This amendment explicitly forbid denial
of the right to vote for citizens "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
Tenure of Office Act: The Tenure of Office Act was a measure passed by Congress in 1867.
It prohibited the president from dismissing any cabinet member or other federal officeholder
whose appointment had required the consent of the Senate unless the Senate agreed to the
dismissal. Johnson’s violation of this act caused the impeachment crisis.
•IMPEACHMENT: Impeachment is the formal accusation by a legislature against a public
official, to remove him from office. The term includes both the bringing of charges, or
articles, and the trial that may follow. President Andrew Johnson, after violating the Tenure of
Office Act, by removing Secretary of War Stanton faced impeachment. The formal accusation
of Johnson went through the House on Feb. 24, 1868, but the Senate failed to convict him.
This is the only instance of impeachment of an American president.
Chief Justice Chase: Salmon Chase was the sixth chief justice of the Supreme Court and an
abolitionist. As chief justice, he presided over the impeachment trial of President Johnson. His
greatest achievement, however, was as secretary of the treasury, when he created a national
bank system.
Secretary of War Stanton: Edwin Stanton served as the secretary of war under Abraham
Lincoln during the Civil War, but his dismissal by President Andrew Johnson and his
subsequent refusal to leave office act precipitated the impeachment of President Johnson in
1868.
Hiram R. Revels, Blanche K. Bruce: Revels and Bruce were the first two African-American
politicians to serve a full term in the United States Senate. They were both representatives
from Mississippi, and were the only two African-American Senators during Reconstruction.
•Compromise of 1877: As a result of the electoral vote from the election of 1876, Congress
created a 15-member bipartisan commission, on January 29, 1877, to resolve the dispute
concerning the electoral votes between Tilden and Hayes. The committee consisted of five
Democrats, five Republicans, and five Supreme Court justices. Hayes was unanimously
awarded the electoral votes from Oregon and South Carolina and the ones from Louisiana by
a commission vote of 8 to 7.
The Legacy of Reconstruction
Reconstruction changed the lives of southerners,, especially those of the many slaves who first
tasted freedom during this period. Southern society changed in order to adjust to
emancipation, but former slaves were still relegated to inferior and submissive positions
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through economic, political, and social restrictions of their rights. The social and political
atmosphere of the postwar South would endure long into the 20th century.
Reconstruction Myth: The Reconstruction Myth is the false belief that during
Reconstruction, Radical Republicans intended to exploit the South by forcing it into economic
and political submission. Such beliefs were promoted by movies such as Birth of a Nation,
and Gone With the Wind.
Solid South: After Reconstruction, the South became solidly Democratic. Once they gained
control, the Democrats cut back expenses, wiped out social programs, lowered taxes, and
limited the rights of tenants and sharecroppers. These white southerners remained a major
force in national politics well into the 20th century.
sharecropping: It was the farm tenancy system that arose from the cotton plantation system
after the Civil War. Landlords provided land, seed, and credit. The croppers contributed labor
and received a share of the crop’s value, minus their debt to the landlord. This along with the
crop lien system held back African Americans economically.
crop lien system: Through this system, the white southern landowners possessed a tight hold
over African American farm production during much of the Reconstruction periond. Black
economic rights were eroded away with this crop lien system and along with sharecropping. A
cycle of dependency and debt would be the result of these systems.
segregation: Segregation was the practice held in the South after legislation made explicit
discrimination in law illegal. In response to that legislation the concept of "separate but equal"
dominated the policies Southern policy makers. This practice of keeping the races separate
would not officially broken up until the mid-twentieth century.
Grantism and Postwar Politics
Ulysses S. Grant was elected president of the United States in 1868 because he was a war
hero, but his cabinet was riddled with corruption. Grant did manage to make some important
accomplishments in the area of foreign policy, but his ability to cope with domestic
controversy, especially the economic issues which began to arise, created chaos in national
politics.
Ulysses S. Grant: Grant was an American general and the 18th president of the United States.
A war hero, Grant was admired throughout the North and was endorsed by Union veterans.
Although he was a strong military leader, Grant proved to be a passive president with little
skill at politics.
purchase of Alaska: Alaska was ceded to the United States by the Russian Czar Alexander II
in a treaty signed on March 30, 1867. Secretary of State William Henry Seward arranged the
$7.2 million purchase at 1.9¢ per acre. Critics ridiculed this purchase as "Seward’s icebox,"
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but it expanded American territory at a reasonable price.
Secretary of State William Seward: Seward was the American Secretary of State who
handled diplomatic issues during and after the Civil War. He was involved in the Trent Affair
and his most notable act was the purchase of Alaska. This purchase was denounced at the time
as "Seward’s folly, but it added a significant amount of territory to the United States.
Napoleon III: After his election in 1848, Napoleon III proclaimed himself the Emperor of
France, instituted reforms, and rebuilt Paris. His successful imperialist ventures were
overshadowed by a failed campaign in Mexico to create a French-Mexican Empire and the
Franco-Prussian War, which resulted in his deposition.
Maximilian in Mexico: Maximilian was instructed by Napoleon III in 1864 to establish a
French empire in Mexico, but the Mexicans were hostile to Maximilian and loyal to President
Juárez. The United States invoked the Monroe Doctrine as justification for their demand for
French nonintervention. Although the French drove Juárez’s army from the capital,
Maximilian’s empire disintegrated when French troops withdrew.
Treaty of Washington, 1871: The Treaty of Washington was a treaty arranged by Hamilton
Fish. In it, the U.S. and Great Britain settled many minor disputes such as the Alabama
claims, which had arisen during the U.S. Civil War. The treaty also provided for arbitration of
disagreements over the Canadian-American boundary and fishing rights.
Secretary of State Hamilton Fish: Fish served as Grant’s secretary of state. He arranged the
Treaty of Washington, which settled disputes with Britain over the Alabama claims the and
Canadian-American boundary. Also, he prevented American filibustering expeditions against
Cuba from escalating into war with Spain.
"Whiskey Ring": Grant’s private secretary, Orville Babcock, was unmasked in 1875 after
taking money from the "whiskey ring," a group of distillers who bribed federal agents to
avoid paying millions in whiskey taxes. On May 10, 1875, 16 distillers in areas of Saint
Louis, Milwaukee, and Chicago were captured.
Black Friday: Scandal caused a short-lived financial crisis in the United States that occurred
on Friday, September 24, 1869. The panic was precipitated when two financial speculators,
James Fisk and Jay Gould, attempted to corner the U.S. gold market. Fisk and Gould probably
made a profit of about $11 million through their manipulations.
"Salary Grab Act": In the Salary Grab Act of 1873, Congress voted a 100% pay raise and a
50% increase for itself. Both raises were made retroactive two years back. The public was
shocked, leading to a Democratic victory in the next congressional election. The act was later
repealed, but it was another example of the corruption of the postwar government.
Credit Mobilier: Officials of the Union Pacific Railroad created a fake construction
company, called the Credit Mobilier, in order to cheat the government out of money allotted
to the construction of the Union Pacific Railroads. Grant’s vice-president, Colfax, was linked
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to this scandal.
Sanborn Grab Fraud: In the Sanborn Grab Fraud, a politician named Sanborn was given a
contract collect $427,000 in unpaid taxes, receiving a 50% commission for all money
collected. He then used this commission as Republican campaign funds, allowing the
candidate to focus on his campaign rather than fundraising.
Bribing of Belknap: William E. Belknap was Grant’s secretary of war. He took a bribe to
sell lucrative Indian trading posts in Oklahoma. Belknap resigned in 1876 when voters
learned of his corruption. Although Grant was not personally involved, he loyally defended
his subordinates.
Liberal Republicans: The Liberals Republicans’ revolt marked a turning point in
Reconstruction history. They split the Republican party, supporting the Republican southern
policy while attacking regular republicans on several key issues and denouncing Grantism and
the spoils system.
election of 1872: In 1872, Republicans unhappy with the reelection of President Ulysses S.
Grant formed the Liberal Republican party and nominated as their candidate the journalist
Horace Greeley. Although he was also endorsed by the Democrats, Greeley was defeated, and
the new party collapsed.
Panic of 1873, depression: Transforming the northern economy, the Panic of 1873 triggered
a five-year depression. Banks closed, farm prices plummeted, steel furnaces stood idle, and
one out of four railroads failed. However, once the depression began, demand rose. This issue
divided both major parties and was compounded by the repayment of federal debt.
"Waving the bloody shirt": During the election of 1876, the Republicans backed Rutherford
Hayes against the Democratic candidate, Samuel Tilden. They resorted to a tactic known as
"waving the bloody shirt," which was used in the last two elections. The tactic emphasized
wartime animosities by urging northern voters to vote the way they shot.
Greenbacks, Ohio Ideas: During the Civil War the Union had borrowed money through the
sale of war bonds, known as Greenbacks, to private citizens. Senator John Sherman of Ohio
and other Republican leaders obtained passage of the Public Credit Act of 1869, which
promised to pay the war debt in "coin." Debtors favored the Greenbacks because they could
repay debts easier with this inflated currency.
Specie Resumption Act: The Sherman Specie Resumption Act promised to put the nation
effectively on the gold standard in 1879. With some convincing, it changed the minds of the
Republican voters who also wanted to continue Greenbacks for the sake of "easy money."
Grant signed this act. Unfortunately, robber barrons schemed to corner the gold market.
Greenback-Labor Party: The Greenback party was formed in 1876 with James Weaver as
its presidential candidate. The party adopted the debtors’ cause, fought to keep greenbacks in
circulation, and promoted the inflation of farm prices. The party elected 14 members to
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Congress . As prosperity returned, the Greenbacks faded.
election of 1876: The presidential election of 1876 resulted in neither Democrat Samuel
Tilden nor Republican Rutherford Hayes receiving the 185 electoral votes necessary to
become president. There were 20 disputed votes, and a Congressional committee gave all of
these to Hays, making him president. In exchange, he ended military rule of the South.
Overview of 1865-1900
Gilded Age Politics
As America modernized, politics played an increasingly important role in the lives of the
common men. Diverse groups participated in the political arena as they attempted to reform
the social, political and economical problems of the newly industrial nation. Taking its name
from the novel, The Gilded Age, the era referred to the decades from the 1870s to the 1890s
where Americans struggled to battle corruption in a morally deteriorating society.
 PENDLETON
CIVIL SERVICE ACT: Because of the Pendleton Civil Service Act,
political candidates were forbidden from soliciting contributions from government workers.
This act also set up a civil service commission to prepare competitive exams and establish
standards of merit for a variety of federal jobs. In 1883, Congress enacted a civil service law
introduced by Senator George Pendleton of Ohio. Although President Arthur was a Stalwart,
he had the courage to endorse the act which reformed the spoils system.
Chester A. Arthur: He became president after the assassination of Garfield. This 21st
president, who served from 1881 to 1885, rose above the political corruption prevalent during
the times and headed a reform-oriented administration that enacted the first comprehensive
U.S. civil service legislation. He supported the passage of the Pendleton Act in 1883.
Election of 1884: James G Blaine was nominated by the Republicans, while Grover
Cleveland was the Democratic nominee. The Independent Republicans, known as
"Mugwumps," supported Cleveland, which cost Blaine the election. The Democrats
controlled the House, while the Republicans dominated the Senate.
Stalwarts, Roscoe Conkling: The Stalwarts, who favored the spoils system of political
patronage, were lead by New York Senator Roscoe Conkling. The battle over patronage split
the Republican party into two factions: the Half-breeds and the Stalwarts. The two differed
mainly over who would control the party machinery.
Half-breeds: They argued with the Stalwarts on the issues of who would control the party of
machine and would distribute patronage jobs. The Half-breeds supported civil service reform
and merit appointments to government posts. They were joined together as the Republican
party, but disputes over patronage split it into two: Stalwarts and Half-breeds.
James G. Blaine: Blaine was a Republican Congressman, senator, secretary of state under
Garfield, and a presidential candidate under the Republican Half-Breeds, who ran against
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Conkling. Blaine was considered one of the most popular Republicans of his time, and was
elemental in his party’s success in elections.
Mugwumps: This term designated dissident members of the Republican party, who, in the
presidential election of 1884, refused to support the nominee of their party, James G. Blaine.
Instead, they supported the Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland, who was later elected.
The term was first used derisively in a New York City newspaper, the Sun.
"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion": At a rally on election eve, a clergyman denounced the
Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." Blaine failed to repudiate the
remark and the Democrats widely publicized this insult to Catholics, drinkers and patriotic
Democrats. Blaine’s mistake allowed Cleveland to obtain New York’s electoral votes.
High Tariffs: Republicans preferred high tariffs, while Democrats preferred low ones.
Cleveland supported low tariffs. The Dingley tariff of 1879 increased rates to an all-time high
levels while the Currency Act of 1900 officially changed the U.S. gold standard. The WilsonGorman Protective Tariff also unsuccessfully attempted to create an income tax.
Treasury surplus: The high tariffs were feeding a large and growing budget surplus. This
surplus stood as a continual temptation to distribute it in the form of veterans pension or
expensive public-work programs, known as pork barrel projects. Cleveland was convinced
that surplus constituted a corrupting influence.
Pension GAR: After the Civil War, veterans formed the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR)
to lobby for pensions. Veterans disability pensions cost the government millions dollars a
year, but in 1879, bowing to GAR pressure, Congress had eased the rules for securing them.
The GAR actively encouraged veterans to file claims.
Secret ballot: Between 1888 and 1896, 90% of all the states were convinced to adopt a new
ballot like the one in Australia, which was a method of voting that listed voter options. This
was a Populist goal articulated in the Omaha Platform. The paper ballot emerged as a
dominant voting method. The secret ballot is also known as the Australian ballot.
"Murchinson letter": Charles Murchinson wrote a letter to the British Ambassador to ask
how he should vote during the election of 1888. The ambassador fell into the trap and advised
Murchinson to vote for Cleveland, rather than Harrison. The Republicans gracefully
publicized the "Murchinson Letter" as a foreign attempt to meddle in an American election.
Cleveland’s 1887 annual address: Cleveland focused his entire annual address message to
Congress on the tariff issue. He argued that lower tariffs would not only cut the federal
surplus but also reduce prices and slow the development of trusts. His tariff message upset
many corporate boardrooms who thought that lowering the tariff would hurt their prosperity.
Presidential Succession Act of 1886: This act determined that if both the President of the
United States and the Vice President both died or if they were both disqualified, there would
be a line of succession. The line started with first the president pro tempore, secretary of state,
26
secretary of treasury, secretary of defense, and continued.
Election of 1888, candidates, issues: Because Blaine decided not to run, the Republicans
turned to Benjamin Harrison. Republican focused on the tariff issue. The Republicans falsely
portrayed the Democrats as advocates of "free trade," which many felt would have horrible
consequences. Harrison won in the electoral college by defeating Grover Cleveland.
Benjamin Harrison, Billion dollar congress, Czar Reed: Harrison quickly rewarded his
supporters. He appointed a past GAR commander as commissioner of pension. In 1890,
Harrison signed the pension bill that Cleveland had earlier vetoed. The Republican Congress
of 1890 became known as the Billion-dollar Congress.
McKinley Tariff: His administration enacted a higher tariff in 1897 and committed the
country to the gold standard in 1900. It generally promoted business confidence. Probably in
part because of these policies, the economy recovered from a severe depression, and the
Republicans became identified with economic prosperity.
Election of 1892: The Republicans re-nominated Harrison, while the Democrats turned to
Grover Cleveland who was a Conservative. The Populists nominated James B Weaver who
did not did better than expected. Voters generally reacted against the high McKinley Tariff.
Cleveland’s conservative economic policies brought him support, and he won the election.
Morgan bond transaction: During the depression of 1893 to 1897, the gold reserve
dwindled to $41 million. Cleveland turned to Wall Street bankers J.P. Morgan and August
Belmont agreed to lend the government $62 million in exchange for U.S. bonds at a special
discount. The government then bought gold, which restored confidence in the government.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff: In order to increase the sight of the governments role in an age of
towering fortunes, this tariff became a law without the signature of approval from Cleveland.
It did have a modest income tax of 12% on all income over $4000, but the supreme court
declared it unconstitutional in 1895.
Dingley tariff: The McKinley administration furthered its conservative platform through the
Dingley Tariff of 1897, which increased rates to all-time high levels. The Currency Act of
1900 officially changed the U.S. to the gold standard. Due to the discovery of gold in Alaska
and the prosperity of farms prices, there was little protest against the Dingley tariff.
Gold Standard Act, 1900: This act officially put the United States on the gold standard. It
was passed by William McKinley’s administration during a time when both the House of
Representatives and the Senate were dominated by Republicans. Subsequent to this act, the
U.S. went on and off the gold standard several times and abandoned it in 1971.
"New Imperialism"
27
Growing into a leading nation, the United States hoped to further its international standing
by emulating European nations that were expanding their influence throughout the world.
During the 1870s, the U.S. "new imperialism" was directed towards finding access to
resources, markets for surplus production, and opportunities for overseas investments.
Although the U.S. did expand its influence in other countries, it preferred market expansion to
the traditional European territorial colonialsim.
Alaska: Secretary of state William H. Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska in 1867. $7.2
million was paid to Russia for Alaska, and it was highly contested by Congress. Also known
as "Seward’s Icebox" or "Seward’s folly," it was generally thought to be useless, but later
proved to be an excellent addition.
Pan Americanism, James Blaine: In 1881 Secretary of State James G. Blaine advocated the
creation of an International Bureau of American Republics to promote a customs union of
trade and political stability for the Western Hemisphere. The assassination of Garfield kept
Blaine from his organization until 1889.
US mediation of border disputes: The United States offered its aid to promote the peaceful
resolution of border conflict between a number of states. The United States also worked to
bring an end to the War of the Pacific which was fought between Chile and the alliance of
Peru and Bolivia.
Port of Pago Pago: Restless stirrings in America were felt in the far-off Samoan Island in the
South Pacific. The U.S. navy sought access to the Port of Pago Pago as a refueling station.
The U.S. ratified a treaty with Samoa in 1878 which gave America trading rights and a naval
base at Pago Pago.
Tariff autonomy to Japan: During the Meiji period following the collapse of the shogunate,
Japan transformed, from its traditionally isolationist feudal society into a world power, taking
on imperialistic quailites. Emperor Meiji took it upon himself to enact tariffs, and thus, Japan
controlled its own tariffs.
Hawaiian Revolution: Hawaii’s wholesale sugar prices plummeted as a result of the
elimination of the duty-free status enjoyed by Hawaiian sugar. Facing ruin, the planters
deposed Queen Liliuokalani in Jan 1893, proclaimed the independent Republic of Hawaii, and
requested U.S. annexation. Hawaii was claimed as an American territory in 1898.
Sino-Japanese War: A Chinese patrol clashed with Japanese troops on the Marco Polo
Bridge near Beijing on July 7, 1937. Using the incident as a pretext to begin hostilities, the
Japanese army in Manchuria moved troops into the area, precipitating another Sino-Japanese
war. Although the war was never actually declared.
Captain Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power: . A Union naval officer during the American
Civil War from 1861 to 1865, Mahan served in the navy for nearly 40 years. He was
promoted to the rank of captain in 1885. The title of The Influence of Sea Power upon
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History, received international recognition as a comprehensive of naval strategy.
Industrial America
During the late 19th century, the industrial sectors of society rapidly expanded. Corporations
emerged, and the captains of industry created ,major industrial empires that drastically
changed the face of American business. Although many opposed the large businesses when
they hurt individuals, Americans generally favored industrialization. Even the common man
shared in the American desire to gain wealth through the new industrial economy.
Laissez-faire: It meant non-governmental interference in business. The doctrine favors
capitalist self-interest, competition, and natural consumer preferences as forces leading to
optimal prosperity and freedom. It began in the late 18th century as a strong liberal reaction to
trade taxation and nationalist governmental control known as mercantilism.
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations: In The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, Adam
Smith believed that self-interest was an "invisible hand in the marketplace, automatically
regulating the supply of and demand for goods and services." He endorsed a laissez-faire
approach to economics and was the first to define the system of capitalism.
Andrew Carnegie: Carnegie decided to build his own steel mill in 1870. His philosophy was
simple: "watch the costs and the profit will take care of themselves." At the age of 33, when
he had an annual income of $50,000, he said, "beyond this never earn, make no effort to
increase fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes."
 UNION
PACIFIC RAILROAD, CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD: The Pacific
Railroad Act of 1862 had authorized the construction of the transcontinental railroad. The
Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads were joined together to form the first
transcontinental railroad in May 1869 when railroad executives drove a golden spike into the
ground at Promontory Point, Utah in order to connect the two. It allowed Americans to travel
from coast to coast in a week; it had previously taken several months to do so.
"Robber Barrons": Known as the great captains of industy and as robber barons who lined
their pockets, these captains, or villains, of industry made their money by manipulating the
stock markets and company policies. Some of these Robber Barrons were Jay Gould, Hill, and
John D. Rockefeller.
John D. Rockefeller: He is famous for his Standard Oil Company. He had a desire for cost
cutting and efficiency. Rockefeller helped form the South Improvement Company in early
1872, which was an association of the largest oil refiners in Cleveland, and he arranged with
the railroads to obtain substantial rebates on shipments by members of the association.
Standard Oil Company: The Standard Oil Company was organized in 1870 by Rockefeller,
his brother William, and several associates. In 1882 Rockefeller formed the Standard Oil
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Trust. This, the first corporate trust, was declared an illegal monopoly and ordered dissolved
by the Ohio Supreme Court in 1892.
Horizontal consolidation: Within three years, the Standard Oil Trust had consolidated crude
oil by buying throughout its member firms. It had slashed the number of refineries in half.
Rockefeller integrated the petroleum industry horizontally by merging the competing oil
companies into one giant system.
Vertical consolidation: The Standard Oil Trust had consolidated crude-oil buying throughout
it members firms and slashed the number of refineries in half. Rockefeller integrated the
petroleum industry vertically by controlling every function from production to local retailing.
He controlled all aspects of manufacturing from mining to selling.
Henry Clay Frick: Frick’s job was to manage the daily operations of Carnegie’s company.
With Frick’s great leadership, Carnegie’s steel mill profits rose every year despite labor
troubles and a national depression. With Henry’s help, Carnegie was free to pursue
philanthropic activities.
Charles Schwab: He became president of Carnegie Steel when he bought half of the
company for half a billion dollars. Therefore, he combined Carnegie’s company with Federal
Steel. After the agreement, Morgan set up the U.S. Steel corporation. This became the first
business to capitalize at more than $1 billion dollars.
Thomas A. Edison: He epitomized the inventive impulse. An American inventor, his
development of a practical electric light bulb, electric generating system, sound-recording
device, and motion picture projector had advanced the life of modern society. He shared the
same dream as Carnegie to interconnect industry system with technology.
Alexander Graham Bell: An American inventor and teacher of the deaf, he was most famous
for his invention of the telephone. Since the age of 18, Bell had been working on the idea of
transmitting speech. He was one of the cofounders of the National Geographic Society, and he
served as its president from 1896 to 1904. He also founded the journal Science in 1883. His
other inventions includes the induction balance, audiometer, and the first was recording
cylinder introduced in 1885.
Leland Stanford: An American Railroad magnate and a politician, he served as the
Republican governor of California and the U.S. senator from California. With Hill, he started
the Central Pacific Railroad Company, and in 1870, he founded the Southern Pacific Railroad
Company.
James G. Hill, Great Northern Railroad: He reorganized and expanded the railroad
industry in the 1870s and 1880s. He was exemplified as a robber baron who manipulated
stock markets and company policies. He and three other partners bought the St. Paul and
Pacific Railroad.
Cornelius Vanderbilt: An American industrialist and philanthropist, he became associated
30
with the New York and Harlem Railroad in 1867, and became president in 1886. At the same
time he began to act as head of the Vanderbilt family. He founded the Vanderbilt University.
Bessemer process: The process consisted of a shot of air blasted through an enormous
crucible of molten iron to burn off carbon and impurities. This new technology, combined
with cost analysis, provided a learning railroad experience for Carnegie. The bessemer
invention offered a means of driving up profits, lowering cost, and improving efficiency.
United States Steel Corporation, Elbert H. Gary: Gary was a lawyer who later became
president of the Federal Steel Company in 1898. Gary was a strong foe of unions, but he
introduced profit sharing and encouraged higher wages and better working conditions. The
city of Gary, Indiana., originally a steel company town, is named after him.
Mesabi Range: Andrew Carnegie bought an ore company in the newly opened Mesabi Range
in Minnesota in 1892. The hills contained large deposits of iron ore. The Mesabi Range is one
of the chief iron-producing regions in the world. Iron production began there in the late 19th
century.
J. Pierpont Morgan: When national depression struck a number of railroads in 1893,
Morgan refinanced their debts and built an intersystem alliance by purchasing blocks of stock
in the world of competing railroads. He also marketed U.S. government securities on a
massive scale.
Gustavus Swift, Phillip Armour: Swift, a Chicago meatpacker, and Philip Armour turned
pigs and cattle into bacon, pork chops, and steaks. They also developed the technique of
refrigerating food in order to ship food across seas. They both won a large share of the eastern
urban market for meat.
James B. Duke: An American tobacco industrialist and philanthropist whose career
originated with a small family business, James, along with four partners, merged to form the
American Tobacco Company in 1890. The family concentrated on cigarette production in
1881. Within few years, James lead and dominated the national market.
Andrew Mellon: An American financier, industrialist, and statesman, and educated at the
University of Pennsylvania, he started his career in the banking firm of Thomas Mellon and
Sons of Pittsburgh. He later became a partner and the president, in 1902, of the firm that
developed into the Mellon National Bank.
"Stock watering": This term referred to the act of issuing stock certificates far in excess of
the actual value of the assets. Some who "stock watered" persuaded the populace to buy up
stock, but then sold the stock when prices rose, and made a profit while ruining the business
of other investors. This was during 1890 when the stock market was at an all time high.
Jay Cook Co.: He was a Philadelphia banker who had taken over the new transcontinental
line, the Northern Pacific, in 1869. In September of that year, his vault was full of bonds that
he could no longer sell. Cook fail to meet obligation and his bank, which was the largest in
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the nation, was shut down.
Jay Gould and Jim Fiske: They attempted to corner the gold market in 1869 with the help of
Grant’s brother-in-law. When gold prices tumbled, Gould and Fiske salvaged their own
fortunes. Unfortunately, investors were ruined. Grant’s reputation was tarnished and could not
be restored.
Pool, Trust: Competition became so vicious that railroads tried to end it by establishing pools
in order to divide the traffic equally and to charge similar rates. The pool lacked legal status,
while the trust was a legal device that centralized control over a number of different
companies by setting up a board of trustees to run all of them.
Rebates: A rebate is a partial monetary return of an amount paid. The Interstate Commerce
Act prohibited rebates for railway rates because they discriminated between different groups.
Small farmers were angered that they were required to pay more than other interests were.
This Act was passed in 1887 with the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Depression of 1873: Early in Grant’s second term, the country was hit by an economic
depression known as the panic of 1873. Brought on by over expansive tendencies of railroad
builders and businessmen during the immediate postwar boom, the Panic was triggered by
economic downturns in Europe and by the failure of Jay Cooke’s bank.
Holding Companies: A holding company is a corporation that owns a controlling share of the
stock of one or more other firms. When Standard Oil faced the problem of antitrust suits in
1892, lawyers invoked New Jersey law that allowed permitted corporations to own property
in other states by simply reorganizing the trust as an enormous holding company.
Fourteenth Amendment’s "due process clause": The fourteenth amendment declared in its
first clause that all person born or naturalized in the United States were recognized as citizens
of the nation and as citizens of their states and that no state could abridge their rights without
due process of law or deny them equal protection of the law.
 INTERSTATE
COMMERCE ACT, INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION:
The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was passed to provide that a commission be established
to oversee fair and just railway rates, prohibit rebates, end discriminatory practices, and
require annual reports and financial statements. The act established a new agncy, the Interstate
Commerce Commission, which allowed the government to investigate and oversee railroad
activities.
Long haul, short haul: It was cheaper to ship a long haul on the railroads than it was to ship
a short haul. Small farmers were angered that they, who made many short hauls, were
discriminated against. In the 1870s, many state legislatures, outlawed rate discrimination as a
result of protests led by the Grangers.
 SHERMAN ANTITRUST
ACT, 1890: Fearing that the trusts would stamp out all
competition, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, which outlawed trusts and
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other restraints of trade. Violators were fined up to five thousand dollars and one year in
prison. The Sherman Antitrust act failed to define either trust or restraint of trade clearly. As a
result, between 1890 and 1904, the government prosecuted only eighteen antitrust suits, and it
was instead used to hinder the efforts of labor unions who acted "in restraint of trade."
Frank Norris, The Octopus:The U.S. novelist Frank Norris, was a noted pioneer of
naturalism in literature. His novels portray the demoralizing effects of modern technology on
the human fate. His best-known works, The Octopus, published in 1901, and The Pit ,
published in 1903, attack the railroad and wheat industries in the United States.
New South, Henry Grady: Henry Grady was a U.S. journalist and orator born in Athens,
Georgia. He bought share in Atlantic Constitution in 1879. As editor, he did much to restore
friendly relations between the North and South during a period of bitter hatred and conflict.
He often lectured on the concept of "The New South," which referred to a rejuvenated south.
The Growth Of Labor
Reacting to the emergence of big business, workers organized themselves to protect their
welfare. Feeling that they were helpless against the practices of the large corporations,
workers collectivized to gain power through their numbers. Labor Unions, such as the
National Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, were created in order to establish forums for
workers to express discontent.
National Labor Union, William Sylvis: In 1866, acting on his dream of a nationwide
association to represent all workers. Sylvis called a convention in Baltimore that formed the
National Labor Union (NLU). The organization supported the eight-hour day movement, but
also embraced banking reform and an end to conviction labor.
 KNIGHTS
OF LABOR, URIAH STEPHENS, TERRENCE POWDERLY: The Knights
of labor dreamed of a national labor movement. This organization was founded in
Philadelphia in 1869, and was led by Uriah Stephens, who was also the head of the Garment
Cutters of Philadelphia. They welcomed all wage earners, and demanded equal pay for
women, an end to child and convict labor, and cooperative employer-employee ownership. In
their organization, they excluded bankers, lawyers, professional gambler, and liquor dealers.
 AMERICAN
FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL): Confronted by big business, Samuel
Gompers and Adolph Strasser put together a combination of national crafts unions to
represent the material interests of labor in the matter of wages, hours, and safety precautions.
They demanded bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations such as railroads,
mining, and manufacturing. They did not intend to have a violent revolution nor political
radicalism.
Samuel Gompers: An American labor leader, he, as president of the American Federation of
Labor (AFL), stressed cooperation between management and labor instead of strike actions,
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as a means of obtaining labor demands. He led the AFL for forty years, until his death in
1924.
Collective bargaining: The major function of unions is collective bargaining, a process by
which unions and employers negotiate terms of employment. The terms are set forth in a
written agreement that the union and the employer promise to enforce. The AFL demanded
collective bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations.
Injunction: An injuntion is a court order. It was generally used against strikers. It is an order
or decree in the law of equity, requiring a defendant to refrain from committing a specific act,
either in process or threatened, injurious to the plaintiff. Injunctions are generally preventive,
restraining, or prohibitory in nature.
Pinkertons: They were a group in Allan Pinkerton’s organization, the National Detective
Agency. They often spied on the unions for the companies. In 1877, when a railroad strike
broke out, they were called in as strikebreakers. In the Homestead Strike, the Pinkertons fired
on the strikers, killing many of them.
Closed Shop: The closed shop is an agreement between a trade union and an employer which
is a collective bargain. It provides that employees in the bargaining unit shall be union
members and remain in good standing in the union as a condition of employment. Many of
these shops were banned by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947.
Blacklist, Yellow Dog Contracts: With the formation of labor unions, workers began to
strike to obtain better conditions. However, employers blacklisted employees that went on
strike, which which made getting another job later much harder. They also made employees
sign yellow dog contracts, which forced the employee to agree not to strike or join a union.
Company Union: First adapted by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in 1915, it was a
company-sponsored labor union that was dominated by the management. The workers wanted
unions, and they got them, but they were controlled by the management, so the company had
the final word on the labor policy.
Great Railroad Strike, 1877: A group of railroad workers on the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad rose up and began to strike due to wage cuts. This spread up and down the railroad
line across the nation. Railroad roadhouse were torched. President Rutherford B. Hayes sent
in troops to stop the strike. 100 people died in the strike.
 haymarket
square riot: Strikers and police had a confrontation while a strike was in
progress on May 4, 1886, at the McCormick reaper works in Chicago. Several protesters were
shot by police the day before, and a protest against police violence was called. The police
were attempting to break up the meeting when a bomb was thrown by a protester. A violent
gun battle ensuedin which seven police were killed. Many police and civilians were injured as
well.
John Peter Altgeld: He served as the liberal governor of Illinois from 1893 to 1897. He was
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criticized for pardoning the anarchists who threw the bomb in the Haymarket Square Riot and
for objecting to the use of federal troops in the Pullman strike. His action was considered
dangerously radical by the American public.
Homestead Strike: Called in 1892 by the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin
Workers, it was one of the most violent strikes in U.S. history. It was against the Homestead
Steel Works, which was part of the Carnegie Steel Company, in Pennsylvania in retaliation
against wage cuts. On July 6, company guards and Pinkertons opened fire on the strikers after
four months of striking, killing and wounding many strikers. The state militia dispersed the
strikers.
American Railway Union: Created by Eugene V. Debs, it was a union created in a shortlived attempt to bring all of the railroad workers into one organization. This union was a
precursor of the union movement that followed in the 1930s. The union was involved in the
1894 Pullman Strike.
Pullman Strike: The American Railway Union and Eugene V. Debs led a nonviolent strike
which brought about a shut down of western railroads, which took place against the Pullman
Palace Car Company in Chicago in 1894, because of the poor wages of the Pullman workers.
President Grover Cleveland interfered and stopped the strike by saying that they had
interfered with the right of the government to maintain the uninterrupted transport of mail.
Debs was arrested and the strike was broken up.
Eugene V. Debs: As the president and the organizer of the American Railway Union, he
helped bring about the shut down of western railroads with the 1894 Pullman Strike. He was
arrested for these actions. He also helped organize the Social Democrat party in 1897, after
meeting socialist Victor Berger. He was the party’s presidential candidate five times: in 1900,
1904, 1908, and 1912. He later became a lecturer and organizer for the Socialist movement.
Richard Olney: He was the United States Attorney General from 1893 to 1897. He also sat
on the board of directors of three major networks of railroads. The General Manager’s
Association attempted to get an federal injunction from Olney against the strikers for refusing
to move cars carrying U.S. mail.
Danbury Hatters Strike:. The Supreme Court declared in 1908, after a strike by workers in
Danbury, Connecticut, which was known for its hat industry, that unions were prohibited
from setting up boycotts in support of strikes. It was said that a boycott was a "conspiracy in
restraint of trade."
Urbanization
Rapid urbanization began in the 1870s as people flocked to the cities. These urban centers
quickly crowded, and many cities became impersonal metropolises that were divided into
business, residential, social and ethnic centers. Amidst this chaos, corruption thrived as
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political bosses ran the city for their own personal gain. It appeared as if the nation was
modernizing quicker than it could deal with problems of urbanization.
George Washington Plunkitt: A minor boss in Tammany Hall and a member of the New
York State Assembly, he was skilled in winning numerous votes for party candidates by
associating with and being kind to the people in New York. He was paid by these candidates,
and he received generous rewards.
"Honest Graft": This term, created by George Washington Plunkitt, referred to the police
corruption that took place in the Tammany Hall political machine. The practices included
paying bribes to make an individual a police officer, to get him a promotion, or to get him to
the position of a sergeant.
Boss Tweed: He was an important figure in New York’s political machine, the Tammany
Society. He held New York City and state political posts where he increased his power.
Forming the Tweed Ring, which bought votes, he controlled New York politics, and
encouraged judicial corruption.
Boss George B. Cox: Cox, the boss of Cincinnati’s Republican political machine, had a
reputation for being one of the most honest bosses. He worked his way up the ladder from
being a newspaper boy to being the head of the political machine. In addition, he helped with
many public works in the city.
 TAMMANY
HALL: Founded by anti-federalist William Mooney, it is the name for the
New York Democratic party machine, also known as the Tammany Society, whose supposed
goal was to preserve democratic institutions. However, Tammany Hall gained a great
reputation for its corrupt practices, and was opposed by reform groups. It began to gain power
with the rise of Boss Tweed in 1868. Its leader, Alfred E. Smith, ran for president of the
United States.
Thomas Nast: A political cartoonist and caricaturist, he became an illustrator for Frank
Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper in 1855. He later worked for Harper’s Weekly. He was best
known for his cartoons slandering the corrupt Tammany ring of New York during the period
from 1869 to 1872.
Streetcar Suburbs: The creation of electric streetcar systems allowed families to move
farther from the city’s center. Streetcar companies purchased land on the city’s periphery and
made tremendous profits on the sale of the real estate. The streetcar system allowed people to
live farther away from their work. This facilitated the move away from the city’s center.
Tenements: Built by a landlord, tenements were small housing units that were extremely
overcrowded, poorly built, and that contained filth. There was a lack of fresh air and light in
these housing units, and in addition, they were inhabited mainly by new immigrants. The
worst tenements became known as slums.
Denis Kearney: He was a labor leader who protested the increasing numbers of Chinese
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laborers when California had an economic depression in 1877. With his support, he formed
the Workingman’s Party of California, which later became associated with the Grange
movement.
James Bryce: He was a British historian and statesman who became the leader of the Liberal
Party. He served as the ambassador to the United States from 1907 to 1913. He was also the
author of The American Commonwealth (1888), which is one of the most discerning studies
ever written on U.S. political institutions.
John A. Roebling: Roebling was one of the creators of the suspension bridges. He also
created and manufactured steel-wire ropes which he used, along with steel cables, in his
construction. One of his most famous works was the Brooklyn Bridge which he completed
shortly before his death.
Louis Sullivan: Sullivan was an American architect who used steel frames to design
skyscrappers. He was also the founder of what is now the Chicago School of Architects. His
most famous pupil was Frank Lloyd Wright, who later became a famous architect. Together
with his partner Dankmar Adler, he produced over 100 buildings.
Frank Lloyd Wright: Wright was one of the greatest twentieth-century architect and is
cosidered a pioneer of the modern style. He began as a designer for the Adler Sullivan firm,
and he introduced many innovations, including double-glass windows, metal furniture, and air
conditioning. He created the philosophy of "Organic Architecture."
Ashcan School: This school contained a group of painters, known as The Eight, who
exhibited their style together as a group in 1908. Led by Robert Henri, the Ashcan School
focused on more contemporary subjects, rather than on the academic and impressionist styles
of the 19th century.
Armory Show: It was an art exhibition that took place in New York between February 17
and March 15, 1913 at the 69th Regiment Armory. It was an international exhibition in which
modern art was first shown in the United States. A quarter of a million paid to see the show.
Anthony Comstock: Comstock was a reformer, who helped organize the New York Society
for the Suppression of Vice in 1873, of which he became secretary. He was also influential in
the passage by Congress of the 1873 law concerned with obscenity in the U.S. mails. It
became known as the Comstock Law.
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Riis was a social reformer and writer who wrote one
of the most influential, popular, and early social documentaries in American history. He
wanted to reform tenement housing and schools. In addition, he was influential in bringing
about parks and playgrounds in overcrowded neighborhoods.
Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: Thorstein Bunde Veblen was best
known for his book, The Theory of The Leisure Class, which was published in 1899.
Introducing the concept of "conspicuous consumption," his writing was an assault on the
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values and lifestyles of the Gilded Age businessmen.
From Melting Pot To Salad Bowl
The earlier immigrants to American consisted mainly of Northern Europeans. However,
during the 1870s, a flood of immigrants, arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe, gushed
into the already overcrowded metropolises. Many immigrants faced the dual problems of
changing cultures and migrating from a rural life to an urban one. In addition to these
difficulties, the new immigrants often faced prejudice from nativist Americans.
"New Immigration": They were a new group of immigrants coming into the United States
that consisted of Italians, Slavs, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. They came from both Southern
and Eastern Europe, and also from the Middle East. In the 1890s, their numbers first began to
increase, and the numbers continued to increase for the next three decades. Most of the
immigrants came from peasant and poor backgrounds and boosted America’s foreign-born
population by 18 million. They were often discriminated against.
"Old Immigration": This Term applies to those migrating from Western and Eastern Europe.
They were the largest group of immigrants that migrated to the United States. The largest
group of approximately three million, came from Germany in the 1840s and 1850s. Next
came the British, Scottish, and Welsh immigrants, which totaled 2 million. In addition, one
and a half million traveled over from Ireland. All of these immigrants came over in search of
jobs and of new economic opportunities.
Literacy tests: Passed by Congress in 1917in order to restrict immigration, the law enlarged
the group of immigrants that could be excluded from the United States. Literacy tests were
imposed on all immigrants, and any immigrant who could not pass the tests was not allowed
entry into the U.S.
Chinese Exclusion Law, 1882: Passed by Congress, it was one of three laws that attempted
to solve the increasing immigration problem. There had also been increasing labor violence
against the Chinese. By this law, immigrants had to be examined, and all convicts,
polygamists, prostitutes, anarchists, persons suffering from loathsome or contagious diseases,
and persons liable to become public disturbances and problems were all excluded form the
U.S.
American Protective Association: Founded by Henry F. Bowers, this was a secret antiCatholic society founded in 1887, in Clinton Iowa. The panic of 1893 greatly increased its
membership, and it supported the Republican Party until it split over the question of whether
or not to support William McKinley. It died in 1911.
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The Middle Class Reform Impulse
As Americans viewed the poverty throughout their cities, middle class Americans strove to
enact reform measures that would aid their society. Groups were formed to aid the less
fortunate Americans who inhabited the slums of the cities. Although these citizens strove to
aid their fellow man, in many cases, there was a prevalent feeling of condecension towards
the poorer classes.
Jane Addams, Hull House: She was a social worker and a Nobel laureate. With the help of
Ellen Star, she created the Hull House in 1889 in Chicago, which was the first settlement
house in the U.S. It was a welfare agency for needy families, and it also served to combat
juvenile delinquency and to assist the recent immigrants in learning the English language and
in becoming citizens. In addition, in 1912, Addams played a large role in the formation of the
National Progressive Party and the Women’s Peace Party.
Lester Frank Ward: Ward worked with the U.S. Geological Survey. He argued against
William Graham Sumner in his Dynamic Sociology and stated that the laws of nature could be
changed by mankind through government experts regulating big business, protecting society’s
weaker classes, and preventing the destruction of natural resources.
 SOCIAL
GOSPEL: It was a Protestant liberal movement led by Washington Gladden and
Walter Rauschenbusch that applied Christian principles to the numerous social problems that
affected the late 19th century United States as a result of industrialization. The movement
preached and taught religion and human dignity to the working class in order to correct the
effects of capitalism. In 1908 the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America
adopted a social creed that called for many improvements in society.
Walter Rauschenbusch: He was a clergyman who was one of the leaders of the Social
Gospel movement. He sought to solve social problems caused by the industrialized society by
applying Christian principles. He also helped found the Society of Jesus to publish periodicals
for the working class.
Washington Gladden: He was a Congregationalist minister who became known for his
pragmatic social theology. He linked theological liberalism with strong social concern. He
worked with Walter Rauschenbusch as a leader of the Social Gospel movement. In addition,
he wrote 38 books, which include Working People and their Employers.
Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War, the laws regulating many
aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in this
league in the fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23 states and in
1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.
Salvation Army: Founded by Methodist William Booth, it is a religious and charitable
organization dedicated to spreading the Christian faith and giving assistance to those in need
of both spiritual and material aid. It was founded in 1865 in England as the Christian Mission,
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whose goal was to give aid to the London slums.
YMCA: British Sir George Williams founded this organization in response to unsanitary
social conditions in large cities at the end of the Industrial Revolution, and to stop the young
workers from gambling and engaging in other disreputable. In the U.S., it began constructing
gyms, libraries, and summer camps.
Rev. Josiah Strong: Strong was the secretary of the American Home Missionary Society and
the minister of Cincinnati's Central Congregational Church. Afraid that poverty was
escalating, he wrote his book Our Country; Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis in 1885,
where he stated that cities were centers of anarchy and destruction.
 SOCIAL
DARWINISM: It is a theory developed in the late 19th century by which
individuals and societies believed that people, like all other organisms compete for survival
and success in life. It was believed that human progress depended highly on competition.
Those who were best fit for survival would become rich and powerful, and the less fit in
society would be poor and the lower classes. Many felt that this theory was expounded by
Charles Darwin, but in reality, they misinterpreted his words.
Herbert Spencer: Spencer was a British philosopher, who was regarded as one of the first
sociologists. His works include Social Statics, Principles of Psychology, and A System of
Synthetic Philosophy. He created a system of philosophy that included his own theory of
evolution, but also incorporated all existing fields of knowledge.
William Graham Sumner, What Social Classes Owe Each Other: Sumner was a sociologist
and author of What Social Classes Owe Each Other. In this book, he stated that unchangeable
laws of nature, such as survival of the fittest, control all social order and they can not be
changed by man.
Henry Ward Beecher: Beecher was the pastor of the Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims in
Brooklyn, New York, who was also one of the earliest and best known abolitionists. Also, he
was an effective champion of women's rights and suffrage. He was also editor in chief of the
religious and political periodicals Independent and The Christian Union.
 Edward Bellamy,
Looking Backward, 2000-1887: He was an essayist and journalist who
founded the Springfield Daily News, and then turned toward literature. He published his most
famous work in 1888, which was entitled Looking Backward, 2000-1887. This novel was a
depiction of an ideal society in the year 2000. This novel led to the formation of many
socialistic clubs. To further publicize his views, Bellamy created the journal, New Nation, in
1891.
Henry George, Progress and Poverty: George was an economist and social philosopher. In
his book Progress and Poverty, he stated that land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a
few, and these people reap the benefits of the rise in value of the land. He recommended a
shift to what he called a single tax.
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The Single Tax: Developed by social philosopher and economist Henry George, it was a
doctrine of social reform where all taxation should be reduced to a single tax on land. The
doctrine was described in his book Progress and Poverty, and it was influenced by 17th
century philosopher John Locke and British economist David Ricardo.
The Flowering Of American Culture
Along with the new social currents of the day caused by rapid urbanization, immigration, and
the growth of business, came a fervor of cultural display. American culture diversified as
Americans saw the society around them drastically changing, causing them to strive to
express their views through various forms.
Henry James: James was a writer and brother of philosopher William James. He wrote about
the impact of European culture on Americans who traveled or lived abroad. Some of his
famous writings include The Ambassadors, The Wings of the Dove, and The Golden Bowl.
Charles Darwin: Darwin was a British Scientist who created the theory of modern evolution.
In his theory, the development of organisms came through a process called natural selection,
which is often called "survival of the fittest." His theories were presented in his novel The
Origin of Species.
Rev. Russell Conwell, "Acres of Diamonds": Conwell was a Baptist minister who preached
about ordinary man's and capitalist's materialistic longings. He used religious virtue to justify
the quest for wealth as a Christian endeavor. This was the message in his "Acres of
Diamonds" lecture, which he gave over 6000 times.
Dwight L. Moody: Moody was the creator of the Illinois Street Church which was later
renamed the Moody Memorial Church. Together with Ira Sankey, he began a series of revival
meetings and opened the Northfield Seminary for Young Women and the Mount Hermon
School for Boys. He also founded the Bible Institute in Chicago in 1889.
Rerum Novarum, 1891: Formulated by Pope Leo XIII, it was the Catholic social doctrine. It
held private property as a natural right, and it found fault with capitalism for the poverty and
insecurity that it left the working class in. Many Catholic socialism movements are derived
from this.
Charles Sheldon, In His Steps: He was a Congregational clergyman and a social reformer.
He was also the author of the book In His Steps , which is the story of people who tried to
pattern their lives after the life of Jesus. It emphasized social problems which tied it into the
Social Gospel Movement.
Mary Baker Eddy: She was the founder of the Christian Science Association and the Church
of Christ, Scientist. After a remarkable recovery from sickness, she published Science and
Health, about the fundamentals of her metaphysical system of healing. In addition, she
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founded the international daily newspaper Christian Science Monitor.
Chautauqua Movement: Methodists John Heyl Vincent and Lewis Miller founded this
movement, which combined daily Bible studies with healthful recreation. It later expanded to
include concerts, lectures, and courses in science and humanities. The movement was imitated
numerous times in the United States.
Johns Hopkins University: Financed by John Hopkins, it is an institution of higher learning
in Baltimore, Maryland. It was founded in 1876. It is world renowned for its medical school
and its applied physics laboratory. Former President Woodrow Wilson received his Ph.D. in
political science here.
Charles W. Eliot, Harvard: Educated at Harvard University, he was an assistant professor of
mathematics and chemistry there for five years. In 1869, he became the president of Harvard,
who remodeled the curriculum on a liberal basis. He created a set of books containing 50
volumes known as Harvard Classics.
Josiah Willard Gibbs: At Yale, he was a professor of mathematical physics for 34 years. He
laid the foundations of the modern understanding of electromagnetic phenomenon and
thermodynamics. The real importance of his studies and theoretical descriptions of the
behavior of subatomic particles have only been recently recognized.
Morrill Land Act, 1862: Introduced to Congress by Republican Justin Morrill, the act
introduced a bill to establish state colleges of agriculture and to bring higher education within
the reach of the common people. Proceeds from the sale of public lands were given to states
to fund the establishment of these universities of agriculture and mechanics. They were called
land grant colleges and were located in the Midwest and West. Many universities such as
Michigan, Iowa State, and Purdue profited from its provisions.
Hatch Act, 1887: It was an act written by Representative William Henry Hatch of Missouri.
This act gave each state $15,000 a year to help establish and maintain agricultural experiment
stations. It was a supplement to the land grant colleges, which the government in order to
promte the teaching of agriculture.
 "gilded
age": Given its name by the novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley, it is a time
period which criticized the lobbyists, swindlers, politicians who took bribes, and those who
got rich in the postwar boom. The period was characterized by industrial production,
westward expansion, immigration, and urban growth, as well as strikes, depressions, despair
and bitterness, buoyancy and free-spending. The span of this era ranges from the end of the
Civil War, 1869, to the turn of the century.
Nouveau riche: It was the new class of people which was created by the wealth and
prosperity generated from the industrial capitalism and the big businesses. This class grew
during the Gilded Age. Most of these people were self-made and showed their importance
through ostentatious displays. Robber barons were included in this class.
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William James: James was a philosopher and psychologist, who came up with the
philosophy of pragmatism, which is summed up in his lectures entitled Pragmatism: A New
Name for Old Ways of Thinking. As a psychologist, he wrote his famous Principles of
Psychology which established him as one of the most influential thinkers of the time.
Pragmatism: Developed by William James and Charles Sanders Pierce, it is a philosophical
doctrine stating that the test of the truth of a proposition is its practical utility, the effect of an
idea is more important than its origin, and the purpose of thought is to guide action.
E.L. Godkin, editor of The Nation: Godkin was an editor, whose criticism in his book The
Nation and New York's Evening Post, which he edited, was influential in the reform
movement. He and others codified the standards in the Victorian era in both literature and the
fine arts. He was also a former mugwump and anti-imperialist.
William Dean Howells: Howells was a novelist, critic, and editor of the Atlantic, who
championed authors such as Stephen Crane, Mark Twain, Frank Norris, and Henry James. He
was also president of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In his life he wrote many
works, including A Fearful Responsibility, and The Rise of Silas Lapham.
Stephen Crane: Cranes was a writer and poet who began the use of the naturalistic style of
writing. His most famous novels include The Red Badge of Courage, Maggie, a Girl of the
Streets, and The Open Boats and Other Stories. The Black Riders and Other Lines, and War is
Kind and Other Poems are two volumes of his poems.
Hamlin Garland: Garland was a short story writer who used his experiences working on
farms in Iowa and South Dakota as central themes for his countless short stories that
denounced American farm life. He published these stories under the titles Main-Travelled
Roads and Other Main-Travelled Roads.
Bret Harte: Harte was a writer who was also the editor of the Overland Monthly, which
published many of his famous works. These stories included "The Luck of Roaring Camp"
and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat." He published a collection of his works called The Luck of
Roaring Camp and Other Short Stories. He also wrote for Atlantic Monthly.
Mark Twain: Twain was a writer named Samuel Langhorne Clemens, who used Mark Twain
as his pseudonym. He is characterized by his humor and sharp social satire. His many famous
novels include The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer, and A Connecticut Yankee
in King Arthur's Court.
The Gilded Age, Mark Twain and Charles Dudley: It is a novel written in a time when
materialism and corruption controlled the lives of Americans. It was written by Twain, and
Dudley was the coauthor. Many of the characters in the novel were recognized by readers of
the book as figures in society.
 HORATIO
ALGER’S BOOKS FOR YOUTH: Alger was a writer of juvenile fiction. His
novels held a theme of rags to riches, where poor youth would win fame and money by
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having virtues of honesty, diligence, and perseverance. Among his collection are Luck and
Pluck, Tattered Tom, and his most famous Ragged Dick. By emphasizing merit rather than
focusing on social status as the way to determine success, his more than 100 novels had a
major impact on the youth of that time.
James McNeill Whistler: Whistler was an etcher and painter who was a champion of modern
art. He also incorporated Japanese styles of art and made many technical innovations in art.
He is also well known for his portraits. The White Girl and Twelve Etchings from Nature are
his most famous etchings.
Winslow Homer: One of the greatest American painters, Winslow Homer is best known for
his watercolors and oil paintings of the sea. These paintings often have great dramatic effect
because of the way they show man's powerlessness in the face of the unfeeling and
mysterious forces of nature.
Joseph Pulitzer: Joseph Pulitzer was a large newspaper publisher. In the newspaper
circulation wars of the 1890s, publisher Joseph Pulitzer was one of the leading combatants.
His chief opponent was William Randolph Hearst. The two used every tactic, including
sensational yellow journalism, to encourage people to buy their papers.
William Randolph Hearst: Through dishonest and exaggerated reporting, William Randolph
Hearst's newspapers whipped up public sentiment against Spain, actually helping to cause the
Spanish-American War. Hearst was quite willing to take credit for this, as his New York City
newspaper testified in an 1898 headline: "How Do You Like the Journal’s War?"
The Emergence Of Modern Woman
The new urban environment fostered the growth of feminism. As millions of women began to
work outside the home, they saw themselves in a new light, and began to demand certain
rights. Many women asserted their independence by participating in social reform
movements. Along with their male counterparts, they crusaded for pressing reforms, such
abolition and prohibition.
Susan B. Anthony: For more than half a century Susan B. Anthony fought for women's
suffrage. She traveled from county to county in New York and other states making speeches
and organizing clubs for women's rights. She pleaded her cause with every president from
Abraham Lincoln to Theodore Roosevelt.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A pioneer in the modern quest for women's rights, Stanton helped
to organize a political movement that demanded voting rights for women. She was a
prominent leader in the campaign for what became the 19th Amendment to the United States
Constitution which guaranteed female suffrage.
Carrie Chapman Catt: When Susan B. Anthony retired in 1900 from the NAWSA, she
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chose Carrie Chapman Catt to take her place. Though Catt was forced to resign in 1904 due to
her husbands illness, she remained active in NAWSA and in 1915 became its president. After
this, Catt continued to play a large role in the fight for Women's rights.
Alice Paul: Alice Paul was a U.S. woman suffragist who was born in Moorestown, N.J. She
was imprisoned three times in England and three times in the U.S. for activities in woman
suffrage movement. She led the Congressional Union for Women's Suffrage, later called the
National Woman's party, in lobbying for the right to vote during World War I.
Women’s Christian Temperance Union: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union
(WCTU) was founded in 1874. Partly through their efforts, six states adopted Prohibition by
1890. It became the nation’s first mass organization of women. Its activities included welfare
work, prison reform, labor arbitration and public health.
Francis Willard: In 1874 a temperance crusade swept the United States. A young lecturer
and educator, Frances Willard, joined the movement, became famous for building the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). She soon became the president of the newly
formed union. Willard stressed religion and morality in her work.
Carry A. Nation: A vehement foe of alcoholic beverages, Carry A. Nation would appear at a
saloon, berate the customers, and proceed to damage as much of the place as she could with
her hatchet. She was the scourge of tavern owners and drinkers alike in Kansas, as well as in
many other states.
Clara Barton: Single-handedly, she organized supply depots to serve Civil War soldiers. For
four years after the war, she headed the search for missing soldiers. In 1872 she campaigned
to organize a branch of the Red Cross in the United States. She succeeded in 1881. For 23
years she directed Red Cross work in every great disaster.
Colleges admitting women: By the end of the 19th century the number of women students
had increased greatly. Higher education was broadened by the rise of women's colleges and
the admission of women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth of
resident college students were women. By 1900 this had increased to more than one third.
Bicycling emerges as a hobby for women: Constraints on women were loosened toward the
end of the nineteenth century when bicycling swept the U.S. Fearful of waning vitality,
middle and upper-class women turned to bicycle riding as a source of exercise, recreation, and
a way to escape the restrictive Victorian attitudes towards female physical activity.
Divorce rate: By the turn of the twentieth century divorce rate in the United States had
started to steadily grow. This was due to more opportunities for women which made them less
economically dependent on their husbands. An increased number of people living in the cities
also contributed to the fact that cities had higher divorce rates than rural areas.
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The Frontier West
As America expanded, many Americans desired to move westward and cultivate new lands.
Federal government policies intended to facilitate the move westward, but it was often at the
expense of the Native Americans who already occupied the land. As Americans continued to
move the frontier farther and farther west, America expanded across the continent.
Great American Desert: For years, the geography of the U.S. was unknown to most
Americans. Their perceptions of western regions were drawn from descriptions left by early
travelers. Maps published prior to the Civil War often called the Great Plains area the "Great
American Desert." It was a region deemed unfit for settlement.
Homestead Act, 1862: This act cut up Western public lands into many small holdings for the
free farmers. It was originally started by Andrew Johnson as the first homestead bill but met
strong opposition by Southern Representatives and therefore could not be passed until the
secession of the Southern States during the Civil War.
Barbed wire, Joseph Glidden: Barbed wire was invented and patented by Joseph Glidden in
1874 and had a major impact on the cattle industry of the Western U.S. Accustomed to
allowing their cattle to roam the open range, many farmers objected to barbed wire. Others
used it to fence in land or cattle that did not belong to them.
Indian Appropriations Act, 1871: By this act Congress decided that Indian tribes were no
longer recognized as sovereign powers with whom treaties must be made. Existing treaties,
though, were still to be considered valid, but violations continued to occur. This lead to many
conflicts, including that between the Sioux and the U.S. at Little Big Horn.
Plains Indians: Great Plains tribes began attacking wagon trains carrying settlers during the
1850s. They had been angered by settlers who drove away the buffalo herds they depended on
for food, clothing, and shelter. When war would break out, the Indians would either be
defeated and transported, or a treaty would be made in which they lost part of their lands.
Chivington Massacre: The United States Army, led by Colonel John M. Chivington,
attacked and massacred the Cheyenne Indians that were settled along Sand Creek, Colorado in
1864. At the time, the Cheyenne were being led by Chief Black Kettle, and were attacked
despite a previous agreement made with the governor.
Battle of Little Big Horn: The Sioux refused to sell the land to the government in 1875, and
refused to leave the area to inhabit reservations. When the Sioux refused, the army under
Lieut. Col. Custer, was sent to enforce the order.In this battle the main body of Indians, under
Sioux leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, wiped out General Custer's men in 1876.
Chief Joseph: When he became chief of the Nez Perce Indian tribe in the American
Northwest in 1871, Joseph led his people in an unsuccessful resistance to white settlers who
were confiscating land. The tribe was ordered to move. Joseph agreed, but when three of his
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tribe killed a group of settlers, he attempted to escape to Canada with his followers.
Ghost Dance Movement: As the Sioux population dwindled as a result of the federal
government policies, they turned to the Ghost Dance to restore their original dominance on
the Plains. Wearing the Ghost Shirts, they engaged in ritual dances that they believed would
protect them from harm. The ritual allowed them to reaffirm their culture amidst the chaos.
Battle of Wounded Knee: Convinced that Sitting Bull was going to lead an uprising, the
United States Army massacred more than 200 Indians at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on
Dec. 29, 1890. After the incident, the Ghost Dance movement which had been recently
revived by Indians rapidly died out. This event ended the conquest of the American Indian.
Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor: This book, by Jackson, was a discourse
concerning the plight of American Indians published in 1881. She gathered information
regarding American Indians and their lives while serving on a federal commission
investigating the treatment of Indians. Jackson also wrote Ramona concerning the same topic.
 DAWES
SEVERALTY ACT, 1887: It was proposed by Henry L. Dawes, and was passed
in 1887. It was designed to reform what well-meaning but ignorant whites perceived to be the
weaknesses of Indian life-- the lack of private property, the absence of a Christian based
religion, the nomadic traditions of the Indians, and the general instability in their way of life -by turning Indians into farmers. The main point of the law was to emphasize treating Indians
as individuals as opposed to members in a tribe, or severalty.
 FREDERICK JACKSON
TURNER, FRONTIER THESIS: In his analysis of how the
frontier, moving from east to west, shaped the American character and institutions, Turner
decisively rejected the then common belief that the European background had been primarily
responsible for the characteristics of the United States. He also justified overseas economic
expansion as a means to secure political power at a time when America began focusing on
expanding its influence throughout the world.
Safety Valve Thesis: This assertion stated that as immigrants came to the eastern United
States during the late nineteenth century and "polluted" American culture, citizens of the U.S.
would have the West as a "safety valve" to which they could go in order to revitalize their
pure Americanism.
Comstock Lode: One of the richest silver mines in the United States was discovered in 1859
at the Comstock Lode in Nevada. This discovery contributed to the speed by which Virginia
City, Nevada was built. An influx of settlers came to Nevada, and Nevada granted statehood
in 1864.
Reform Populism In The 1890s
Populism emerged in the 19th century in order to reform the system from within. Creating the
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Populist Party with James Weaver as their presidential candidate, the Populists strove to
bring their reforms into the political limelight. Although they did not succeed in electing their
candidate to the presidency, many of their reforms were later enacted.
 GRANGER
MOVEMENT: During the decade of the 1870s, U.S. farmers were beset with
problems of high costs, debts, and small profits. the farmers made their grievances known
through the Granger Movement. Membership peaked in the mid-1870s. There was little the
farmers could do concerning prices. Only in 1877 did the Supreme Court rule that states could
regulate businesses of a public nature. To counteract unjust business practices, the farmers
were urged to start cooperatives such as grain elevators, creameries, and stores.
Granger Laws: The Grangers in various states lobbied state legislatures in 1874 to pass
maximum rate laws for freight shipment. The railroads appealed to the Supreme Court to
declare the "Granger laws" unconstitutional. Instead, the Court ruled against the railroad’s
objections in Munn v. Illinois.
Farmers’ Alliance: This alliance was a political organization created to help fight railroad
abuses and to lower interest rates. It called for government regulation of the economy in order
to redress their greivanes. It was founded in New York in 1873, and consisted of the
Northwest Farmers' Alliance in the north and the National Farmers' Alliance and Independent
Union in the south. They failed to unite, however, and in 1892 gave way to the Populist party.
 POPULIST
PARTY PLATFORM, OMAHA PLATFORM, 1892: The Populist party, or
people's party, was a party that represented the "common man." It was created towards the
end of the nineteenth century. Some of their goals included creating postal savings banks,
enacting immigration restriction, setting a graduated income tax and limiting the presidency to
a single six-year term. The Populist platform represented views of farmers in the West. The
Omaha platform of 1892 nominated James Weaver of Iowa for president.
"Crime of 1873": This is the term given to a federal law of 1873, which adopted the gold
standard over the silver standard. This dropped silver coinage in favor of gold coinage, by
advocating free silver. This "Crime of 1873" was one of the motivating forces behind the
beginning of the Free Silver movement.
Bland-Allison Act: This act was passed over the presidential veto in 1878 and required the
secretary of the treasury to buy at least 2 million dollars of silver each month and coin it into
dollars. Because of its weight and bulk and the fact that it had not been coined since 1806,
most of the silver did not circulate; rather, remained in the treasury.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act: This act forced the treasury to buy 4.5 million ounces of
silver each month.. However, the price of silver did not rise and precious gold was being
drained away from the treasury while cheap silver piled up. This act, therefore, helped to
precipitate the panic of 1893, and it caused a decrease in foreign investments in the U.S.
economy.
Bimetallism: Bimetallism is the use of both silver and gold as the basis of an economy as
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opposed to the use of one or the other or none. During the gold and free silver campaigns of
the early 1900s, the Republicans believed in a money system based on the single gold
standard, while the democrats believed in bimetallism.
"Coin" Harvey: The silverites’ most influential piece of propaganda was William H.
Harvey's Coin’s Financial School, published in 1894. It explained the monetary issue in
simplified partisan terms, denounced "the conspiracy of the Goldbugs," and insisted that the
free coinage of silver would eliminate the debt.
Free silver: This was a chiefly unsuccessful campaign in the late 19th-century U.S. for the
unlimited coinage of silver. Major supporters of this movement were owners of silver mines,
farmers, and debtors, for whom silver production would be economically favorable. William
Jennings Bryan led the democratic party to support free silver during the 1890s.
16 to 1: During the Panic of 1873 the world market ratio of silver to gold fell below the ratio
of 16:1 for the first time in world history. This coincided with the opening of rich silver mines
in the Western united States and also with post-Civil War deflation. It resulted in the
movement in favor of free silver and bimetallism of the populists
Depression of 1893: This panic swept the country two months after the second inauguration
of President Grover Cleveland. Banks closed their doors, railroads went bankrupt, and farm
mortgages were foreclosed. People hoarded gold, and the treasury’s gold reserve was
depleting. A notable cause was the struggle between the free silver and gold advocates.
Coxey's Army, 1894: This was actually a band of unemployed people who marched to
Washington DC during the depression of 1894 under the leadership of Jacob S. Coxey, a
quarry operator. They urged the enactment of laws which would provide money without
interest for public improvements, which would create work for the unemployed.
Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1893: In 1893 President Grover Cleveland,
who stood for the gold standard, succeeded in having the Sherman Silver Purchase Act
repealed over the strong objections of William Jennings Bryan. However, little gold was in
the treasury; thus, the panic of 1893 could not be avoided and the crisis remained until 1896.
Ocala Demands, 1890: These demands were essentially a platform of the Democratic/
Populist party for the 1892 election created at a gathering in Ocala, Florida in 1890. Northern
leaders generally favored a third party candidate, while Southerners feared that it would
weaken the southern Democratic Party.
Tom Watson: An U.S. journalist, legislator, and a southern alliance leader from Georgia, he
urged southern farmers to recognize their common plight and act together. He was also the
Populist party’s presidential candidate in 1904 and 1908, served as a senator from 1921 to
1922, and edited The Weekly Jeffersonian, a populist magazine.
James B. Weaver: An United States legislator and prominent figure during the Populist
movement, he served as a congressman from 1879 to 1781 and 1885 to 1889. He was the
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presidential candidate of the Greenback and People’s parties in 1892. Weaver was also a
former civil war general.
"Pitchfork" Ben Tillman: An U.S. Populist party leader born in South Carolina, he was
elected governor of South Carolina in 1890 and 1892, and he served on the U.S. Senate from
1894 to 1912. Very progressively minded, Tillman promoted many reform programs in South
Carolina, including better public education.
Mary Ellen Lease: She was a fiery lawyer from Wichita, Kansas who was very active in the
movements for agrarian and labor reform. She burst out on to the scene in the 1890's as a
spellbinding Southern alliance orator vehemently crying that the farmers needed to "raise less
corn and more hell."
"Sockless" Jerry Simpson: He was an intelligent rancher from Kansas who lost his stock in
the hard winter of 1886 to 1887, and he became a major Southern Alliance leader. When he
mentioned the expensive silk stockings of a conservative politician and remarked that he
could afford no such fineries a hostile newspaper editor named him "Sockless Jerry."
Ignatius Donnelly: A noted United States writer and a champion of the Populist Party,
Donnelly served as an U.S. Congressman from Minnesota from 1863 to 1869. He also wrote
Great Cryptogram in an attempt to prove that Francis Bacon wrote William Shakespeare's
works.
 WILLIAM JENNINGS
BRYAN: Despite the fact that he was defeated three times for the
presidency of the United States, William Jennings Bryan, the principal figure of the Populist
party, molded public opinion as few leaders have done. A surprise to the public, he polled
many votes during the 1896 election, which may have been a direct result of his "Cross of
Gold Speech." For many years he was the leader of the Democratic party, and it was his
influence that won the Democratic presidential nomination for Wilson in 1912.
"Cross of Gold Speech": William Jennings Bryan won the national Democratic convention's
nomination for the presidency in 1896 through a vigorous appeal for free coinage of silver
known as the "Cross of Gold" speech. Turning to those who wanted only gold as the monetary
standard, he exclaimed: "You shall not crucify mankind upon this cross of gold." As a
Populist, he did not support the gold standard since it would deflate the currency, which
would make it more difficult for citizens to repay debts.
 ELECTION
OF 1896, CANDIDATES, ISSUES: The presidential candidates were the
Republican William McKinley from Pennsylvania, and the Democrat William J. Bryan. The
Populists also supported Bryan for the presidency, but chose Tom Watson for the vice
presidency. The Republicans believed in the gold standard, while the Democrats believed in
bimetallism and the unlimited coinage of silver. McKinley won the election. The Populism
collapsed after 1896, but Progressivism emerged in its wake.
Marcus Hanna: He was an industrialist who became convinced that the welfare of industry,
and therefore the nation, was bound by the fortunes of the Republican party. To further his
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goals he waged the most expensive political campaign the nation had ever seen to get William
McKinley elected president in 1896. He also served in the Senate.
Overview of 1900-1920
Imperialism
As the 19th century came to a close, many voices cried for American expansionism to match
the imperialistic ambitions of Europe and Japan. The dream for global destiny was justified
by such logic as the expansion of overseas markets, desire for a stronger navy, and the
spreading of Christianity to uncivilized peoples around the globe. Eventually, this
expansionism translated into conflict, climaxing in 1898 with the Spanish-American War.
James G. Blaine, Pan-Americanism: As Secretary of State, Blaine fostered closer U.S.Latin American relations and brought about the first Pan-American Congress in order to forge
commercial, social, economic, military, and political cooperation among the 21 republics of
North, Central, and South America.
Venezuelan boundary dispute: Venezuela had a dispute over its boundary with the British
Colony of Guiana. In 1895, while the British refused to resolve the issue, United States
Secretary of State Richard Olney sent a message to London declaring that the US would be
"practically sovereign on this content."
Bering Sea seal controversy: When the US purchased Alaska in 1867, it included some
small Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea. Congress leased the island to a US company which
killed seals with the understanding that they would not kill more than 10,000 male seals per
year. This led to the regulation of pelagic sealing in 1893.
"Yellow journalism": Two rival newspapers in New York City, William Randolph Hearst’s
Journal, and Joseph Pulitzer’s World, sensationalized editorializing on the issues to increase
circulation. One of Hearst’s gimmicks was "The Yellow Kid," which gave the name of
Yellow Journalism to this tactic.
Josiah Strong, Our Country: Reverend Josiah Strong wrote the book Our Country: Its
Possible Future and Present Crisis expressing his fears of the inability of relief organizations
to cope with the explosive growth of the urban poor in the 1870’s and 1880’s.
•Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) helped
create and develop the expansionist movement. Mahan, former head of the Navy War College
at Newport, Rhode Island wanted to expand United States Navy to build an isthmusian canal,
and to establish strategic colonies as cooling stations, and to protect US political and
economic interests.
Samoa, Pago Pago: America’s Navy wanted to establish a port in the Samoan Islands, so
their ships could refuel in the island of Pago Pago. This was an example of the United States
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Navy’s expansion efforts in the pacific. Their goal was to obtain more ports so they could
have more ships out on the ocean to control the seas.
Virginius: In 1873 a Spanish gunboat captured the Virginius, a ship fraudulently flying the
American flag, in Cuba. Secretary of State Fish and the Spanish minister came together in
Washington and signed a protocol bringing the end to the Virginius affairs. Spain paid the US
$80,000.
de Lôme letter: On February 8, 1898, Hearst’s Journal published a private letter written by
Spanish minister to the United States Depuy de Lôme regarding his reservations for Cuban
independence and disparaging President McKinley. Many Americans would have agreed, but
they resented hearing it from a Spanish diplomat.
Maine explodes: When an explosion rocked the Maine in Havana harbor on February 15,
1898, killing 266 American crewmen, irritation turned to outrage. A review of the evidence
later concluded that a ship-board ammunition explosion caused the blast. Still, a navy inquiry
blamed the blast on a "Spanish mine."
•Teller Amendment: The U.S. had been motivated o war in part by the desire to aid the
Cubans in their attempt to liberate themselves from the colonial rule of Spain. To this end the
Teller Ammendment was added to the Declaration of War. It speciffically prohibited the
annexation of Cuba, as a cause of the war.
 SPANISH-AMERICAN
WAR: The Spanish-American War lasted just three months with
only a few days of actual combat. Action started on May 1, 1898, when George Dewey’s fleet
steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines and seized or destroyed all ten Spanish ships
anchored there. The war ended after Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera attempted to break
through American forces losing 474 men. The Filipinos celebrated their freedom from four
hundred years of Spanish rule on July 4,1898.
Assistant Secretary of Navy Theodore Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt was appointed as
Assistant Secretary of the Navy by President William McKinley in 1897. Roosevelt was an
impatient disciple in the Spanish-American War, acting largely on his own. In 1898,
Roosevelt resigned to become second in command of the Rough Riders.
Commodore Dewey, Manila Bay: The first action of the Spanish-American War came in
1898 when Commodore George Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines.
This fleet destroyed and captured all ten Spanish ships that were assigned in Manila Bay. One
American and 381 Spanish men died in the attempt.
Cleveland and Hawaii: In 1887 the United States gained the right to establish a naval port in
Pearl Harbor. President Grover Cleveland was troubled with the crisis in Hawaii since
Hawaiians claimed to want annexation. However, once their queen was overthrown,
Hawaiians were uncertain if they wanted annexation at all.
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Queen Liluokalani: Liluokalani was the Queen of Hawaii who did not like Americans since
they built their port in Pearl Harbor. Queen Liluokalani was overthrown when Hawaii’s sugar
prices dropped 40% and planters wanted the independent Republic of Hawaii.
Annexation of Hawaii: In 1890 under the McKinley Tariff, domestic sugar growers ended
the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar. After Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40% and Queen
Liluokalani was overthrown, the Hawaiians decided to request United States annexation.
Rough Riders, San Juan Hill: The battle of San Juan Hill was fought on July 1, 1898 during
the American advance on Santiago during the Spanish-American War. A division including
the Rough Riders, under the command of General Kent, captured the hill, placing the
American army on high ground overlooking Santiago.
Treaty of Paris, 1898: The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War and developed
an American empire overseas. In the treaty, Spain agreed to abandon Cuba and exchange
Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to America for $20 million. The treaty gave the United
States a new imperialistic reputation.
American Anti-Imperialist League: The critics of imperialism were many and influential.
Forming the Anti-Imperialist League, they believed that every country captured by the U.S.
had the same rights under the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence.
Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico: By the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1898, Spain
recognized Cuba’s independence and ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific
Island of Guam to the United States in exchange for $20 million. As 1899 dawned Americans
possessed an island empire from the Caribbean to the Pacific.
Walter Reed: In 1900 Walter Reed was appointed to the Yellow Fever Commission as a
result of his investigation of the disease. After being sent to Cuba to find out more about
Yellow Fever, he discovered that the disease was carried by a mosquito. He later became a
curator at Army Medical Museum and a professor at Army Medical College.
Insular Cases: The decisions regarding whether the Constitution applies to Puerto Rico and
the Philippines are known as the Insular Cases. They ruled that the residents are inhabitants
but not citizens of the United States. Because of this ruling, these countries were not honored
by the Constitution and were treated as colonies.
 Platt
Amendment: Senator Orville Platt, at the request of the War department, made a
revised bill to remove some of the restrictions stated in the Teller Amendment. The Platt
Amendment stated that the United States would withdraw from Cuba if they did not sign a
treaty with any other foreign power. It also gave the United States the right to interfere with
Cuba if they believed that it was not a fit enough country to take care of itself. Also, they
established the right to hold a naval base in Cuba.
Protectorate: When a more powerful state controls the economy, foreign affairs, or police
power of another state, it is considered a protectorate. In the case of the United States, Cuba
was a protectorate as a result of the Platt Amendment. Other examples might include
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Nicuaragua, the Dominican Republic, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands.
 Aguinaldo,
Philippine insurrection: In 1896 Emilio Aguinaldo started a Filipino
movement for independence to get out of Spain’s control. When Spain surrendered,
Aguinaldo drew up a constitution and proclaimed the Philippines’s independence. When the
Treaty of Paris gave the United States power over the Philippines, Aguinaldo became angry
and tried to fight. He soon realized that he would lose and gave up.
Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes: John Hay’s Open Door Notes was a policy
that explained the importance of American commercial influence on foreign policies. The
Open Door Notes stated that the pre-thought "informal empire" was correct as opposed to
overseas colonies being favored by imperial power.
Boxer Rebellion: The Boxers, a secret group of Chinese men known as I Ho Ch’uan,
opposed Christianity in their country. Numbering 140,000, the Boxers killed thousands of
foreigners as well as Chinese suspected of being Christian. British, American, Russian,
Japanese and French soldiers were sent to China to end the "Boxer Rebellion."
Extraterritoriality: Extraterritoriality is a principle in international law that allows certain
visiting foreign citizens or their property to be exempt from the laws of a host nation. Foreign
heads of states traveling abroad and diplomats representing their home countries are examples
of people benefiting from extraterritoriality.
Most favored nation clause: The most favored nation clause is a commercial treaty that
regulates special low tariffs on goods imported to the United States. All countries awarded the
Special Nation Status must be treated equally. Duties for the same group of goods should be
the same low regardless from which country signatory of the status they are imported.
Roosevelt & Progressivism
Many intellectuals increasingly challenged the foundations of the social order. Voices of
reform thundered over the nation calling for democratic government, better cities, and the
curbing of corporate power. This movement, labeled progressivism, found its first national
leader in Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt actively pursued many of his goals: labor mediation,
consumer protection, conservation, business virtue, and activism abroad. His successor, Taft,
continued in Roosevelt’s aims but lacked his political genius.
Election of 1900: candidates and issues: William McKinley, the Republican candidate, beat
William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic candidate, for President. The Republican campaign
theme of prosperity, summed up in the slogan "A Full Dinner Pail," easily won him a second
term. McKinley had 284 electoral votes where as Bryan had 115.
 Roosevelt’s
Big Stick diplomacy: One of Roosevelt’s most famous statements was "speak
softly and carry a big stick." An example of his meaning in this statement was when Canada
wanted the Alaskan land that America owned. They were fighting over the boundaries
because of gold found in the area. Roosevelt simply stated that if the boundaries would
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change, there would be serious consequences. Because of his problem solving method,
Roosevelt was known to use "Big Stick" diplomacy.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty: The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 stated that both the United
States and Britain promised not to claim control over any canal built between the oceans that
separated their countries. This included the Panama Canal which America later took over
anyway.
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty: In 1901, the United States planned to construct the Panama Canal.
This meant they would be in need of a new treaty. Secretary of State John Hay and British
Ambassador Sir Julian Pauncefote agreed on a new treaty that would drop England’s claim on
the canal.
Panama Revolution: Financed by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, chief agent of the New Panama
Canal Company, the Panama Revolution was a planned revolt by Panamanians against
Colombian occupation of the Isthmus of Panama. The United States did not encourage the
revolution, but it did make clear that it would not allow it to fail.
 The Panama
Canal: When a French company supposed to build a canal across the Isthmus
of Panama went bankrupt, it offered to sell its assets to the United States. The Hay-Herrán
agreement, which would have granted the US a ninety-nine-year lease on a strip of land for
canal construction, was rejected by the Colombian senate. Determined to have a canal,
Roosevelt found a collaborator in Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who organized a "revolution."
After Panama was recognized, the canal building commenced.
Virgin Islands purchased: Denmark, in 1917, sold to the United States its West Indian
territories for $25 million, including the Virgin Islands. These islands, located at the
perimeters of the Caribbean, were of great military importance during the Second World War.
They mainly served to protect the US mainland as well as the Panama Canal.
Goethals and Gorgas: George Goethel was a civil engineer who directed a completion of the
Panama Canal. William Gorgas helped to make it possible to construct Panama Canal by
killing mosquitoes carrying yellow fever and malaria. Theodore Roosevelt later appointed
these men important positions in The Panama Canal Zone.
Venezuela Crisis, 1902: In 1902 the country's debts became so large that European creditor
nations blockaded Venezuela; the United States intervened to obtain arbitration of the dispute.
Castro's departure for Europe in 1908 opened the way for his deputy, Juan Vicente Gomez, to
seize power.
Drago Doctrine: Luis Maria Drago was an Argentine diplomat who formulated a supplement
to the Monroe Doctrine known as the Drago Doctrine. In 1902, Great Britain, Germany, and
Italy imposed a joint naval blockade on Venezuela in order to coerce that country into paying
its debts.
 Roosevelt
Corollary: In 1904, Roosevelt created the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe
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Doctrine. This doctrine justified U.S. intervention in the affairs of Latin American nations if
their weakness or wrongdoing warranted such action. An example of this interference was the
American intervention in Haiti when it was not wanted. The document was primarily a pass
for the US to interfere with other countries’ business when it was not wanted nor needed.
U.S. intervention in Haiti: In 1915, President Woodrow Wilson sent the United States
Marines into Haiti. The purpose was to calm the anarchy that the US claimed existed in the
country. In 1916, Congress ratified a treaty that would allow the US ten years of control over
Haiti to maintain order and give political and economic assistance.
Dominican Republic: In 1915, after bloody upheavals in Haiti and the Dominican Republic,
Wilson ordered the marines. A Haitian constitution favorable to U.S. commercial interests
was ratified in 1918. The marines remained in the Dominican Republic until 1924, and in
Haiti until 1934.
Revolution in Nicaragua: In 1911 a US-supported revolution in Nicaragua brought to power
Adolfo Díaz, an officer of the American-owned Nicaraguan mining property. American
bankers loaned the Díaz government $15 million in exchange for control of most of
Nicaragua. When a revolt broke out, Roosevelt ordered in the marines.
Russo-Japanese War, Treaty of Portsmouth: The Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) was the
first conflict in which an Asian power defeated a European country. Fighting began when the
Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur after Russia, which had occupied
Manchuria during the Boxer Uprising in China, refused to withdraw its troops.
San Francisco School Board Incident: American relations with Japan suffered when the San
Francisco school board, in 1906, ordered all Asian children to attend segregated schools.
Summoning the school-board members to Washington, Roosevelt persuaded them to reverse
this discriminatory policy.
Elihu Root: As secretary of war in the cabinets of William McKinley and Theodore
Roosevelt, Root reorganized the army and established the Army War College. As Roosevelt's
secretary of state from 1905 to 1909, he reformed the consular service, improving US
relations with Latin America, and sponsoring a series of arbitration treaties.
Taft-Katsura Memo: By the Taft-Katsura Memo of 1905, the United States and Japan
pledged to maintain the Open Door principles in China. Japan recognized American control
over the Philippines and the United States granted a Japanese protectorate over Korea.
 Gentleman’s
Agreement: In the 1890’s, workers feared their jobs would be taken by the
Japanese immigrants and they wanted a law preventing any more immigrants to move to the
United States. In 1907 Japan proposed the Gentlemen’s Agreement which promised that they
would halt the unrestricted immigration if President Roosevelt promised to discourage any
laws being made that would restrict Japanese immigration to the US.
Great White Fleet: This was a naval fleet that went on a voyage around the world. After 15
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months, when the fleet returned, President Roosevelt met all the crew members personally.
The two objects of this voyage were being friendly with the nation’s allies but also to show
other nations the naval power of the United States.
Lodge Corollary: When a Japanese syndicate moved to purchase a large tract of land in
Mexico’s Lower California, Senator Lodge introduced a resolution to block the Japanese
investment. The Corollary went further to exclude non-European powers from the Western
Hemisphere under the Monroe Doctrine.
Root-Takahira Agreement: In 1908, Japan and the United States signed the Root-Takahira
Agreement. Through this document the two nations promised not to seek territorial gain in the
Pacific. These two nations also promised to honor an open door policy in China.
Lansing-Ishii Agreement, 1917: Robert Lansing, Secretary of State under President Wilson,
negotiated the Lansing-Ishii agreement on November 2, 1917 with Japan, whereby the United
States recognized Japan's special interests in China. However, the US still felt they had a right
to China.
Jones Act, 1916 (Philippines): In 1916, Congress passed the Jones Act which provided for a
government for the Philippines and committed the United States to granting Filipino
independence. The government created was based on the Constitutional model. In 1934, a bill
was finally passed to actually grant the Filipinos their independence.
Jones Act, 1917 (Puerto Rico): The Jones Act of 1917 was passed by the United States to
regulate trade in Puerto Rico. It established the Sea Land service to prevent carriers and
shippers from using unfair pricing practices. Its establishment encouraged parallel pricing for
all carriers.
Mexican Revolution, Díaz, Huerta, Carranza: Rebels, led by Francisco Madero in 1911,
overthrew Porfirio Díaz. In 1913, Madero was overthrown by a military regime led by
Victoriano Huerta. The US refused to recognize Huerta’s government because it had come to
power violently. Eventually, this led to Mexican-American hostilities.
Mexican migration to the U.S.: In the period from 1877 to 1910 economic conditions were
worsening in Mexico. By 1914 more than 100,000 Mexicans had migrated to the United
States. These new immigrants found mainly in railroad industries and agriculture where jobs
were vacated by the war. They filled partly the US need for labor during war.
"watchful waiting": "Watchful waiting" refers to Wilson’s policy towards the events
unfolding in Europe. In effect, it was America’s policy of neutrality throughout most of the
First World War. This policy was taken although it was clear that the United States had
obvious ties to Britain and would likely favor it.
ABC Powers: The ABC powers consisted of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. In 1914, the ABC
powers called a conference to prevent a war between the United States and Mexico caused by
the Veracruz Incident. When president Carranza rejected the proposal for a new Mexican
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government, the conference came to an end.
Pancho Villa, General Pershing: During the political turmoil of Mexico in 1916, bandit
Pancho Villa murdered 16 Americans, then burned down Columbus in New Mexico. With the
U.S. outraged, General John J. Pershing was sent with 12,000 troops to catch Villa with no
avail. Massive US response angered some Mexicans and led to hostilities.
Archangel expedition: In 1918, Allied forces landed in the port of Archangel, Russia to
defend Allied military stockpiles from German attack. Allied forces later became antiBolshevik and seized the port. Allies favored the Whites during the period of Russia’s civil
war. United States involvement in this campaign compromised American neutrality.
Democracy, efficiency, pragmatism: Democracy is a form of government in which a
substantial proportion of the citizenry directly or indirectly participates in ruling the state.
Pragmatism is a philosophical movement, developed in the United States, which holds that
both the meaning and the truth of any idea is a function of its practical outcome.
Wright Brothers, Kitty Hawk: Wilbur and Orville Wright created the modern field of
aeronautics. After over 200 calculations and tests at Kitty Hawk they built the first practical
airplane, marking the beginning of the individual progressive spirit. They were highly
honored internationally and a monument to them was built at Kitty Hawk.
"Muckrakers": Those American writers who early in the 20th century wrote both fiction and
nonfiction to expose corruption in business and politics were called the muckrakers.
Muckraker was a term first used by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906. They were given
this name because of their tendency to "spread the muck around."
Henry Demarest Lloyd, Wealth Against Commonwealth: A leading opponent of business
monopolies, Henry Demarest Lloyd was one of the pioneer muckrakers of the late 19th
century. He developed his antimonopoly theme as financial writer and editor at the Chicago
Tribune.
Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: Thorstein Veblen is best known for his
book The Theory of The Leisure Class (1899). Veblen’s book is a classic of social theory that
introduced the concept of "conspicuous consumption." Veblen continued to write other books
dealing with the same general theories.
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: A journalist, photographer, and reformer, Jacob
August Riis publicized the plight of immigrants in New York City slum tenements. His
photographs, articles, and books focused on the squalid living conditions of the city's poor and
spurred legislation to improve those conditions.
Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities: An eminent American reformer and journalist,
Joseph Lincoln Steffens, was a leader of the muckrakers. He wrote a series of articles that
documented corruption in American cities, asserting that some cities were run by political
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bosses who remained in power with the help of powerful businessmen.
Frank Norris, The Octopus: The U.S. novelist Frank Norris was a noted pioneer of
naturalism in literature. His novels portray the demoralizing effects of modern technology on
human fate. His best-known works, The Octopus (1901) and The Pit (1903), attacked the
railroad and wheat industries in the United States.
Ida Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company: As a Pennsylvania journalist, editor, and
biographer, Tarbell became famous as a muckraker through her well-documented articles on
political and corporate corruption in McClure's Magazine and American Magazine.
David Graham Phillips, The Treason of the Senate: Author of many popular problem
novels of the early 20th century, Phillips was also a prominent journalist. His "Treason of the
Senate" series of articles (1906) in Cosmopolitan magazine were an important contribution to
the muckraking movement in American journalism.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Woman and Economics: Gilman was a leading American
feminist writer known for Woman and Economics (1898), a feminist classic she wrote. It
attacked the commonly accepted idea that women should be economically dependent on men
while suggesting alternatives such as cooperative kitchens and day-care programs.
John Dewey, The School and Society, "progressive education," "learn by doing":
Dewey’s ideas of progressive education, described in The School and Society, greatly affected
educational techniques. He founded the Laboratory School, a school in which students learned
of life by actively doing things rather than following a strict curriculum.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Supreme Court: Holmes was a professor of law at Harvard
who resigned to become a member of the Supreme Court. As a jurist he interpreted the
Constitution in a very liberal manner, earning him the name "the Great Dissenter" among his
colleagues.
Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts: The Boy and Girl Scouts, formed to educate the youth of America,
heavily embody Dewey’s concept of "learn by doing." They focused on teaching children of
their proper patriotic role in society and working to broaden the horizons of their members
though a number of varied activities.
Edward Ross: Ross wrote one of the first books dealing with social psychology. He analyzed
the transmission of social behavior through society by its transmission from one person to
another. His ideas conflicted with McDougall’s, another psychologist who believed that the
process of evolution created instinctive sociological behavior.
Richard Ely: Ely, a progressive economist, was an economics research professor at
Northwestern University. He founded the American Economic Association in 1899 and was
the first economist to suggest that government interference in regulation of the national
economic was not harmful but even sometimes helpful.
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Initiative, referendum, recall: These were three types of progressive electoral reforms
passed by some western states. Initiative allowed voters to enact laws directly. The
referendum allowed voters to express their opinions of specific issues. Through recall voters
were able to directly remove public officials from office.
Direct primary: The direct primary was another progressive municipal reform. It originated
in Wisconsin (1903) and rapidly spread throughout the rest of the United States. It provided
that the members, not the leadership, of each party nominate the party’s nominees for public
office.
Australian ballot (secret ballot): Many electoral reforms gave voters greater control over the
government, especially at the ballot boxes where voters could be easily swayed. By 1910 all
states had replaced the corrupt system of preprinted ballots with a new secret ballot, begun in
Australia, which was much more difficult to rig.
Triangle Shirtwaist Co. fire: An accidental fire at the Traingle Shirtwaist Company killed
141 workers. It prodded the concerns of many progressive reformers since the workers,
locked in the factory and unable to escape, were killed by brutal working conditions. These
concerns raised new questions of human and immigrant rights and of existing labor laws.
International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU): This union of American
needle-trade workers launched drives to improve working conditions, end the practice of
workers paying for their own equipment, and raise working rates. It is remembered for the
militancy of its early organizational drives and its fight against sweatshops.
Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War the laws regulating many
aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in this
league in their fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23 states and in
1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.
Square Deal: Roosevelt, on a speaking tour against the Northern Securities Company, called
for a "square deal." This progressive concept denounced special treatment for the large
capitalists and is the essential element to his trustbusting attitude. This deal embodied the
belief that all corporations must serve the general public good.
Forest Reserve Act, 1891: The Forest Reserve Act, strongly supported by Roosevelt and
Pinchot, created a system of national forests, consisting of approximately 200 million acres,
which were protected from the short-sighted greed Roosevelt saw in many large companies.
Through this act Roosevelt also enlarged Pinchot’s forest staff from 123 to 1,500 people.
Newlands Reclamation Act, 1902: Roosevelt drafted the Newlands Reclamation Act when
he noticed that decades of rapid industrial growth had destroyed much of the limited natural
resources of the land. It insured that all natural resources would be managed by experts.
Funding came from public-land sales and was used to build irrigation projects.
Conservation conference, 1908: As Roosevelt’s conservative trend began to permeate
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through the public mind, he began to create several groups to raise public awareness of nature
and the necessity of conservation. The first meeting was of the White House Conservation
Conference, followed by the National Conservation Commission.
Anthracite coal strike, 1902, George F. Baer: The Anthracite coal strike was the first strike
in which the government became involved but did not side with the management. Roosevelt
instead mediated a series of negotiations between the strikers and the owners over issues of
wages, safety conditions, and union recognition.
Elkins Act, 1903, rebates: The Interstate Commerce Commission was initially created to
regulate the economy for the federal government. It was not originally given enough power to
regulate the monopolized railroad system. The Elkins Act strengthened the ICC by stiffening
penalties against secret railroad rebates to favored shippers.
Hepburn Act, 1906: The Hepburn Act, in conjunction with the Elkins Act, granted the
Interstate Commerce Commission enough power to regulate the economy. It allowed the ICC
to set freight rates and, in an attempt to reduce the corruption in the railroad industry, to
require a uniform system of accounting by regulated transportation companies.
Mann-Elkins Act, 1910: The Mann-Elkins Act further extended the regulatory ability of the
ICC. It allowed them to regulate cable and wireless companies dealing with telephone and
telegraph lines. The ICC was also given greater rate-setting power as well as the ability to
begin court proceedings against companies disputing the new rates.
 "trustbuster": Teddy Roosevelt,
deeply conservative at heart, did not want to destroy the
big corporations that he saw necessary to American life. He did, however, believe that they
must be held to strict moral standards. He earned the "trustbuster" name when he filed suit
against the Northern Securities Company, followed by 43 other cases. He left many of the
larger companies serving the public good alone, but he broke up many other large,
monopolistic companies in the interests of American welfare and economy.
Northern Securities Co. case: This was the first company Roosevelt filed suit against in his
trustbusting stage. It was a large holding company formed by railroad and banking interests.
In 1902 Roosevelt "trustbusted" them by claiming they violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
in holding money against the public good. The company was dissolved.
Meat Inspection Act: The Meat Inspection Act was passed by Roosevelt as a strong response
to Sinclair's book describing the conditions of food as well as wartime scandals in 1898
concerning spoiled canned meats. It created strict sanitary requirements for meat, began a
quality rating system, and provisioned for a federal department to inspect meat.
Immunity of Witness Act: The Immunity of Witness Act, passed in 1906, prevented
corporate officials from pleading immunity in cases concerning their own corporation’s illegal
activities. Previously, many officials used this immunity plea to avoid testifying in any way
concerning their actions.
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W.E.B. DuBois: For more than 50 years W.E.B. DuBois, a black editor, historian, and
sociologist, was a leader of the civil rights movement in the United States. He helped found
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and was its
outstanding spokesman in the first decades of its existence.
Niagara movement: At a meeting in Niagara Falls, Ont., in 1905, W.E.B. DuBois and other
black leaders who shared his views founded the Niagara Movement. Members of the Niagara
group joined with concerned liberal and radical whites to organize the National Association
for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
Springfield Ill riot, 1908: The period of Booker T. Washington represented a period of
increasing anti-black violence. The large anti-black riot in Springfield in 1908 was
representative of the peak of a period of harsh discrimination, white resentment of black
advances, and mass public segregation.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The NAACP
was an organization founded in 1909 by blacks and whites under such leaders as W.E.B.
DuBois to safeguard civil, legal, economic, human, and political rights of black Americans. It
lobbied for legislation, sponsored educational programs, and engaged in protest actions.
The Crisis: The Crisis was the magazine of the NAACP. It generally reflected the views of
the blacks and whites who headed the NAACP. W.E.B. DuBois was editor of The Crisis from
1910 to 1934. He often wrote that Blacks should develop industry and business separate from
the white economy in order prove their non-dependence on white society
Brownsville Incident: Roosevelt, though not as racist a president as those before him, did not
have a perfect record. In 1906 he discharged an entire regiment of blacks accused of rioting in
Brownsville. This unfair and illegal action was later reversed by Congress once all involved
parties had died.
Upton Sinclair, The Jungle: Sinclair was an American writer and reformer who wrote The
Jungle. This book exposed the unsanitary working conditions in the stockyards of Chicago,
eventually leading to an investigation of both working conditions and the conditions of food.
It eventually led to the enactment of the Pure Food Act.
Pure Food and Drug Act: The Pure Food and Drug Act, enacted through the efforts of
Harvey Wiley and Sinclair in 1906, gave consumers protection from dangerous and impure
foods. All products must be clearly labeled and must explain a product which cannot be seen
or judged by a consumer. This act solved problems concerning fraudulently labeled items.
Panic of 1907: Roosevelt’s constant trustbusting of large corporations caused questionable
bank speculations, a conservative gold standard, and strict credit policies, eventually leading
to the Panic of 1907. This panic brought the need for banking reform to the forefront of
political activity, finally culminating in the Federal Reserve Act.
Election of 1908: candidates, issues: The Republican platform consisted of Taft and
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Sherman. They ran for continued anti-trust enforcement, conservation, and increased
international trade. William Jennings Bryan ran for the Democratic Party on a similar antitrust platform. The Socialist Party was represented by Eugene Debs. Taft easily won.
Mark Hanna: Hanna was a successful American politician and businessman. He helped
manage several campaigns including the Republican presidential nomination of McKinley.
Hanna was later selected chairman of the Republican National Committee, an organization he
used to collect a large war chest to assist in McKinley’s election.
Scientific management, Frederick W. Taylor: Taylor was an engineer who first integrated
scientific management with business. He became foreman of the Midvale Steel Company in
1878 and used mathematics to determine maximum industrial productivity, using time and
motion studies to find what each worker should for the highest efficiency.
Wisconsin, "laboratory of democracy": La Follette enacted sweeping changes during his
governorship of Wisconsin in 1900. He adopted a direct primary system, began to regulate the
railroads in his state, increased corporate taxes, and passed other progressive reform
legislation. He also created a legislative reference library for lawyers.
 Robert
M. La Follette: La Follette, initially a Republican in Congress, broke from this
party in 1924 when he realized big business was dangerously out of control. The populace
agreed with this opinion by electing him governor as an independent. He took the reform
movement, previously only found at the municipal level, to new heights, the state. The new
state level of regulation had some inherit problems, but as the progressive movement entered
the national government, these problems were solved.
Regulatory commissions: As the Progressive Era advanced, regulatory commissions became
more prevalent and numerable. The excesses of the monopolistic railroad companies became
known to all. In an effort to end the abuses of the rich capitalists regulatory commissions were
created to divide the concentrated wealth.
Jane Addams, Hull House: Addams was a prominent social reformer in the US and Europe.
In 1889 she created Hull House in Chicago, a settlement home designed as a welfare agency
for needy families. It also tried to teach immigrants English customs. Addams also played an
important role in the National Progressive party.
Florence Kelley, consumerism: Kelley was largely responsible for the regulation of child
labor. She saw its evils as a resident in Hull House for several years. In 1899 she was selected
general secretary of the National Consumers’ League, which used organized consumer
boycotts and strikes to force improved factory conditions.
home rule for cities: Home rule was a new form of city government other than the mayorcouncil form that emerged in the Progressive Era. Under this form of government the city was
run by a committee of three elected commissioners. They locally ran the county rather than
allowing the state to handle affairs.
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 Municipal
Reform: The beginning of the Progressive Era is marked by a great increase in
municipal reform. Nearly all elements of the urban population participated in these reform
efforts. The middle class began the movement and was the core of urban beautification.
Businessmen pushed for citywide elections and for the city-manager system of government.
In reforms concerning the commoners, even the political bosses assisted. This municipal level
reform soon moved to the state level.
Tom Johnson, Sam (Golden Rule) Jones, Brand Whitlock, Hazen Pingree: These were all
progressives who reformed the political process. Johnson reformed public ownership of
utilities in Chicago. San Jones reformed profit sharing and education in Toledo, Ohio. Pingree
reformed taxes, the honesty in government, and beautified his city.
City manager plan, commission plan: This form of government replaced the traditional
mayor/council version in several cities. It began in Texas when progressives removed the
corrupt mayor and council, replacing them with five elected commissioners. They were
experts in rebuilding the ruined city, which is what they were elected to do.
Daniel Hudson Burnham, 1909 Chicago Plan: Burnham, in conjunction with John Root,
built the first steel-frame buildings that later developed into modern skyscrapers. Burnham
was the designer of the famous Chicago Plan, a plan in which many beautiful pre-skyscraper
buildings were designed in Chicago.
William Howard Taft: As president, Taft focused primarily on a continuation of trustbusting and reuniting the old conservatives and young progressives of the Republican Party.
Taft also strongly supported a national budgetary system. He was unable to reunite the two
parties and, as a result, the Democratic party swept the 1912 elections.
Department of Labor (from 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of
Corporations also in 1903): This department was created in 1913 with the intention of
assisting the welfare and working conditions of the general worker. It was empowered to
investigate and report illegal corporative activities.
Payne-Aldrich Tariff, 1909: This tariff was initially intended to lower several other tariffs,
but after numerous compromises in the Senate it became a protective measure. Many
Progressive reformers considered this a sign that the companies and various special interests
were preventing consumer prices from reaching reasonable levels.
Ballinger-Pinchot controversy: Pinchot charged that Ballinger was giving the nation's
natural resources to private corporate interests. Under investigation it was found that Ballinger
did nothing illegal though he did bend the government's environmental policies. Since Taft
have given him support, Taft lost standing with the progressive Republicans.
Insurgents: Insurgents was a nickname for a small group of reformist Republicans. This
group, including La Follette and Norris, turned against Taft after his passage of the 1909 tariff
and completely separated after he supported the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. The separation between
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progressive and conservative republicans was caused by this group.
Uncle Joe Cannon (Old Guard): Cannon was a Republican who served as Speaker of the
House from 1903 to 1911. He strongly opposed many progressive reforms and was thus not
very popular in the house. Progressives and Democrats joined to remove much of his power in
1910, allowing the Republican-Democratic coalition to run the Senate.
Senator George Norris: Norris was a reformist senator who favored federal regulation of
public utilities. Through a change in House rules he ended the rule of the Speaker of the
House Joseph Cannon. He also created the Tennessee Valley Authority, a dam building
company. As he ignored the limitations of party politics he slowly lost support.
Rule of reason: Standard Oil case, American Tobacco case: In 1911 a progressive
interpretation of the Sherman Act was enacted by the Supreme Court. According to this "rule
of reason" principle, only "unreasonable" combinations restraining trade were illegal. This
interpretation emerged when the court broke these two companies into smaller firms.
In an effort to avoid Roosevelt’s "big stick" economic policy,
President Taft sought to avoid military confrontation by using money to increase foreign
interest in the US. He planned to donate large sums of money to generate economic, social,
and political stability in Latin America rather than sending the military to force stability. His
efforts were largely a failure as most of the money never reached the actual people of Latin
America. Most of the money was stolen by corrupt government officials.
 "dollar diplomacy":
Secretary of State Knox: Knox was responsible for the creation of the Latin American
Division of the State Department. He planned to promote better relation, but the US kept a
portion of the military in the Dominican Republic. This was planned to quiet revolutionary
thoughts and to prevent foreign financial problems.
Manchurian railroad scheme: In an attempt to force Japan and Russia to sell their land in
Manchuria for railroad investment, President Taft moved to construct his own competing rail
system. China refused to approve Taft’s plan and Japan and Russia began to grow suspicious
of the US’s motives.
Roosevelt’s Osawatomie, Kansas speech: The differences between Taft and Roosevelt were
revealed in Roosevelt’s 1910 Osawatomie "New Nationalism" speech. Roosevelt unveiled a
plan in which he called for a protection of welfare over property, opposing Taft’s support of
numerous tariffs as well as the Old Guard in Congress.
Taft-Roosevelt split: In 1912 the Democrats finally regained control of the presidency due to
the Taft-Roosevelt split. Taft’s inability to associate with the progressive elements of his party
convinced Roosevelt to return. Roosevelt formed the Progressive Party and thus siphoned
enough votes to cause the Republicans to lose the election.
Bull Moose Party: This party, formally known as the Progressive Party, was created by
Theodore Roosevelt after his split with Taft. It was created in his anger of Taft being
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nominated in the Republican Party. They advocated primary elections, woman suffrage, and
prohibition of child labor. They outpolled the Republicans but lost to the Democrats.
Progressivism to Wilson
In 1912, the divided Republicans were no match for the united Democrats. Woodrow Wilson
easily glided to victory as the Democrats also took both houses of Congress. Except on the
issue of race, the election identified the party firmly with reform for the rest of the century.
Wilson’s agenda included tariff reform, banking and currency reform, corporate regulation,
and labor legislation. Four amendments to the Constitution within the span of eight years
demonstrated the efficiency of the progressive impulse.
 Woodrow
Wilson, New Freedom: The Democratic Party, to which Wilson belonged, had a
past history of 45 ballots without a nomination. To overcome this stumbling block the
Democrats united with the Progressives, running under a compromise platform. Wilson’s
"New Freedom" campaign was concerned with progressive programs similar to both parties.
He did not, however, support trustbusting in the same way that Roosevelt did. To him, all big
business was morally evil and should be broken up.
 Theodore Roosevelt,
New Nationalism: In the election of 1912 Roosevelt was nominated
under a platform nicknamed "The New Nationalism." This platform followed the previous
trustbusting and regulation trend as well as alleviating many common progressive concerns
such as child labor, woman’s suffrage, and minimum wages. A Federal Trade Commission
was also planned to regulate the economy. This platform was essentially identical with many
of the progressive reforms later passed under Wilson.
Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life: Croly best captured the nature of
progressivism in this book. He dreamed of an activist government which would serve all
citizens. Specifically, he suggested a redefinition of government, democracy, and
individualism. Roosevelt copied many of his ideas for his New Nationalism platform.
 Election
of 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, Debs - issues: The election of 1912 was very
interesting for most Americans since there were 4 active political parties. Roosevelt tried to
run with the Republican Party, but Taft was chosen. He left and created the Progressive Party.
Wilson ran with the Democratic Party. Debs continued to run on the Socialist platform. All of
the platforms dealt primarily with economic reform, indicating the change that Americans
wanted. Debs even received 900,000 votes.
Eugene V. Debs, Socialist Party: Eugene V. Debs was an American Socialist leader and five
time presidential candidate. In 1897 he created the Social Democratic Party of America. He
received nearly one million votes for president while he was imprisoned in jail. His Socialist
party was quite popular until it splintered apart along internal divisions.
Daniel DeLeon, IWW, Wobblies, "Big Bill" Haywood: The Industrial Workers of the
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World, nicknamed the "Wobblies," was a radical labor group formed by "Big Bill" Haywood.
They were never large, but they captured many people’s imaginations as they preached
revolution. Though they won several strikes, they were more rhetoric than action.
National Monetary Commission: The National Monetary Commission examined monetary
data collected by the Pujo Committee and recommended a new form of banking. This advice,
suggesting a secure Treasury reserve and branch banks, later became the Federal Reserve
System, used to adjust the value of money to keep the economy stable.
Edgar Lee Masters, Spoon River Anthology: Edgar Lee Master’s poems are unique in that
they are presented as the voices of a town’s graveyard talking about their lives. His work’s
realism and irony contrast with the romantic and sentimental trends in progressive literature,
demonstrating the revolt against conventional social standards that was beginning.
D. W. Griffith, The Birth of a Nation: D. W. Griffith revolutionized the field of motion
pictures after his production of The Birth of a Nation in 1915. This story demonstrated the
power of film propaganda and the racist effects it had on people. It also began a trend towards
hour-long, dramatic, well-acted films.
Edwin Porter, The Great Train Robbery: The Great Train Robbery, produced by Edwin
Porter in 1903, was the first major American film. It used new innovations such as the
intercutting of scenes shot in different settings. These scenes were later unified to form a
coherent narrative ending in a scene of suspense.
Nickelodeons: Nickelodeons, movies costing a nickel each, became extremely popular in the
Progressive Era due to the freedom they offered children from parents. Immigrant children
could easily imagine away their restrictive home conditions. Noticing the lack of moral
oversight, many progressives moved to create censorship boards for these films.
Scott Joplin, Ragtime: Scott Joplin was a pianist and one of the most important developers
of ragtime music. He believed that ragtime should evolve into an indigenous black American
opera style. His 1899 release of "Maple Leaf Rag" was the beginning of popular ragtime
music.
Eugenics movement: The Eugenics movement is one of the best examples of progressive
ideas contradicting science. Some Americans believed that the society could be improved by
controlled breeding. They accomplished this by sterilizing many criminals and sex offenders.
The right to do so was upheld in the court case Buck v. Bell.
Mary Ritter Beard, Charles A. Beard, Historical revisionism: Mary and Charles were two
historians that pioneered a new perspective on history. They each believed that history must
be reexamined from a modern perspective and that the economic, political, and social threads
of present time must be followed back to generate a clearer picture.
Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race: This book, published in 1916, is a preview
to the ideas later espoused by Adolf Hitler. Written in the Progressive Era, this book calls for
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absolute racial segregation, immigrant restriction, and a forced eugenics movement by crime
and by race type.
Billy Sunday: Billy Sunday was an American Fundamentalist preacher and professional
baseball player. He conducted regular ‘revivals’ throughout the nation, in which he used
broadcasting to strengthen people’s bond with Christianity. The broadcasts of his revivals are
considered among the most effective ever.
Margaret Sanger: Sanger was a leader among birth-control advocates. She attacked the
Comstock Law, a law which prevented the distribution of birth control. In 1916 she opened
the first American birth-control facility. She was convicted for this "public nuisance," won an
appeal, and eventually gained the right for birth-control.
Sixteenth Amendment: The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, is an obvious indicator
to the Progressive era in which it was passed. It authorized the income tax thereby allowing
the Underwood-Simmons Tariff of 1913 to lower many tariffs. This amendment invalidated
an earlier Supreme Court decision calling the income tax was unconstitutional.
Seventeenth Amendment: The Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, moved the
election of senators from the state legislatures to the general populace. It followed the ideas
already laid down by the Australian secret ballot and the direct primary. This law was
intended to create a more democratic, fair society in the eyes of progressives.
Eighteenth Amendment: The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, prohibited the nonmedical sale of alcohol. This amendment resulted from intense efforts among various
women’s movements, proving to the nation that women could effect political changes. This
amendment is the midpoint of a growing drive towards women’s rights.
Nineteenth Amendment: The Nineteenth Amendment, granting women the vote in 1920, is a
logical progression from the prohibition movement. As women felt their power in politics
increasing, they began to demand the ability to vote from their male peers. In the spirit of
progressivism they were granted the vote in 1920.
Charles Evans Hughes: Charles Evans Hughes was an American jurist and statesmen. As
governor of New York he eliminated much of the corruption in government, passing many
progressive reform measures. He served as the chief justice of the Supreme Court in the
depression years of the 1930s and supported many aspects of Roosevelt’s liberal New Deal.
Pujo Committee: The Pujo Committee researched and later reported on the concentration of
money and credit over the general populace. They found that the money and credit of the US
is localized inside a small group of rich capitalists. This committee’s findings later led to the
creation of the Federal Reserve Banking system.
Federal Reserve Act: The Federal Reserve Act was a compromise designed to stabilize the
currency in the US. It split the US into 12 regions with one Federal bank in each region.
Commercial banks bought stock from this bank. The discount rate at which the federal bank
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lent the money determined the interest rate.
Underwood-Simmons Tariff: The Underwood-Simmons Tariff reduced the tariffs from the
Payne-Aldrich Tariff to about 29%. It included a graduated income tax, made legal by the
sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, to correct for this monetary loss. Wilson, noticing
that it followed his principle of "New Freedom," heavily advocated it.
Income tax: The income tax, originally declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, was
later ratified as the Sixteenth Amendment. This new power was first used in the Tariff Act of
1913 which set the tax of corporate income at 1%. It also levied a 1% tax on all rich families.
Income tax has been greatly increased as tariffs have been lowered.
Federal Trade Commission, cease and desist orders: The Federal Trade Commission,
created by the Federal Trade Commission Act, promoted free and fair trade competition. It
investigated economically unfair business practices and regulated these. The commission also
regularly generated statistics of economic and business conditions to the public.
 Clayton
Antitrust Act, labor’s Magna Carta (?): The Clayton Act was designed to clarify
the Sherman Antitrust Act in terms of new economic issues that had arisen. Practices such as
local price-cutting and price discrimination were made illegal. The right of unions to strike,
boycott, and picket was also confirmed. This act would have been labor’s Magna Carta had it
been followed, but unfavorable court interpretations rendered many of its pro-labor sections
powerless without further legislation.
Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan: From 1913-1915, Bryan served as Secretary of
State to Wilson. The US’s stubbornness on the issue of neutrality rights led Bryan to resign
his position in 1915. He felt that instead of insisting on passenger’s rights, the United States
should keep Americans off belligerent ships, a differing view on neutrality.
arbitration treaties: The arbitration treaties were negotiated by Secretary of State Root with
25 other nations. International disputes could be deferred to the Hague Tribunal as stipulated
by the arbitration treaties. An example of such a treaty is the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The
treaties were undermined by disputes of individual national interests.
Panama Tolls dispute: In 1912, the United States passed a bill that would exempt the United
States from payment in the use of the Panama Canal. Great Britain opposed the move saying
it violated the 1901 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. After some dispute the United States eliminated
the exemption clause and the president signed the bill in 1914.
Colonel House: Colonel Edward M House was part of the Wilson administration and served
as an advisor to the president. He later was part of the Roosevelt administration and was
involved in New Deal legislation taking his traditional Wilsonian democracy to the New Deal
era and its actions.
Louis Brandeis, "Brandeis brief": In 1916, Woodrow Wilson appointed Louis Brandeis, a
Jew, to the Supreme Court, which was briefly opposed because of anti-Semitism. In 1908 in
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Muller v. Oregon, his Brandeis brief provided evidence as to why women need limited work
hours. This represented the Court’s adapting to the new, changing industrial society.
La Follette Seaman’s Act: Passed in 1915, the La Follette Seaman’s Act improved working
and living conditions as well as making ships safer. It applied to US ships as well as any ship
docked in a US port. Included provisions regulating work hours, as well as pay and food
quality. The act was designed to attract Americans to ocean occupations.
Keating-Owen Act: The Keating-Owen Act, passed in 1915, attempted to prevent the
problem of child labor. It forbade interstate shipment of products whose production was due
to the labor of children under fourteen or sixteen. This law was particularly important because
it was the first attempt by Congress to regulate interstate commerce.
Workmen’s Compensation Act: The Workmen’s Compensation Act heightened the rights of
employees to bring legal action against their employers for injuries. Prior to this act, the
employee had to prove they were not at fault and that it was not a normal risk. This act
created scales of compensation for any injury, regardless to the party responsible.
Federal Warehouse Act: Wilson heavily supported the Federal Warehouse Act, which
allowed farmers to more easily secure long-term, low-interest credit, using land or crops as
the loan security, from regional Farm Loan Banks. Prior to the passage of this act, farmers had
to use actual money or property as security, making loans harder to obtain.
Federal Highways Act, 1916: The Federal Highways Act of 1916 was pushed by Wilson and
supported by the Democratic congress. It stated that federal funds would match appropriations
made by states funds for highway construction. This aided the automobile industry and
allowed for the existence of more cars.
Adamson Act, 1916: The Adamson Act of 1916 was a compromise that avoided a railroad
strike. It set an eight hour day for interstate railroad workers with a salary of one and a half
for overtime work. The act signaled a major victory for railroad workers. An example of
Wilson’s sympathy to labor and was one of his important worker protection laws.
Smith-Lever Act: The Smith-Lever Act, enacted in 1914, created a system of agricultural
extension work funded by federal grants. Students not in college benefited because they were
taught agricultural skills by county agents. It was part of the governments plan to encourage a
growth in American agriculture.
Smith- Hughes Act: The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 created the Federal Board for
Vocational Education to encourage agricultural growth. Furthermore, it gave the federal
government greater control over education because it required that states submit proposals for
education to a federal board.
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First World War
When war burst upon Europe in August 1914, most Americans wanted no part. Wilson
immediately proclaimed American neutrality and called on the nation to be neutral "in
thought and in action." Yet the United States and Britain were linked by extensive economic
ties and many Americans felt close emotionally with the British. Fearing a world dominated
by imperial Germany, and seething over violation of neutral rights on the seas, Wilson
declared war in 1917.
"Sick man of Europe," Ottoman Empire, Balkan Wars: The ancient Ottoman empire had
lost its grip throughout the late 1800’s. In the Balkan Wars, Balkan States gained their
independence from the Ottoman Empire, called the "sick man of Europe." From it, the newly
independent nations of Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia were created.
Triple Entente: Allies: Beginning in the early 1900’s, Britain, France and Russia had signed
treaties with each other. After Austria declared war on Serbia, Germany declared war on the
allies (Russia and France), in turn drawing Great Britain into the war. This system of alliances
had escalated what was once a localized incident.
Triple Alliance: Central Powers: The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, AustriaHungary, as well as Italy. Germany, with its blank check provision to Austria- Hungary, had
in encouraged the war declaration on Serbia. Afterwards, Germany declared war on Russia
and France, Serbia’s allies by treaties.
loans to the Allies: In total, the United States lent the Allies over $10 billion. Great Britain
owed the United States over $4.2 billion by the end of the war. This great indebtedness led to
conflict later when the United States attempted to collect. Also, it led to increased reparations
for Germany because of allied indebtedness.
British blockade: In an attempt to win the war of attrition that was World War I, Great
Britain utilized its sizable navy to blockade all trade going in and out of Germany. Germany
responded with its U-boats, eventually going on the offensive in 1917 by itself blockading
Britain at the cost of American involvement.
Lusitania, Arabic pledge, Sussex pledge: In 1915, the British Lusitania was sunk bringing
protests from Wilson. The Arabic was sunk in the same year and Germans followed with the
Arabic pledge promising to stop attacks on passenger vessels. In 1916, Germans sunk the
Sussex and made the Sussex pledge to promise a stoppage of attacks.
election of 1916: Hughes, Wilson, issues: Wilson ran for reelection for the Democrats on the
call that he had kept the United States out of the war. Charles Evans Hughes was the
Republican candidate who attacked the inefficiency of the Democratic Party. Wilson won the
election, so was able to continue his idealistic policies.
unrestricted submarine warfare: On January 31, 1917, Germany announced it would
resume unrestricted submarine warfare, a repudiation of the Sussex pledge, and sink all ships
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without warning whatsoever. This action was backed by the German belief that this would
lead it to victory before the Americans could become involved in the war.
 Zimmerman
Note: Also known as the Zimmerman Telegram, the Zimmerman note was a
message intercepted by British intelligence from Germany to Mexico in 1917 proposing that
in the event of a German war with the United states, Mexico should attack the US. It would be
a Mexican opportunity to retake the Mexican Cession. This was one of a few events which led
to widespread public support for the Allies and eventual United States involvement in the
World War.
Russian Revolutions, 1917, March and Bolshevik: In March 1917 a revolution overthrew
Russia’s tsarist regime. The second Revolution, commonly called the October Revolution,
was an armed coup organized by the Bolshevik party. These revolutions were caused by and
led to Russia pulling out of World War I.
war declared, April 1917: On March 2, 1917, President Wilson called a special
Congressional session for April 2, in which he proposed the declaration of war against
Germany. The declaration was passed by the Senate by a vote of 82 to 6 and in the House by a
vote of 373 to 50 before it was then signed by Wilson.
Wilson’s "Peace without victory": In 1916 President Wilson called for a "peace without
victory." His words were a call to the European nations to stop the conflict based on a balance
of power and to form a peace in which nations together would keep the peace. Wilson foresaw
the vengeful atmosphere that would follow a prolonged war.
"Make the world safe for democracy": "Make the world safe for democracy" was Wilson’s
famous line justifying United States involvement in the World War. It was based on the belief
that from this international power struggle, a democratic revolution could arise. In other
words, a new democratic world order led by the United States would follow.
 Creel
Committee: The Committee on Public Information, formed in 1917, was headed by
journalist George Creel. At the beginning of the first World War, Americans sided with
neutrality. The CPI was a propaganda committee that built support for the war effort in
Europe among Americans. It depicted Germans and other enemies on bad terms, and served
to censor the press. Anything German was frowned upon. The Creel Committee, or CPI, was
successful in raising widespread American support for the war effort.
bond drives: Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo organized the raising of funds, or
Liberty Loans, necessary for the war with five campaigns between 1917 and 1919 with much
excitement. People felt obliged to buy bonds because they were afraid of being seen as
unpatriotic. Eventually, they raised over $21 billion for the war.
War Industries Board: Created in July 1917, the War Industries Board controlled raw
materials, production, prices, and labor relations. It also encouraged production by allocating
raw materials, standardizing manufactured products, instituting strict production and
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purchasing controls, and paying high prices to businesses.
Bernard Baruch: Bernard Baruch was a Wall Street broker before being chosen by President
Wilson in 1918 to head the War Industries Board. He was aided by a coalition of 100
businessman who advised him on fiscal policy. This was part of Wilson’s effort to take
stronger action in the war effort.
Herbert Hoover, Food Administration: The Food Administration was created in 1917 as
part of the war effort, and a response to the poor harvests of 1916 and 1917. Headed by
Herbert Hoover, it set prices for agricultural goods high to encourage the production of
agricultural products. It encouraged conservation with such days as "meatless Tuesdays."
Espionage Act, 1917; Sedition Act, 1918: The Espionage Act of 1917 enacted fines and
imprisonment for false statements, inciting rebellion, or obstructing recruitment or the draft.
Also papers which opposed the government could be banned from the U.S. postal service. The
Sedition Act of 1918 made illegal any criticism of the government. It was poorly applied and
used to trample civil liberties during the war hysteria as in the example of the imprisonment
of Eugene Debs.
Eugene V. Debs imprisoned: Eugene Debs was questionably imprisoned and was given a 10
year prison term for giving a speech at a Socialist’s convention. The speech criticized
American policy, involvement in the war and for warning of the dangers of war and
militarism. His imprisonment was an example of the reactionism and hysteria of the period.
AEF: From 1917-1918, the AEF, or American Expeditionary Force, sent 2 million men to
France under General John J. Pershing. Most enlisted in search of action and adventure. The
United States insisted the AEF be independent of French and English armies because it was
believed the U.S. would have a stronger bargaining voice with a separate army.
selective service: As part of US mobilization for war, on May 18, 1917, the Selective Service
Act was passed. Men from 21-30 were to register for the military. At the time, the United
States military was in poor disarray and men were desperately needed. Made into a party-like
atmosphere, 24 million registered, and 3 million were actually drafted.
Eddie Rickenbacker: Rickenbacker was an American Aviator during World War I. During
the war, he served in the US Air Service as commander of the 94th Aero Pursuit Squadron.
Shooting down 22 planes, he was America’s leading pilot. He received the Distinguished
Service Cross as well as the Congressional Medal of Honor.
Postwar Aims
During the war, Wilson believed that United States involvement would translate into a new
democratic world order. In a fourteen-point speech to Congress, Wilson summed up United
States war aims and its noble objectives. November 1918 saw the war grind to a halt. The
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peace conference, held at Versailles in 1919, was dominated by conflict among the "Big
Four," and the resulting treaty proved a disaster. Ultimately, Wilson failed in his most
cherished objective, American membership in the League of Nations.
aims of Allies and US at peace conference: The main goal of Wilson and the American
delegation was to secure an international peacekeeping organization; a peace based on
Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The aims of the other allies were not as liberal as that of the US.
The enormous reparations settled on was representative of this atmosphere.
Points: The Fourteen Points were Wilson’s proposals and beliefs for a post-war
world order. They dealt with the things that led to the first World War. For example, the first
points called for open treaties, freedom of the seas, arms reduction and free trade. The other
points dealt with self determination and finally a general association of nations, the League of
Nations. During the conference of Versailles, Wilson pushed the Fourteen points and was
partly successful.
 Fourteen
 Versailles
Conference and Treaty: The Big Four dominated the conference in 1919 that
determined the postwar world order. Wilson promoted his Fourteen Points while other Allies
sought vengeance. The treaty found Germany liable for the war and established new nations
based on self determination. It also made German colonies mandates under the League of
Nations and included the controversial article X that kept the US out of the League. These
provisions set the stage for World War II.
US Versailles delegation: The delegation was headed by President Wilson himself, and
included Secretary of State Robert Lansing, General Tasker Bliss, Colonel Edward M. House,
and attorney Henry White. Blatantly missing from the delegation were any Republican
leaders, so the conference became not an American but a Democratic affair.
Big Four: Wilson, George, Clemenceau, Orlando: The Big Four were the dominating four
at the Versailles conference after World War I. President Woodrow Wilson represented the
United States, Lloyd George for Britain, Clemenceau for France, and Vittorio Orlando
represented Italy. Each had a different prerogative and differing interests.
 League of
Nations: The organization promoted by Wilson in his Fourteen Points was the
League of Nations. The US never joined because of controversy over Article X of the League
Covenant that took away the United States’s freedom of determination in world affairs.
Implemented at the Versailles conference, it existed from 1920 to 1946, meeting in Geneva,
Switzerland, until it was taken over by the United Nations. After WWI, it divided German
colonies into mandates of various League members.
 collective security: Collective security was
the dogma behind Article X of the League of
Nations covenant of the Versailles Treaty. It stated that every nation would serve to protect
the territorial integrity and existing governments of all other League nations. Hence, it was
felt that this would ensure peace in the postwar world order. The belief manifested inself in
the international world court that was established and later in the establishment of the United
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Nations after the demise of the League.
new nations, self determination: The idea of new nations and self determination was behind
some of the aspects of the Treaty of Versailles. Self determination meant every nationality
getting their own country, so new nations were created to allow this. Yugoslavia, Austria,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland were new nations
which filled this definition. Even with the doctrine of self determination, boundaries for new
countries still left many misrepresented and under others’ control.
reparations: Reparations were implemented by European powers wanting vengeance against
Germany. Germany was forced to pay a huge sum, some $33 billion to the Allies for civilian
and veterans costs. This huge amount led to Germany’s economic downfall, allowing for the
rise of Hitler and World War II
mandate system: As a provision of the Versailles Treaty, Germany’s colonies became
mandates of the League of Nations and delegated to France, Japan and Britain. The colonies
became in actuality, those of the respective countries, which was one of their purposes in
fighting the war.
Article 10 of the Versailles Treaty: The most controversial of the League of Nations
covenants, Article 10 said that all nations must protect the territorial and political integrity of
other League members. The article meant that if one nation was engaged in war, all others
must become involved. This article was a large part of why the US rejected the League.
Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty: By Article 231, Germany accepted total responsibility
for her and her allies for starting the First World War. Reparations payments were based on
this claim. It led to hatred among Germans and inadvertently contributed to conditions
precipitating World War II.
Senate rejection, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, reservations: Senate reservationists did not
fully oppose the League except for mainly one Article. They did not want the United States
going to war defending another League member without Congress’s permission, as was
stipulated by Article X. They wanted that article removed before ratification.
 "irreconcileables":
Borah, Johnson, La Follette: The irreconcileables were those in
Congress who felt the United States should not be a member of the League under any
circumstances. They opposed nearly all of the provisions of the League of Nations and felt
that the League obstructed the United State’s freedom of self determination. Wilson attempted
to overcome them and get ratification for the League but was unsuccessful in his campaign.
The United States never joined the League of Nations.
Impact of the War
The war affected the lives of millions of industrial workers, farmers, women, and blacks in
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important ways. For all its horrors, World War I brought prosperity to the American
economy. The wartime mood also gave a boost to moral-reform movements. Still, the wartime
spirit saw new racial violence and fresh antiradical hysteria. The antiradical panic crested in
the Red Scare of 1919-1920. Americans, tired of idealism, revealed their feelings in the
election of 1920 leaving Republican Warren Harding in the office.
Women’s Roles in World War I: Prominent women’s leaders like Carrie Chapman Catt and
Anna Howard Shaw saw war as an opportunity for women’s rights. Thousands of American
Women took vacated jobs and became involved in industrial production as well as volunteer
agencies at home and abroad. Supplied America’s labor needs.
Harriet Stanton Blatch: A prominent women’s leader who during the war offered a view on
why women should play a role in the wartime effort. In a variant of Wilson’s theme of
determining the postwar peace, women should play a role so that after the war, they will have
an opportunity to gain power and rights.
black migration to Northern cities: During the war, blacks left their traditional homes in the
South and migrated North for job opportunities in the war industries. About 500,000 blacks
migrated North during the war. Led to racial tension and violence in the North. This growing
concentration of blacks led to the Harlem Renaissance.
wartime manpower losses: During World War I, military casualties alone accounted for just
over 8.5 million deaths on both sides. Russia and Germany by far lost the most men at 1.7
million killed each. In comparison, the United States lost only 126,000 men. In all, over 21
million men were injured during the war.
Congressional elections of 1918: In 1918, the Republicans gained an advantage in both the
House of Representatives as well as the Senate. Republicans no who had traditionally
supported Wilson’s plans in Europe no longer supported him because of his cry to voters for a
Democratic Congress.
Red Scare, Palmer raids: In 1919, there was a string of bombings. Among the victims was
Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. In November 1919, Palmer led raids and arrested
around 700 suspected communists and anarchists. Some were deported under the Alien Act.
The Red Scare in the United States followed Communist revolutions in Russia.
strikes: 1919, coal, steel, police: Post-war strikes occurred because of an increase in prices.
The most famous strike was in a Seattle shipyard. The government responded with troops to
break up the strike. Chicago police struck and were all fired. The United Mine Workers of
America under John L. Lewis struck as well, fueling the Red Scare.
inflation during the First World War: As Americans were sent to Europe to fight in World
War I, a labor shortage was created. With the shortage came higher wages which led to more
purchases and in turn, inflation. The rise in prices was regulated by the WIB which set prices.
election of 1920: candidates, issues: Senator Warren G. Harding was the Republican dark
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horse with running mate Calvin Coolidge. They advocated a "return to normalcy" from the
war environment. James Cox, and Franklin D. Roosevelt were the Democratic nominees.
They ran on a platform endorsing the League with reservations.
brief depression, 1920-1921: A brief depression occurred from mid-1920 to the end of 1921.
It was due to decreased European purchases from American industries after the war. Prices
fell and unemployment was over 12% at its height. It was followed by the improved economy
of the 1920’s until the Great Depression struck.
Overview of 1920-1940
Twenties Domestic Affairs
America of the 1920s was a period of prosperity as well as industrial and technological
growth. With the recent end of World War I, Americans yearned for a return to "normalcy"
and political leaders that could provide it, thus turning to the leadership of Warren G.
Harding.
Election of 1920: candidates, issues, vice-presidential candidates: The democrats
nominated James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt for his running mate. Republicans chose
Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio and Governor Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts.
Harding sensed popular longing for calm and won in a landslide victory.
Normalcy: Coined by Warren G. Harding in an address before the Home Market Club on
May 14,1920 in Boston, this term came to symbolize, to powerful businessmen, the
immediate abandonment of the foreign and domestic policies of Wilson. This meant a return
to high protective tariffs and a reduction in taxes.
Sheppard-Towner Act: Lobbying for child-labor laws as well as worker protection for
women and support for education by the Women’s Joint Congressional Committee resulted in
the Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921. This act provided $1.2 million for prenatal and baby-care
centers in rural areas.
Esch-Cummins Transportation Act: Also known as the Transportation Act of 1920, this act
allowed the government to take over the railroads from Dec 26, 1917 until Mar 1, 1920. They
were forced to carry heavy traffic while ignoring maintenance. The result was the Act of Feb
28, 1920 and attempted to insure the operation of the railroads.
•Immigration Acts 1921, 1924, quota system: In 1921 Congress limited annual immigration
to about 350,000 people annually. In 1924, they limited the number to 164,000 people
annually. This also restricted immigration to 2% of the total number of people who lived in
the U.S. from their respective country since 1890 and completely rejected the immigration of
Asians. The intent of these provisions was to reduce the immigration of foreign people in the
United States.
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KKK revival: A KKK was an organization founded in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1866. Nathan
Bedford Forrest served as the first Grand Wizard for this organization. They aimed to destroy
radical political power and establish white supremacy in the U.S. They were formally
disbanded in 1869, but then it was revived in 1915, led by William J. Simmons.
•Harding scandals: Charles Forbes, Harry Daugherty, Sceretary of Interior Fall, Teapot
Dome, Harry Sinclair: Forbes, director of the Veteran’s Bureau, in 1924, was exposed and
convicted of stealing funds from it for personal economic growth. Daugherty, appointed
attorney general, was forced from office in 1924 after receiving payments from violators of
prohibition. Fall leased government oil reserves in 1921 to Sinclair, president of the
Mammoth Oil Company. All suspects evaded prosecution.
Harding, Warren G.: Although Harding lacked the qualifications for presidency, his
ordinary, friendly manner and advocacy of a return to "normalcy" resulted in a landslide
vicotry in the election of 1920. Unfortunately, his administration was full of scandals and on
Aug 2, 1923, Harding died in San Francisco of a heart attack.
Coolidge, Calvin: Harding’s death brought vice president Coolidge to the presidency, where
his silences became legendary. As president, he held an antipathy to progressivism, believed
the government had no obligation in protecting citizens against natural disasters, and warned
of "the tyranny of bureaucratic regulation and control."
Taft, Chief Justice William Howard: Taft was appointed by President Harding in 1921.
Under his jurisdiction, the Supreme Court overturned many progressive reform measures that
were opposed by popular business interests. An example of this was the 1919 federal law
imposing taxes on the products of child labor that he overturned.
Conference for Progressive Political Action, 1922 (CPPA): A committee designed to
revive the practices of the progressive era, the CPPA adopted policies of pro-labor, profarmer, and government ownership of railroads and utilities such as telephones and electricity.
It helped defeat the conservative Republican candidates in 1924.
Bureau of the Budget: Created by the Budget and Accounting Act on June 10, 1921, this act
provided for the Bureau to be located in the treasury department with the director appointed
by the president. The Bureau provided for a more efficient management of the budget within
the treasury department.
Mellon, Secretary of Treasury tax cuts: Mellon was the secretary of the treasury under
Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. Under his administration, Congress lowered the income tax
rates for the wealthy. Mellon also succeeded in balancing the budget every year from 1921 to
1928.
Norris, Senator George, Muscle Shoals: Norris successfully prevented President Coolidge
from selling a federal hydroelectric facility at Muscle Shoals, Alabama to auto-maker Henry
Ford for only a portion of the value of the land. He also helped reject further tax cuts for the
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rich.
election of 1924: candidates, Robert La Follette, Progressive Party: CPPA delegates
revived the Progressive Party at the meeting in Cleveland in July of 1924 and nominated
Robert La Follette for president; the Socialist party and AFL supported this nomination, also.
The Democratic Party nominated John W. Davis, a compromise candidate. The Republicans
nominated Coolidge, who won with 54% of the vote.
McNary-Haugen Bill, vetoes: The veto of the McNary-Haugen Bill by Coolidge reflected a
fear of "the tyranny of bureaucratic regulation." He denounced the bill as an unconstitutional
scheme because it would benefit American agriculture at the expense of the general public’s
welfare.
Federal Farm Board: This action was a result of Hoover’s response towards the problems
faced by agriculture. He secured the passage of legislation that established the Board to
Promote Cooperative Commodity Marketing. By doing so he was permitted to raise farm
prices while still preserving the voluntarist principle.
Election of 1928: candidates, personalities, backgrounds: Candidates Al Smith and
Herbert Hoover represented the social and cultural differences of the 1920s. Smith was the
Democratic candidate with the experience of being the governor of NY. Hoover was an
inexperienced candidate that had never sought a public office before, yet he won.
•Prohibition: Prohibition was first an issue before World War I. Progressives saw it as a way
to deal with the social problems associated with alcoholism. Congress submitted the 18th
amendment prohibiting the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic liquors in 1917.
However, closet manufacturing of alcoholic beverages and a rise in criminal activities within
the cities due to illegal importation of alcohol led to its repeal with the 21st amendment in
1933.
Volstead Act, Al Capone: The Volstead Act of 1919 established the Prohibition Bureau
within the Treasury Department, but it lacked financial stability and was ineffective. Capone
was a mob king in Chicago who controlled a large network of speakeasies with enormous
profits; his illegal activities convey the failure of prohibition in the twenties.
Sacco and Vanzetti Case: On Apr 15, 1920 two robbers killed a clerk and stole money from
a shoe factory in South Briantree, Massachusetts. Nicola Sacco and Bartholomeo Vanzetti
were arrested and both were charged with the robbery and the murder. The jury found them
both guilty. Both men died in the electric chair on Aug 23, 1927.
Leopold and Loeb Case: The case in 1924 involved the murder of a young boy by two rich
and intelligent college students. This case has been referred to for its moral lesson on human
nature. It also shows that not only famous cases have been products of social developments;
Americans responded to criminal cases also.
•fundamentalists, Billy Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson: During the twenties,
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Protestants who insisted on the divinity of the Bible, were angered by the theory of evolution.
Fundamentalist legislatures even introduced bills to prohibit the teaching of evolution in
schools. An evangelist, Billy Sunday’s most famous quote reads, "If you turn hell upside
down you will find ‘Made in Germany’ stamped on the bottom." Evangelist McPherson used
drama and theatrical talent in her sermons, winning many followers.
Scopes Trial, Clarence Darrow, William Jennings Bryan: In 1925, the Tennessee
legislature outlawed the teaching of evolution in public schools. The American Civil Liberties
Union volunteered to defend any teacher willing to challenge this law. William Jennings
Bryan agreed to assist prosecution. Darrow was the head of ACLU’s lawyers.
Roaring Twenties
American culture and society in the 1920s were marked by a wave of new lifestyles and ideas.
While the movie industry produced new celebrities and jazz music became popular, literature
flourished and flappers defined a social trend. Amidst the speakeasies, jazz, and jitterbugs,
Americans began to stray from traditional values as the culture changed.
•Prosperity: This is a term that refers to the economic stability and opportunity experienced
during the 1920s. The inventions of new consumer goods and home electrical products
contributed to this prosperity. The economy during this time was stimulated by the new and
booming electrical industry. A growth oriented business climate of the time was expansionist
regarding American capitalism. This boom also was started with the invention of the
affordable automobile.
KDKA, Pittsburgh: This was the first successful radio station in the U.S. to start
broadcasting on Nov 2, 1920. It began the radio era when KDKA, based in Pittsburgh,
broadcast the news of President Harding’s election. This radio station also influenced the
establishment of the Federal Radio Commission.
Federal Radio Commission, 1927: The FRC was created by Congress and extended the
principle of governmental regulation of business activity to the new radio industry. This can
be seen as an example of the progressive spirit that still survived in the legislative branch and
its effect on society.
Women’s Christian Temperance Movement: Formed in 1874, the Women’s Christian
Temperance movement grew in momentum during the progressive era. This occurred because
the war with Germany fermented wider support for the movement. By 1917 it successfully
established prohibition in 19 states.
Anti-Saloon League: Another organization formed during the progressive era, the AntiSaloon league was spurred by the Women’s Christian Temperance Movement in 1893.
Progressives encouraged the legal abolition of alcohol. The result of the efforts of the ASL
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was the 18th amendment passed in 1918.
National Women’s Party, Alice Paul: During the twenties, feminist Alice Paul’s National
Women’s Party lobbied for an equal-rights amendment to the Constitution. Other feminists,
radicals, and labor activists condemned Paul’s stance on this issue. Unfortunately, the
proposed amendment never succeeded through the party.
Garvey, Marcus, Universal Negro Improvement Association: Garvey was a black
nationalist leader who created the "Back to Africa" movement in the U.S. In 1907, he led a
printers’ strike for higher wages at a printing company in Kingston. In 1914 he founded the
UNIA and in 1916, he started a weekly newspaper called the Negro World.
•Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes: Hughes was an American writer known for the
use of jazz and black folk rhythms in his poetry. He used musical rhythms and the traditions
of African American culture in his poetry. In the 1920s he was a prominent figure during the
Harlem Renaissance and was the Poet Laureate of Harlem. The Harlem Renaissance refers to
the black cultural development during the 1920s. However, the movement depended on the
patronage of white people.
de Mille, Cecil B.: He was an American motion picture director and producer who in 1913
joined with Jesse Lasky and Samuel Goldwyn to form the Jesse L. Lasky Feature Play
Company. De Mille produced and directed the first feature film made in Hollywood called
The Squaw Man in 1914.
Valentino, Rudolph, Chaplin, Charlie: Valentino was an actor who was idolized by female
fans of the 1920s. His first silent film was The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) but
his peak was with The Sheik (1921). Charlie Chaplin was a silent film actor who appeared in
1914 with the Keystone Film Company.
Ford, Henry, the Model T, Sloan, Alfred P.: In 1893, Ford completed the construction of
his first automobile and in 1903 he founded the Ford Motor Company. In 1908 he started
production of the Model-T. In 1913 Ford began using standardized interchangeable parts and
assembly-lines in his plants.
Johnson, James Weldon: American author, lawyer, and diplomat who reflected his deep
consideration of black life in the United States, James Weldon Johnson served as field
secretary of the NAACP from 1916-1920. In 1920 he became the NAACP’s first black
executive secretary.
Ruth, Babe, Dempsey, Jack: Babe Ruth was the most popular player in the history of
baseball. He began in 1914 on the Baltimore team of the International League. Jack Dempsey
was an American professional boxer who became world heavyweight champion in 1919 but
lost the title in 1926.
Lindbergh, Charles, Spirit of St. Louis: Lindbergh was an American aviator, engineer , and
Pulitzer Prize winner. On May 20, 1927, he was the first person to make a nonstop solo flight
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across the Atlantic. Flying in his single engine plane, Spirit of St. Louis, he flew from New
York City to Paris.
The Jazz Singer: The Jazz Singer was a movie, made in 1927, that started a demand for
dancers who could fulfill the expectations of the 1920s. Fred Astaire was involved with the
choreography in the movie along with other famous dancers such as Berkeley, Balanchine,
and De Mille.
the Jazz Age: The Jazz Age is the general label of what the twenties represented. Such a title
reflects the revolution in music during the time, when jazz music became popular and in style.
This name also refers to the general prosperity and liberation of the people during the time;
those were the "good times."
Freud’s, Sigmund theories: Freud was a Viennese physician whose studies of human
sexuality and human psychology first appeared in the 1890s. However, his ideas became
popular during the 1920s. His lectures in 1909 at Clark University advanced psychoanalysis
in the United States.
Barton, Bruce, The Man Nobody Knows 1925: Barton was an advertising executive that
described Jesus Christ as a managerial genius who "picked up twelve men from the bottom
ranks of business and forged them into an organization that conquered the world." By this he
referred to the public’s admiration of leaders like President Harding.
•"the Lost Generation": This term refers to a group of American writers who lived
primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. Bitter about their World War I experiences and
disillusioned with different aspects of American society, these writers were seen to be expatriots. The writers include: Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and William Carlos
Williams. They never formed a formal literary movement, but individually they were all
influential writers.
Lewis, Sinclair, Main Street, Babbitt: Main Street was written in 1920 and is where Lewis
first developed the theme of the monotony, emotional frustration, and lack of values in
American middle-class life. Babbitt, written in 1922, comments on how people conform
blindly to the standards of their environment.
Mencken, H.L., editor of the magazine, The American Mercury: Mencken founded the
magazine The American Mercury in 1924. Mencken remained the editor until 1933. He
targeted his work at the shortcomings of democracy and the middle-class American culture.
Eliot, T.S., The Waste Land: Eliot won the Nobel Prize for literature for his poem The Waste
Land. This poem that is one of the most widely discussed literary works. Written in 1922, The
Waste Land expresses Eliot’s conception of the contrast between modern society and societies
of the past.
Fitzgerald, F. Scott, The Great Gatsby: Fitzgerald wrote this book in five months and
completed it in 1925. The plot was a sensitive and satiric story of the pursuit of success and
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the collapse of the American dream. Being one of the writers of the Lost Generation,
Fitzgerald was bitter because of the effects of the war.
Dreiser, Theodore, An American Tragedy: In 1925, An American Tragedy had great
success. Dreiser believed in representing life honestly in his fiction and accomplished this
through accurate detail and descriptions of the urban settings of his stories. He also portrays
his characters as victims of social and economic forces.
Hemingway, Ernest, A Farewell to Arms: In Hemingway’s novels, he usually depicted the
lives of two types of people: men and women deprived of faith in their values by World War
I, and men of simple character and primitive emotions. This was Hemingway’s second most
important novel next to The Sun Also Rises (1926).
New woman: During the 1920s changes in postwar behavior had a liberating effect on
women. Women of the twenties were noticed more for their sex appeal and presented as thus
in the advertising industry. The burden of domestic chores were alleviated with new
technology, while women themselves turned to a more liberated attitude.
Flappers: Called a flapper because they would leave their boot flaps open, the flapper was
the stereotype of a woman in the 1920s. Independent and representing the rebellious youth of
the age, the flapper was usually characterized by her "bobbed" hair, dangling cigarette, heavy
make-up, and her ever shortening skirt length.
Foreign Policy in the 1920s
In relation to the rest of the world, the United States drew into isolation, as reflected through
its foreign policy during the twenties. New restrictions on immigration and a lack of
membership in international organizations, such as the League of Nations and the World
Court, contributed to this isolationist period of America. Focus during this era was upon
domestic affairs more so than foreign affairs.
•Collective Security: The term "collective security" was first mentioned in the inaugural
speech made by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on Oct 5, 1937. In that speech Roosevelt
refereed to the need to quarantine aggressor nations by acting upon them in a collective
measure, thus saying that nations need to stick together in order to combat evil. The
isolationist disposition of the U.S. called for collective security, for Americans sought to
secure their nation after the effects of World War I and maintain prosperity.
World Court: Also named the International Court of Justice, the World Court was
established in 1946 exceeding from a charter that was established by the UN. The principle is
to hear cases that extended from the different participants in the court; not all cases submitted
would be tried; the World Court has the option of choosing cases.
reparations: Reparations is a term applied to the issuing of money from one nation to
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another. The money is usually given to a nation that has been damaged by the destructiveness
of war due to the acts from the other county. During the First and Second World Wars,
reparations were a major concern.
Twenty-One Demands: Japan in 1915, at the end of WWI, invaded the city of Shandong and
forced China to hand over the right of Japanese imperialism in the former German regions
plus the city of Shandong. This act prompted the formulating of the Twenty-One demands
written by China. These demands recognized Japan’s rights in Shandong.
Lansing-Ishii Treaty: Signed on Nov 2, 1917, this treaty was a series of notes between U.S.
Secretary of State Robert Lansing and the Japanese military informer Kikujiro Ishii.
Pertaining to this treaty was the reconciliation of the two countries on the issue of foreign
policy in the Far East. It also helped to reinstate the Open Door Policy.
•Washington Disarmament Conference: Also called the Washington Naval Conference it
convened during 1921-1922. At the conference which was called by the United States the
issue of the arms race and the idea of keeping peace on the Pacific ocean were discussed.
From this conference came the ideal of setting a standard on the desired tonnage that each
nation should have, and the desired amount of battleships that each nation should have.
Five Power Treaty, Four Power Treaty, Nine Power Treaty: The 4 Power treaty (US, GB,
Fr., and Japan) discussed respect towards Pacific nations. The 5 power treaty (US, GB, Fr.,
USSR, and Italy) halted battleship construction for 10 years and developed the ideal tonnage
ratio. The 9 Power Treaty restated the Open Door Policy.
5-5-3-1.75-1.75 ratio: These ratios were conceived on Dec 14, 1920 at the Washington Arms
Conference. The numbers are the allowed amount of tonnage for each nations’ supply of
battleships. The ideal tonnage ratio for the countries were 5-US, 5-GB, 3-Japan, 1.75-France,
1.75 Italy.
Dawes Plan, Young Plan: The Dawes Plan, Aug 1924, regarded reparations payments and
consisted of an annual allotment of 2.5 billion gold pieces to the US from Germany. The
Young Plan signed on Jun 7, 1929 was for the final installment of the reparation payments
and reduced the amount due by Germany significantly.
Kellogg-Briand Treaty: This treaty of 1928 denounced war between countries when it was
used for the purpose of handling relations between countries. Signed by Frank Kellogg of the
US and Aristicie Briand from France on Aug 27, 1928, it sought to bring about a change in
the way countries dealt with foreign policy.
Sending troops into Nicaragua, relations, 1927-1928: The United States refused to
recognize the government established in Nicaragua under the regime of Emiliano Chamorro.
Calvin Coolidge, the president at the time felt it necessary to send troops to Nicaragua.
However, by 1933 Hoover expelled the troops for they were no longer needed.
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Hoover Administration
When Herbert Hoover was elected to the presidency in 1928, Americans viewed him as a man
who would further boost the nation’s growing prosperity. During his term of office, however,
came the onset of the Great Depression, and the ensuing struggle of the government to relieve
Americans and recover the economy. Unfortunately for Hoover, his ideologies and legislation
were not as effective in restoring prosperity to the nation.
The Fordney-McCumber Tariff, 1922: This tariff rose the rates on imported goods in the
hopes that domestic manufacturing would prosper. The goal of this tariff was to push foreign
competition out of the way of American markets and after an isolationist principle was
introduced, the U.S. would become self sufficient.
"Rugged Individualism"; American Individualism, 1922: The ideal quality which every
American should possess, "rugged individualism" meant people who were self made
individuals, who could handle the pressures given by a damaged society, and who would rise
above them in order to succeed. These ideas were encompassed in Hoover’s book.
Welfare capitalism: Hoover welcomed this idea and urged further movement in this
direction. Hoover also believed that cutthroat capitalism was unnecessary. He believed that
economic development demanded corporate cooperation in the areas of workers wages and
production regulations.
Voluntarism: Hoover believed that a socially responsible economic order could only be
brought about by the voluntary action of capitalist leaders and not through governmental
persuasion. Hoover saw this as a way to accelerate the decade’s trend towards corporate
consolidation and cooperation.
Federal Reserve Board: The Federal Reserve Board tried to establish an easy credit policy.
To accomplish this they increased the rate on federal reserve notes to decrease speculation; it
also warned member banks not to loan money for the purpose of buying stocks. Their
message went unheard, and the stock market crash of 1929 resulted.
Black Thursday: Black Thursday refers to Oct 29, 1929 when the great stock market crash
occurred. The crash was caused by a number of ailments: the decline of agriculture, the
unregulated trade within the process of buying stocks, and the panic which led to bank
foreclosures all over the United States.
•Causes of the Great Depression: The Great Depression was not solely caused by the stock
market crash in Oct of 1929. On the contrary there were many other factors involved. The
inflation in agriculture, the uncontrolled policies of the stock market, the overproduction of
goods by industries, the loss of enthusiasm directed at the consumer products that were being
produced and a loss of mirth in the economy created a no buying situation.
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Depression as an International Event: Due to the devastating effects that the Depression
had on the American way of life a spiral of depressions sprung up all over Europe. America
could not keep up with international trading thus further deepening the problem. The areas
hardest hit was England for it depended greatly on U.S. exports.
Trickle Down Theory: Applied by Herbert Hoover, the Trickle Down theory was an
economic ideal which held the belief that the government should get involved in the economy
by pumping money into it, and thus creating a surplus supply of money that would "trickle"
down onto the rest of society.
Reconstruction Finance Corp., (RFC): Created under the presidency of Herbert Hoover, the
RFC was designed to give out loans to banks, railroads, and monopolistic companies in order
to pump money back into the economy during the years of the Depression.
Federal Home Loan Act: Under the presidential term of Hoover in 1931 the Federal Home
Loan Act was created. Within the act a five man Home Loan Board was created and the
creation of banks to handle home mortgages provided money to homeowners that needed
loans.
National Credit Corporation: Created in 1931, the National Credit Corporation under the
persuasion of Herbert Hoover got the largest banks in the country, at that time, to provide
lending agencies that would be able to give banks, on the brink of foreclosure, money that
could be used for loans.
Hoover Dam: Originally called Boulder Dam, it stands 726 feet high and 1244 feet wide.
Located on the Colorado River in Arizona, Hoover Dam provides flood control, electricity,
and irrigation for farms. As part of the New Deal it was constructed between 1931 to 1935
and began operations in 1936.
the Hawley-Smoot Tariff, 1930: Like the Fordney-McCumber Tariff, the Hawley-Smoot
Tariff also rose protective tariffs on the United States. It pushed rates on imported goods to
the highest point they’ve ever been. The isolationist principle also reflect the isolationist move
the US was moving towards in the 1920s..
Emergency Committee for Employment: The Emergency Committee for Employment was
created in 1930 under the presidency of Herbert Hoover. The goal for the committee was to
coordinate efforts between other agencies in order to provide relief for the massive
unemployed during the years of the Great Depression.
Farmers’ Holiday Association: In 1931 farmers from the Midwest got together to discuss
the methods they would use in order to stop the policies that devastated the agricultural
economy. Out of the meeting came the decision to withhold grain and livestock from the
economy.
Hoover Moratorium: The Hoover Moratorium was held in 1931 to discuss the payment of
the allied war debts sustained during WWI. Though the issue was never reconciled due to the
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fact that Britain and other European Countries went off the gold standard before the plan
could be implemented.
•Bonus Army: The Bonus Army was a group of WWI veterans who were supposed to be
given economic relief from the government due to their involvement in the war. However, in
1932 the deadline for the veterans was pushed back by the government to a latter date thus
causing the group to march onto Washington to demand their money. Excessive force was
used to disband these protesters, and because they were veterans and heroes of this country,
Hoover’s popularity plummeted because of it.
"Hooverville": "Hooverville" was a name given to any shanty town that manifested itself
during the period when Herbert Hoover was president. The name was termed due to the cold,
unfriendly disposition that Hoover took on the policy of helping out the poor. Hoover
believed that giving economic aid to the poor would stifle the economy.
Clark Memorandum: The memorandum was called by the U.S. Representative J.Reuben
Clark in Dec of 1928. The purpose of the meeting was to reinstate the principles of the
Monroe Doctrine to the events that were happening in Latin America; it was contradictory to
the ideals of the Roosevelt Corollary.
London Naval Conference: US, GB, Japan, France, and Italy convened in 1930 to come to a
mutual agreement pertaining to the number of battleships that were in existence. The number
of battleships was a great concern to these nations for they wanted to live in peace with one
another, not in a war like situation.
Stimson Doctrine: Based on the principles of the Kellogg-Briand pact, the Hoover-Stimson
doctrine was a collection of letters from the U.S. to China and Japan. These letters written on
Jan 7, 1932, concluded that the U.S. did not formally recognize any change in territory if it
was brought about by armed forces.
Mexico’s naturalization of oil: .The president of Mexico in 1938 was a man named Lazaro
Cardenas. Cardenas nationalized many oil companies, from England and the United States,
valued then at 450 million dollars. The conditions were that Mexico had to give fair
compensation to the countries.
Ambassador Morrow: Turned into an ambassador for Mexico, Dwight D. Morrow also
named Ambassador Morrow was a worker for J.P.Morgan and Company. The main issue that
he focused on was the methods he could use to reconcile differences between the Mexican
government and the Church.
Norris-La Guardia (anti-junction) Act, 1932: The Norris-La Guardia Act forbade the
issuing of injunctions to maintain anti-union contracts of employment, the prevention to
perform work, and the restraining of an act committed by either a group or of an individual
striker.
Election of 1932: candidates, issues: The Republican candidate was Hoover and the
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Democratic one was Franklin D. Roosevelt. The issue was ending the Great Depression.
Hoover’s platform was to increase the government’s role in the economy; Roosevelt’s
message was "Pay attention to the forgotten man at the bottom of the economy period."
Roosevelt won.
Roosevelt and the New Deal
Declining appeal of Hoover to the public led to the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932.
Roosevelt’s extensive program to restore the economy made up the New Deal. Overall, these
legislative measures dealt with assisting people financially, reform other systems and
institutions, and recover the prosperity before the Depression. While not all were entirely
successful, the various programs all contributed to the eventual, though gradual, recovery of
the economy.
Age of the Radio: Radio reached its climax in the 1930s when millions of Americans listened
to network news commentators, musical programs, and comedy shows. Also, the president
and business companies utilized this resource to attract people, sell products, or to promote a
political issue.
Fireside Chats: During the first hundred days of Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office
Roosevelt held informal radio conversations every so often that were dubbed "fireside chats."
The topic discussed was the economy that had been plagued by the depression, and the means
that were going to be taken in order to revive it.
Roosevelt, Eleanor: Eleanor Roosevelt is portrayed as a U.S. humanitarian and displayed her
politics and social issues as a wife of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. She mostly fought for
women and minority groups. Many of her books include the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and This Is My Story and On My Own.
Perkins, Frances, Secretary of Labor: Being the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet
position (1933-1945), Perkins was also a social reformer. During her term, Perkins
strengthened the Department of Labor, pushed for a limit on employment age, and developed
the CCC, the Social Security Act, and Fair Labor Standards Act (1938).
Brain Trust: The term brain trust refers to the individual people outside the Franklin
Roosevelt appointed presidential cabinet that helped in the decision making process of the
president. The men most known are: Raymond Moley, Rexford Tugwell, and Adolph A.
Berle. Moley was conservative while Tugwell and Berle were interested in reform.
•Keynesian economics: Keynes looked at the economy in a wider sense: macroeconomics.
He theorized that the relationship between supply and demand was critical: when the demand
doesn’t meet expectations there is unemployment and depression while if demand surpasses
production inflation occurs. The solution is to have the government spend while maintaining
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low taxes and when there is demand that a tight budget should be created.
Pump-priming: Supported by Roosevelt, this theory pumped governmental money to the
poor so they could buy products. This would increase sales and cause a demand for that
product. This demand in turn will produce jobs for the poor. Now that the poor have jobs they
have the necessary income to buy products and this cycle occurs again.
Deficit spending: The manner in which the government spends more than it receives is
refereed to as deficit spending. This is done to stimulate the economy through the rise in
government costs or due to the decrease of taxation. On the other hand, deficit spending is
also seen as inefficiency of government spending.
Monetary policy, fiscal policy: The policy gave government control of the money supply
and created a high economic rate to stabilized prices and wages. Fiscal policy is regulation of
trade between domestic or foreign goods. Import duties are still possible, but fiscal policy
makes an exception because its purpose is to raise revenue.
New Deal: In light of the Great Depression, FDR proposed a series of relief and emergency
measures known collectively as the New Deal. Through these measures, FDR intended to
revive the lost prosperity of the economy by reforming other institutions and programs, by
relieving the plight of the people, and thus recover the nation’s wealth.
Hundred Days: Measures taken during Roosevelt’s first days in office, from Mar 9 to Jun 16,
enabled FDR to pass acts critical to stabilizing the economy. The Hundred Days symbolized
the beginning stages of the New Deal because the measures taken focused on relief, recovery
and reform: key phrases from the New Deal itself.
•Relief, Recovery, and Reform: These three areas, relief, recovery, and reform, are the
categories into which the New Deal was split. The Relief category was defined by the acts
implemented in the area of aid to the unemployment. The Recovery category put forth
measures that would help aid in the speedy recovery of areas hit hardest by the depression
(i.e. agriculture and industry). Reform was a category in which the government tried to
recreate areas that seemed faulty (i.e. banking system).
"Bank Holiday": Franklin Roosevelt in 1932 called for a "bank holiday" which permitted
banks that were hurt from the depression to close down for a few days in order to regain
stability. Further help to relieve the problem of the foreclosing of banks was the Emergency
Banking Act which was passed during the holiday to help open more banks.
Emergency Banking Relief Act, 1933: Implemented during the first hundred days of
Franklin Roosevelt’s first term the Emergency Banking Relief Act allowed the reopening of
healthy banks. The act provided healthy banks with a Treasury Department license and
handled the affairs of the failed banks.
Glass-Steagall Act, 1933: In February of 1933 the Glass-Steagal Act was signed. The act
itself made 750 million dollars that had once been kept in the governments gold reserves now
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able to be used in the creation of loans to private businesses and other major corporations.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. (FDIC): This measure as the second of the banking acts
enacted during Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office, passed in Jun of 1933. The Federal
Deposit Insurance Committee allowed all bank deposits up to 5,000 dollars; it separated
deposit banking from investment banking.
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): Placed under the PWA, Jun 1933, the NIRA
focused on the employment of the unemployed and the regulation of unfair business ethics.
The NIRA pumped money into the economy to stimulate the job market and created codes
that businesses were to follow to maintain the ideal of fair competition.
•National Industrial Recovery Administration (NRA): Promoting recovery, the National
Industrial recovery Administration was designed to administer the codes of "fair competition"
brought forth by the NIRA. Such codes established production limits, set wages and working
conditions, and disallowed price cutting and unfair competitive practices. The main focus of
the NRA was to break wage cuts and strikes, both which stifled the economy.
Section 7a of the NRA: Developed by Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, section 7a
allowed the workers to organize and enabled them to bargain collectively. In addition,
Wagner helped organized labor by not allowing employers from discriminating against union
members.
"The Blue Eagle," Johnson, Hugh: Hugh Johnson was the head of the National Recovery
Administration who quickly created the organization and rallied support for the NRA by
throwing parades in all of the main cities across the United States. "The Blue Eagle" was the
symbol of the NRA.
•Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), second AAA 1938: The first AAA was rendered
unconstitutional years after the Act of 1938. It tried to help mend the ailing problems that had
plagued agriculture since the ending of the First World War. In order to stop the problem of
"dust bowls" created by the overuse of soil, the government, under the AAA, granted
subsidies to farms who did not continually use the same plot of soil. The government also
tried to restrict the production of certain commodities.
•Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): Created under Franklin Roosevelt, the CCC aimed at
men particularly in the age group from 18-25. This program created jobs that would try to
conserve the nation’s natural resources. The CCC would take these men out of the workforce
and place them on jobs that would reforest certain areas, teach fire prevention and soil
conservation, and help to stop soil erosion. Between 1933-1942
3 million men were put to work under the CCC; each man would work for one year.
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): One of the most powerful social
workers, Harry Hopkins, administered this program directed at local causes. Franklin D.
Roosevelt created the FERA in May 1933 and as a part of the New Deal, this measure
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allocated $500 million to relieve cities and states.
Civil Works Administration (CWA): In Nov 1933 relief administrator Harry Hopkins
convinced Franklin D. Roosevelt to create the CWA. The CWA provided temporary public
works that allocated a billion dollars for short-term projects for the jobless during the winter
but was demolished when the spring arrived.
Public Works Administration (PWA): Harold Ickes: Headed by Harold Ickes, the
Secretary of Interior, who was cautious and suspicious, the PWA was a governmental agency
which spent $4 billion on 34,000 public works project which constructed dams, bridges, and
public buildings.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): Senator Norris: Pushed for by Senator George Norris,
the TVA was a governmental agency which ruled several federal programs of building dams,
the construction of hydroelectric dams, and controlling floods. Created in 1933, the TVA was
eventually curtailed in 1980 when nuclear plants were introduced.
National Youth Administration (NYA): As part of President Roosevelt’s New Deal plan, he
set up the National Youth Administration to provide part time work for high school and
college students. This agency served more than two million people and was set up because
students were the most rebellious due to their exposure to new ideas.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): The SEC, established in 1934, protected
investors, listened to complaints, issued licenses and penalized fraud. The SEC required the
registration of all companies and securities and required disclosure of company information
and registration of all company securities exchanged.
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC): As part of the Hundred Days that understood
the nation’s tragedy of foreclosed mortgages, the HOLC refinanced American home
mortgages. This valiant effort allowed one-fifth of all U.S. mortgages to become refinanced
which would prevent another Great Depression
Farm Credit Administration: During Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office, an important
federal agency was established; it was named the Farm Credit Administration. It was designed
to help rural Americans refinance their farmland; it also helped to restore the livelihood that
was missing in agriculture.
Federal Housing Authority (FHA): This agency forced small down payments and lowinterest loans on home sales and thus stimulated the economy. This stimulation allowed a new
market for private homes that accelerated the construction-industry through the utilization of
technology to mass-produce homes.
Gold Clause Act, 1935: The Gold Clause Act stated that private contracts dealing with
certain railroad bonds were unable to interfere in the coining of money. The regulation in the
value of money for those areas defined were specifically the areas given to Congress when the
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Constitution was written.
•Works Progress Administration (WPA), Hopkins, Harry, Federal Arts Project:
Directed by Harry Hopkins in 1935, the eight year program employed 8 million people and
provided $11 billion dollars to the economy in which 650,000 miles of roads, 124,000
bridges, and 125,000 schools, hospitals, arts, and post offices were built. The Federal Arts
Project created positions for artists by making positions for art teachers and decorated posts
for offices and courthouses with murals.
Rural Electrification Administration (REA): The REA was an agency that provided lowinterest loans to utility companies and farmers’ cooperatives to reach the 90% of rural farmers
who lacked electrical power. This program was so successful that by 1941 40% of these farms
had received electrical power.
Wagner Act, 1935: Supported by R. F. Wagner, the Wagner Act of 1935 established defined
unjust labor practices, secured workers the right to bargain collectively, and established the
National Labor Relations Board. As an integral part of the New Deal, it catalyzed the force of
unionization. (Also known as the National Labor Relation Act)
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB): This agency was assembled by Congress in 1935
and oversaw the National Labor Relation Act (1935). As an independent agency, the NLRB
controlled the secret ballot elections during collective bargaining and managed the complaints
of unfairness by the employers or unions.
Revenue Act, 1935: This act allowed the government to raise a spectrum of tariffs ranging
from personal taxes at higher income levels to rises in corporate taxes to having heavier levies
on gifts and estates. As an expression of the class spirit of the Second New Deal, there were
many loopholes.
Social Security Act: Created by the U.S. Congress on August 14,1935, this act supported
old-age advantages by utilizing a pay roll tax on employers and employees. This originated
from the Townsend clubs which pushed for a $200 pension. Soon the program was expanded
to include dependents, the disabled, and adjusted with the inflation.
Resettlement Administration: As part of the New Deal and led by Rexford Tugwell, this
agency created loans for small farmers and sharecroppers to buy their own farms. Even
though the Resettlement Administration lasted two years, it satisfied the requirements of the
governmental concern of sharecroppers.
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act: As part of the Second New Deal in relation to the
high unemployment rate in April 1935, Congress was forced into passing the Emergency
Relief Appropriation Act in which Roosevelt was granted five billion dollars, part of which he
used to set up the Works Progress Administration.
Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, 1936: The Soil Conservation and Domestic
Allotment Act was formulated to replace the Agricultural Adjustment Act. The act, by
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providing benefit payments to farmers who practiced soil conservation methods, helped to
stem the overproduction in agriculture thus stabilizing farm prices.
Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenancy Act: The act created the Farm Security Administration and
replaced the Resettlement Administration. This agency created low-interest loans allowing
farmers and sharecroppers to buy their own land. By 1941, they had loaned 1 billion dollars
assisting thousands of farmers.
Fair Labors Standards Act: maximum hours and minimum wage: This act was created
by the Roosevelt administration of northerners to undermine the South’s competitive edge. It
established a minimum wage for most workers while it concurrently created a forty-four hour
work week and banned child labor.
Results of the New Deal: Several accomplishments of the New Deal contributed to the
nation’s economy. For the first time, the federal government assumed responsibility in
reviving economic prosperity, vastly increasing the power of the president. The legislative
measures brought reform and reinstated confidence in the people.
Twentieth Amendment: Also known as the Lame-Duck Amendment the Twentieth
Amendment in 1933 called for the ending of the "lame-duck" sessions of Congress from Dec
of the even numbered years until the following Mar. The amendment also set the date of the
President’s inauguration back to Jan 20.
Wikersham Convention: Officially named the National Committee on Law Observation and
Enforcement, the Wikersham Convention in May of 1929 discussed the probing problems of
prohibition, the treatment of juvenile delinquents, the cost of law enforcement, and other
similar problems that faced society during that era.
Twenty-First Amendment: Ratified within the span of 10 months, the Twenty-First
Amendment on Dec 5, 1933 repealed the eighteenth amendment which dealt with the passing
of prohibition. The amendment also permitted states to levy a tax on alcoholic substances.
Good Neighbor Policy: Stated in 1933 by Roosevelt in his inaugural address, the ideology
was that the U.S. would respect the rights of other nations. This policy was used on various
occasions of armed troops being sent to Latin America to maintain political stability.
Ultimately this resulted in support from Latin America during World War II.
Recognition of the USSR, 1933: The United States didn’t recognize Russia because of the
betrayal when Russia withdrew from WWI due to the Russian Revolution in March of 1917.
Also, at the treaty of Versailles, Wilson and the other Allies agreed to weaken Russia. Only
until Roosevelt’s presidency did the U.S. recognize Russia.
Indian Reorganization Act, 1934: Authorized by the U.S. Congress, it allowed the Indians a
form of self-government and thus willingly shrank the authority of the U.S. government.
Enacted on Jun 18, 1934, it provided the Indians direct ownership of their land, credit, a
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constitution, and a charter in which Indians could manage their own affairs.
Coalition of the Democratic Party: blacks, unions, intellectuals, big cities machines,
South: Franklin D. Roosevelt relied on state and local Democratic leaders who pushed
beyond the traditional Democratic base. Because blacks, intellectuals, big city machines, and
Southerners favored these relief programs, they merged with the Democratic Party.
"conservative coalition" in Congress: Because of the combination of a majority in Congress
and the agreeableness of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Congress was viewed as
conservative. An example of this is that the Emergency Banking Act passed through Congress
in one day.
American Federation of Labor, AFL: The AFL was led by Samuel Gompers and was
composed of craft unions that excluded unskilled and semiskilled workers. The size of the
union grew as production in the 1900’s grew. By 1935, the dissidents formed the Committee
for Industrial Organization.
United Mine Workers, UMW: This union was created by militant leader John L. Lewis in
1890; its methods, based on his stands on increases in pay, safer working conditions, and
political stands, reflect Lewis’ military style. In 1935 it had about 250,000 members out of
which Lewis co-founded the CIO.
Steel Workers Organization Committee, SWOC: Led by Philip Murray, SWOC gained
recognition by striking against U.S. Steel. By March 1937, U.S. Steel recognized the union,
gave the workers a wage increase, and accepted a 40-hour week. Because of this action, many
other companies began to do the same.
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), Lewis, John L.: John L. Lewis of the United
Mine Workers and Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers established the
CIO in the November of 1935. This 2 million-member group welcomed all autoworkers,
steelworkers, and electrical workers.
sit down strikes: These strikes were characterized by employees occupying the work place
yet doing nothing. This type of passive resistance allowed the employees to halt production,
thus paralyzing the business. This tactic was utilized in the strike by the United Automobile
Workers against General Motors in 1937.
Liberty League: This group was made of conservative Democrats who were against the
economic and fiscal policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal. It lasted for four years and
was composed of famous members like Alfred E. Smith and John W. Davis. Ending in 1940,
they supported the Republican candidate, Alf Landon.
Long, Huey, Share the Wealth, Smith, Gerald L.K.: Both radical agitators, Long was
known for his Share the Wealth program that painted a picture in which "every man [was] a
king." Smith decried blacks, Catholics, Communists, and labor unions in the Union Party
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(1936), America First Party (1944), and the Christian National Crusade (1947).
Coughlin, Father Charles: Coughlin used his status as a U.S. Roman Catholic "radio priest"
to announce his political and economic views. He asserted reactionary views and revolved
around anti-New Deal and ant-Semitic views. In addition, he created the magazine Social
Justice which attacked Communism, Wall Street, and Jews.
Townsend, Dr. Francis: Townsend developed the Townsend Plan in 1933 which embraced 5
million supporters. It called for a pension for citizens over 60 years of age to receive $200
provided by the federal government. Although Congress rejected it, Townsend’s ideals were
an early foundation of the Social Security Act.
Hughes, Chief Justice Charles Evans: Hughes guided the Supreme Court in the attack
against President Roosevelt in his plan to "pack" the Supreme Court in 1937. Also, he upheld
the Wagner Act in which workers had the right of collective bargaining in the National Labor
Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel.
Schechter v. United States: This case took place in May 1935 when a New York company
was charged with a violation of an NRA poultry code; these charges resulted in the Supreme
Court declaring the NRA unconstitutional by stating that the NRA was regulating interstate
commerce a violation of federal regulation.
•"court packing" proposal: This proposal was announced by Franklin D. Roosevelt
allowing the president to appoint new Supreme Court members for each one over 70 years of
age, totaling six in all. After Chief Justice Evan Hughes’ leadership in expressing their
disapproval in this plan, Congress and the American people disapproved of the action as well.
This resulted in some New Dealers leaving the president’s side and humiliated President
Franklin D. Roosevelt.
New Members of the Supreme Court: Black, Hugo, Reed, Stanley F., Frankfurter, Felix,
Douglass, William O.: These four men were appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt between
1937 to 1939 to guarantee a foundation for a liberal majority and thus extending Roosevelt’s
New Deal policies after leaving office.
Election of 1936: candidates, issues: The candidates included Franklin D. Roosevelt from
the Democratic Party, Alfred M. Landon from the Republican party, and William Lemke from
the Union Party. The principal issue was how to exploit the New Deal’s popularity. In the
end, FDR won in a landslide victory.
Literacy Digest Poll: The poll was initiated by Franklin D. Roosevelt during his presidency
and involved in a court case: Literacy Digest poll v. Gallop Poll. There, they debated on the
validity of each poll in relation to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.
•Second New Deal: Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and expressed in his State of
the Union Address in January 1935, the Second New Deal focused on and enlarged the
federal program to incorporate the jobless, to help the unemployed receive jobs, to give
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assistance to the rural poor, organized labor, and social welfare. Roosevelt wanted to levy
heavier taxes on the rich, create harder regulations on businesses, and to incorporate socialwelfare benefits.
Robinson-Patman Act, 1936: Originated from a Federal Trade Commission chain store
investigation, this act was an amendment to the Clayton Act; it eliminated unfair business
practices and destroyed monopolies. On Jun 19, 1936, this act was passed and applied to all
buyers or sellers, and merchants large or small.
Miller-Tydings Act, 1937: The purpose of this act was to amend the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
by exempting any contract or agreement ("horizontal agreements") in which a product would
be set at a significantly lower price. A violation of this would be an unfair method as stated in
the Federal Trade Commission Act.
"Roosevelt recession": Although the economy improved in 1936 and early 1937, it once
again fell back in mid 1937, when industrial production and steel output declined, and
unemployment statistics increased. Some of the major factors of this recession were federal
policies that greatly reduced consumer income.
Hatch Act, 1939: Supported by Senator Carl Hatch of New Mexico and passed by Congress
on Aug 2, 1939, the Hatch Act tried to exterminate corruption during elections. It disallowed
bribery of votes, restricted federal employees from political campaigning, and limited
donations from individuals which were to be given to political campaigns.
•dust bowl, Okies, John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath: "Okies" were poor farmers who
moved west to California and Arizona during the 1930s or moved to the crowded cities. This
occurred because after two generations of a melange of drought and poor farming techniques
these areas, also known as "dust bowls," once fertile land, became waste areas and unusable.
The Grapes of Wrath written by Steinbeck in 1939 illustrates the plight of a dust bowl family.
GATHERING STORM
The two decades prior to the outbreak of hostilities in World War II were a period of
increasing unrest both politically and socially in many areas of the world. Some of the issues
were related to unresolved conflicts left over from World War I. Depression and out of
control inflation totally destabilized Germany’s government and allowed the rise to power of
the Nazis, who were able to capitalize on a German sense of injustice and nationalistic
frustration.
Montevideo Conference: This conference was held in 1933. A U.S. delegation to the
conference endorsed a document that declared "no state has the right to intervene in the
internal affairs of another. Secretary of State furthered the interests of Latin American States
when he asked for a reduction of trade barriers.
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Rio de Janeiro Conference, 1933: Meeting of 19 American republics, in which the
American treaty of reciprocal Assistance was signed, committing each republic to assist
another in times of any attack or if an American republic were threatened by a situation not
involving an armed attack, members would meet and decide necessary actions to be taken
Buenos Aires Conference, 1936: It was opened by Roosevelt when he stated in a speech that
any non-American state seeking "to commit acts of aggression against us will face a
Hemisphere wholly prepared to consult together for our mutual safety and our mutual good."
Also a pact was adopted promising consultation if war was imminent
Lima Conference, 1938: Another conference before WWII, the Lima Conference adopted
the Declaration of Lima, and also restated the sovereignty of the American states;
Additionally, it expressed the U.S. determination to resist "all foreign intervention or
activities that may threaten them."
Declaration of Panama, 1939: Adopted at Panama city by the foreign ministers of the
American Republics, sixteen resolutions were passed to deal with the outbreak of war in
Europe. Resolution no. XIV entitled "Declaration of Panama," stated that American waters
should be free of hostilities from non-belligerent nations.
Act of Havana, 1940: The act was created to prevent the transfer to European colonies to
Germany in the western hemisphere. It stated that the American Republics would take over
and administer any European possession in the New World endangered by aggression. It was
unanimously approved by the Pan American Nations.
Jones Act, 1916: This act provided for the government of the Philippines and committed the
U.S. to the future independence of the Philippines. Descendants of Spanish subjects in 1899
were designated citizens. Voting rights were given to all literate male citizens over 21, the
Philippine Congress was made elective, and Supreme Court justices were to be appointed by
the president.
Tydings-McDuffie Act, 1934, Philippines: The act eliminated certain objectionable
provisions of a previous act known as the Hawes-Cutting Act, which provided for the
independence of the Philippine Islands after 12 years; It also provided for trade relations with
the U.S. effective 10 years after the inauguration of an authorized government.
Nye Committee: Instituted due to public concern over the issue that the U.S. was dragged
into WW I, this committee was headed by Senator Gerald Nye. The Committee held hearings
between 1934 and 1936 and compiled evidence of involvement of U.S. banks and
corporations financing WWI and supplying arms and loans to the Allied nations.
"merchants of death": This term refers to the business corporations and banks who were
blamed for dragging the U.S. into the war because they were desperate to protect the millions
of dollars invested in loans and weapon sales to Britain and France. All these allegations were
investigated by the Nye committee.
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•neutrality legislation: A series of Neutrality Acts were passed in 1935, 1936, and 1937,
these laws placed an embargo on exports of war materials to belligerents. It also warned U.S.
citizens not to travel on belligerent vessels, prohibited loans to belligerent nations, and
instituted the cash and carry policy which meant that nations that were seeking to trade with
the U.S. had to purchase the goods they wanted as well as provide their own vessels in which
they could be shipped out to their country.
Popular Front: In order to gain the support of the Allies, Russia’s Commissar of Foreign
Affairs MaksimM. Litvinov asked for action against fascist governments. Russia sought a
formation of united-front governments in foreign countries. This united or popular front
formed in 1938, called for a collaboration of Communist Socialist to fight fascism.
Spanish Civil War, Franco: This war lasted from 1936-1939. In July of 1936, fascist Franco
led the Spanish army units to overthrow the elected government in Spain. The revolution was
supported by Spanish conservatives, monarchists, landowners, industrialists, and Roman
Catholic hierarchy.
Ethiopia: Mussolini was intent on building an African empire comparable to those of the
European nations. In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia which did not have a way of stopping
him from invading because Ethiopia was such a weak nation without a strong army and a
supply of ammunition.
Mussolini: Mussolini founded the Fasci de Combitimmento after being kicked out of the
Socialist party in 1919. He came into power in the 1920s, and by 1926, Mussolini had
transformed Italy into a single-party totalitarian regime. He also pursued an aggressive policy
which won him support in every sector of the population.
Japan Attacks China, Chiang Kai-shek: Japan was taken over by a militaristic government
that had expansionist dreams. In 1931, Japan attacked the Chinese province of Manchuria and
installed a puppet government. In 1937, Japan declared war against China; China’s leader,
Chiang Kai-shek, was powerless to stop it.
Panay Incident, 1937: Japanese bombers engaged in war with China bombed and sank the
marked U.S. gunboat Panay and three Standard Oil ships, which were evacuating American
officials from China. Japan accepted responsibilities of bombing the ships, made a formal
apology and promised indemnities later set at $2 million.
"Quarantine speech," 1937: Roosevelt recognized the power of the antiwar feelings
demonstrated at home; not one to push ahead of public opinion, he assured a visiting
Australian leader in 1935 that America would never enter a war. In a 1937 speech, he
suggested the possibility of a "quarantine" of aggressor nations.
Hitler, Nazism: Adolf Hitler’s Nazi party came into power in 1933 and clamped a
dictatorship on Germany. His racist views targeted all non-white Christians who expressed
anti-German ideas. He pursued a militaristic and expansionist foreign policy, evident in his
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plan to raise a half million man army and expand German borders to Russia.
Kristallnacht: Meaning "The Night of Broken Glass," this rampage was carried out by Nazis
all over Germany and Austria to destroy Jewish homes and structures. Thousands of homes
were vandalized and synagogues were burned to the ground. Jewish businesses and schools
were wrecked and looted. Nothing was spared.
•Munich Conference, appeasement, Neville Chamberlain: This conference was held in
1938 between England and Germany. Chamberlain, representing England, gave in to Hitler’s
demands on territory that Germany had lost after the end of WWI. Chamberlain was very
much blamed for the oncoming of WWII due to his actions toward Hitler. Many people in
Britain were very disappointed in Chamberlain and how easily he had appeased to the
demands of Hitler. He was replaced soon after by Winston Churchill.
Austria Annexed: Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 and expanded the German borders. Nazi
sympathizers in Austria welcomed Hitler’s annexation of Austria. He proclaimed an
Anschluss between Austria and Germany and German troops rolled into the capital city
Vienna. Hitler’s actions here furthered his plans to expand German borders and his rule.
nonaggression pact between Germany and USSR: Stalin, who advocated a popular front
against fascism, signed a pact with Nazi Germany on August 24, 1939 agreeing not to make
war on each other and divided up Poland between the two nations: the USSR and Germany.
This was a severe blow to the Popular Front.
Overview of 1940-1960
Gathering Storm 1940-1941
As World War Two began in Europe, the United States attempted to maintain a distance.
However, as hostilities escalated in both the East and West, the United States was fenced in
and forced to choose a side. Supporting the Allied forces, the United States, though not
officially in the war, was considered a legitimate target by the Axis. After France fell to
Germany, pressure increased on the United States. Finally, the Japanese attack on Pearl
Harbor pulled the United States into the global conflict.
Invasion of Poland, Blitzkrieg: When Poland refused to restore the German city of Danzig
lost after WWI, Hitler’s troops attacked Poland on Sept.1, 1939. April 1940, Hitler unleashed
his Blitzkrieg, or "lightening war," and quickly occupied many western European nations.
Axis Powers: Group of countries opposed to the Allied powers. Originated in the RomeBerlin Axis with the 1936 Hitler-Mussolini Accord and their alliance in 1939. In Sept. 1940,
it was extended when Japan was incorporated into the Axis by the signing of the Tripartite
pact. The Axis powers were Japan, Italy and Germany.
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"cash and carry": A precautionary move by the U.S. to make sure they stayed isolationist.
Nations who wanted to trade had to purchase the materials from the U.S. and carry them on
their own vessels. This meant that the allied countries had to only pay for the goods and the
United States would ship them.
fall of France: Hitler’s launched his blitzkrieg on France in 1938. The British were already
being driven back when Hitler attacked Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. England
evacuated 338,000 men from the English channel. Mussolini attacked from the South at the
same time, and on Jun. 22 France capitulated.
America First Committee: When FDR expressed a desire for American intervention in
WWII, he was faced with stiff resistance by the America First Committee in 1940. The
committee was compromised of many pro-isolationist who thought that the allied powers
could do nothing to stop the war.
Isolationism, Lindbergh, Charles: Isolationism was the foreign policy practiced by America
after WWI, as most citizens did not want to be involved in many international affairs. Charles
Lindbergh was a big supporter of this policy, and even joined the America First Committee to
demonstrate his antiwar sentiment.
Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies: Instituted by Roosevelt to oversee
loans and other such financial activities occurring while Germany attacked Britain. The
Committee, oversaw lend lease policy implemented by Roosevelt for purposes of protecting
America and also to help stop Germany in Europe.
Smith Act: The Smith Act was created in 1940 and outlawed any conspiracy to overthrow the
government. It was largely used in the later years of communist hysteria, and imprisoned
individuals not because of any acts of violence or espionage, but rather for their rhetoric and
their views on the American government..
Tojo: Japanese leader during WWII. An extreme militarist, advocated total war. Became
Army Chief of Staff in 1937. Led the Japanese army against Manchuria, and in 1940 made
Minister of War. In 1941, appointed Prime Minister, and controlled government and military
operations during WWII. Resigned 1944.
destroyers-for-bases deal: In exchange for fifty old WWI American destroyers which had in
been recommissioned in 1939 and 1940 and were serving on neutrality patrol, Britain gave the
United States 99 year leases to establish military bases on British possessions in the Western
hemisphere.
election of 1940: candidates, issues: Roosevelt was nominated by the Democrats for a third
term, and the Republicans nominated Wendell L. Willkie. The major issues were WWII and
military spending. Roosevelt endorsed the nation’s 1st peacetime draft and advocated a
military spending increase.
•"Lend Lease," March 1941: Program set up to loan the Allied nations arms and other
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materials to wage war against the Axis powers. The Lend-lease bill was approved by
Congress in 1941, which originally authorized $7 billion. Thirty-five other nations besides
Great Britain, USSR, France, and China received loans from the lend lease. By August 1945,
the amount totaled $48 billion, of which the United States received $6 billion in repayment by
these nations.
Tripartite Pact: The Tripartite Pact was a 10 year military and economic alliance also known
as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Japan signed this alliance in September, 1940, with the
previously allied Italy and Germany. Each of the signatories pledged to help the others in the
event of an attack by the U. S.
Atlantic Charter, August 1941: FDR met Churchill to discuss joint military strategy. Their
public statement expressed their ideas of a postwar world, and frowned upon aggression,
affirmed national self-determination, and endorsed the principles of collective security and
disarmament.
•Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941: On the morning of December 7, scores of Japanese divebombers and torpedo planes flew across Oahu to bomb the ships that were anchored in Peal
Harbor, and to strafe the planes parked side by side at nearby air bases. In less that 3 hours,
over 300 aircraft were destroyed or damaged, and 8 battleships, 3 light cruisers, and 3
destroyers were sunk or crippled. Worst loss of U.S. arms in history.
Homefront
Though World War Two was not fought on U.S. soil, the entire country pitched in to help the
war effort. Housewives grew Liberty Gardens and went to work in place of the drafted men.
The United States government established many wartime organizations to monitor supplies
and food as well control propaganda. Families were encouraged to help fathers and brothers
by not buying tin or rationing sugar or buying war bonds. Everyone on the homefront was
expected to do his or her part in the war as well.
•Japanese Relocation: Japanese-born Americans and immigrants from Japan were sent to
concentration camps in the early 1940’s because of a fear that they would leak out
information about the U.S. to Japan. Most of these people were suspected of being spies for
the Japanese, though there was no solid evidence to support such accusations. The captured
Japanese were released in 1942, and FDR apologized to them.
Revenue Act of 1942: Because of the expenditure on the war, Roosevelt wanted to pay for as
much as possible through taxes. Although Congress refused to grant him a progressive tax, in
1942, the Revenue Act raised the top income-tax rate from 60% to 90% and added middle
class and lower income groups to the tax bracket as well.
bond drives: In order to finance the war and give people a sense of involvement in the war
effort, bond drives were held. The treasury department sold about $40 billion "E" bonds to
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investors, and nearly twice the amount in higher denomination. The bonds raised half the
money for WWII.
War Production Board: In 1942, FDR announced a plan for massive war production. In
order to get the necessary amount of raw materials, FDR established the War Production
Board. It allocated scarce materials, limited or stopped the production of civil goods, and
distributed contracts among competing manufacturers.
Office of Price Administration (OPA): Instituted in 1942, this agency was in charge of
stabilizing prices and rents and preventing speculation, profiteering, hoarding and price
administration. The OPA froze wages and prices and initiated a rationing program for items
such as gas, oil, butter, meat, sugar, coffee and shoes.
War Labor Board: Established in 1942, the War Labor Board was instituted to mediate
disputes between management and labor, and sought to prevent strikes and out of control
wage increases. The War Labor Board acted as the mediator to prevent massive strikes and
wage increases that occurred with the demand for workers.
War Refugee Board (WRB): FDR established the War Refugee Board in 1943 to help
rescue and assist the many people who were condemned to death camps. It relocated many
refugees in need, although it was late in inception. Although it saved 200,000 Jews and
20,000 non-Jews, 1 million still died.
War Manpower Commission (WMC): FDR established the War Manpower Commission in
1942 to help supervise the mobilization of males and females in the military, and the war
industry, and also to study how profit can be gained through the production of weapons and
supplies.
Office of Censorship, Office of War Information: Roosevelt wanted public opinion to be
positive during the war, and in 1941, he established the Office of Censorship. It examined all
written documents, including works of publishers and broadcasters, as well as all letters going
overseas, in order to maintain the positive public opinion in America.
Office of Strategic Services: FDR and the Joint Chief of Staffs formed the Office of
Strategic Services which served as an intelligence agency during WWII and was a
predecessor of the CIA. It began on June 13,1942 to conduct espionage, gather intelligence
information required for planning, and to analyze the enemy. Discontinued by Truman in
1945.
Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD): Formed in 1941 to contract out
the development of new medicines and ordinances. It spent $1 billion dollars to produce
sonar, radar devices, rockets, tanks, advanced jets, and the development of DDT and other
pesticides.
•African-Americans in World War II: Many civil rights groups used the need of the
government for the cooperation of all its citizens in the war effort to push a new militancy in
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redressing discrimination. Blacks moved into service in all areas of the military, although
most in segregated units until 1948. A large migration of blacks from the South to Northern
industrial areas made civil rights a national rather than regional concern and broadened the
political effects of black votes.
•Women in World War II: Women served in significant numbers during World War II, both
as civilian support personnel and in the uniformed services in the Woman’s Army Corps
(WAC) and Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service in the Navy (WAVES).
Women pilots ferried planes from station to station, freeing men for combat pilot positions.
Women moved into the civilian workforce, including heavy industry, replacing those men
who had entered the military.
The U.S. and the Second World War
The United States was involved in two major areas of conflict, the struggle in Europe and the
battle in the Pacific Theater. Opting to first prevent the complete takeover of Europe, the
United States hoped that after Germany was defeated, the Allies would concentrate on the
Japanese threat. From bases in England and Africa, the Allied forces hammered at the Italian
and German lines. Island hopping proved to be the only way the United States could retake
the Pacific from the Japanese.
Eisenhower, General; MacArthur, General: Eisenhower led the D-Day invasion with great
success, and was highly respected by his peers in the armed forces. General MacArthur was
credited for the great successes that the Americans had in the Pacific wars. He was the
strategist behind the Pacific Wars.
Marshall, George Catlett: An American military commander who was Army Chief of Staff
during World War II. He became Secretary of State for President Truman, and as such played
an important role in aiding the postwar economic recovery of Europe with the Marshall Plan,
which provided assistance to war-torn Western Europe.
Operation Torch: Undertaken in November 1942, it employed an allied army of more than
100,000 troops. Led by General Eisenhower, the troops landed in Morocco and Algeria and
pressed eastward to entrap the German forces being pushed by British forces in Libya.
Surrounded, the Germans surrendered in May 1943.
Invasion of Sicily: Stalin pleaded for a second front in Russia, but Churchill objected and
Roosevelt agreed for a plan to invade Sicily in the summer on 1943. In roughly a month,
allied forces seized control of Sicily. Italian military leaders surrendered to the allied forces
on September 8 1943.
Battle of Midway: In 1942, the Japanese were determined to wipe out any remaining ships of
the decimated American fleet when they sailed toward Midway. But, Japanese codes were
decoded and Admiral Nimitz knew the exact plans and location of the Japanese ships. In a
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clever move, he ordered dive-bombers to destroy the ships.
Genocide, "Final solution": Hitler persecuted Jews in Germany and sought to rid Germany
of them. During WWII, he set up many concentration camps, where Jews were methodically
executed by means of poisonous gas or other forms. By the end, 6 million perished.
second front: The plan that was going to be used to aid the Soviet Union in fighting the
Germans. Roosevelt was convinced by Churchill to delay the second front from 1942 to a
later date, when the allies were better equipped to fight, and have forces in Africa to protect
English colonies since Germany was attacking Africa.
D-Day, June 6, 1944: In the first 24 hours, 150,000 allied troops landed on the beach of
Normandy. An additional million waded ashore in the following weeks, and allies reached
inland in July, arriving in Paris by August. By summer’s end British secured Belgium and the
Americans recovered France and Luxembourg.
Stalingrad: The site of one of the bloodiest battles during WWII. Thousands of soldiers died
at the hands of German and Russian armies during the battle of Stalingrad.. The Russians
were victorious at the battle, and thus were able to launch a counter-offensive against
Germany and drive the Nazis from Russia.
Churchill, Winston: British Prime Minister during WWII, member of the Big Three. The
Big Three was compromised of Stalin, FDR and him and were the major parties involved in
allied conferences. When Germany first began attacking Britain, he asked for assistance from
the U.S. in the form of equipment and arms.
Casablanca Conference, 1943: In the middle of the North African campaign, Roosevelt and
Churchill met at Casablanca and resolved to attack Italy before invading France. They also
vowed to pursue the war until the unconditional surrender of the Axis power, and tried to
reduce Soviet mistrust of the west.
Cairo Conference, 1943: FDR met with Churchill and Chiang Kai-shek, the head of the
Chinese government. FDR promised Chiang that Manchuria and Taiwan would be returned to
China and that Korea would be free with the hope that Chiang would fight until Japan
surrendered unconditionally.
Teheran Conference, 1943: FDR met with Stalin and Churchill and set the date for the
invasion of France for May or June 1944, to coincide with the Russian offensive from the
east. They agreed to divide Germany into occupation zones, to impose reparations on the
Reich, and Stalin promised to fight Japan after Hitler’s defeat.
"unconditional surrender": Term used by the allied powers to describe what kind of
surrender they wanted from Japan-one without negotiations. After the A-bomb fell on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan surrendered, but with the explosion of the A-bomb,
the Cold War Era had just begun.
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Okinawa: The island of Okinawa was secured by the Americans after the battle of Iwo Jima.
Okinawa was 350 miles from Japan and a key area for staging the invasion of Japan by the
American troops. The assault forces suffered nearly fifty thousand casualties in the battle
before being able to subdue Japanese resistance.
Battle of the Bulge: As the allies prepared for an attack on Germany after penetrating up to
Germany’s border, Hitler threw the last of his reserves to fight against the allied troops in
December of 1944. On Dec. 25, the allies stopped the last German counter-attack and within a
month, drove the Nazis back to Rhine.
V-E day: As Russia pushed the Germans back into Germany and reached the suburbs of
Berlin, the new German government surrendered unconditionally on May 8, 1943, Americans
celebrated this Victory in Europe day with ticker tape parades and dancing in the streets.
Afterward, U.S. turned its full attention to the War in the Pacific
Manhattan Project: Because Nazi scientists were seeking to use atomic physics in a harmful
manner, in 1941 FDR launched a secret program to produce an A-bomb before the Germans.
In 1943 and 1944, the Manhattan Engineering district worked to stockpile U-235 and in 1945
attempted to use it in a bomb.
Oppenheimer, J. Robert: The scientific director of the Manhattan project, which the U.S.
had undertaken to build the atomic bomb before Germany, and did was by relying on Nazi
scientists. Oppenheimer was later employed by Harry Truman to work on building a more
destructive weapon known as the Hydrogen bomb.
•Atomic bomb: The atomic bomb was successfully built in 1944 and was employed in
bombing the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bomb unleashed terrible fury on the two
cities, killing hundreds of thousands of people through the incinerating heat and radiation
poisoning. There was also debate on whether such a potent and powerful weapon should have
been unleashed before proper tests were conducted on the long-term effects.
Hiroshima, Nagasaki: The 1st A-bomb was dropped on Hiroshima by the U.S. in 1945 after
Japan refused unconditional surrender. Some 80,000 people died immediately and 1000s more
died of radiation poisoning in later years. The next day a second bomb was dropped on
Nagasaki killing, which obliterated the city.
Origins of the Cold War
Although relations with the Soviet Union were already strained, Roosevelt’s death and the
beginning of Truman’s presidency brought new tensions to the relationship. Russia’s
traditional paranoia led to the establishment of a communist satellite buffer zone around the
USSR. The spread of communism into Asian and South American countries exacerbated
anticommunist feelings in the United States and contributed to the pressure for increased
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buildup of defensive forces.
•YALTA CONFERENCE: Conference of Russia, Great Britain and US in Feb.1945 with
leaders FDR, Stalin and Churchill in Crimea. The result was statement of Soviet intent on
entering the Pacific War two to three months after the end of the European war, Churchill and
FDR promise for Soviet concessions in Manchurian and return of lost territories. Stalin
recognized Chiang as China's ruler, agreed to drop demands for reparations from Germany,
approved plans for a UN Conference and promised free elections in Poland.
•POTSDAM CONFERENCE: Truman, Stalin and Churchill met in Potsdam Germany from
July 16-Aug. 2 to decide on postwar arrangements begun at Yalta. A Council of Foreign
Ministers was established to draft treaties concerning conquered European nations, and to
make provisions for the trials of war criminals. The Soviet Union agreed to drop demands for
reparations and Germany was decentralized into British, Russian, French and US zones.
partitioning of Korea, Vietnam, Germany: As decided by the Potsdam by the Council of
Foreign minister, Germany, Vietnam and Korea were divided into zones to be held by US,
France, Britain and the Soviet Union and then reorganized through self-determination.
de Gaulle, Charles: The French President during WWII, he was also active in several treaty
conferences.
Churchill, Winston, "Iron Curtain" speech: Asked for Anglo-American cooperation to
combat an "Iron Curtain" that cut across Europe from the Baltic to Adriatic. The iron curtain
was the satellites and territories held by the communist Soviet Union. An early theory for
Soviet containment.
Stalin: Ruler of Russia from 1929-1953. In 1935 Stalin endorsed a "Popular Front" to oppose
fascism. Stalin also had considerable influence in the Yalta agreement as well as being a
leader of one of the world's superpowers. After WWII, the primary focus of Amer. was to
curb Stalin's and communist influence.
Bretton Woods Conference: Meeting of Allied governments in 1944. From the Bretton
Woods Agreement, foreign currencies would be valued in relation to the dollar and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and
World Bank were created.
Dumbarton Oaks Conference: An international conference held August-October 1944 at
Dumbarton Oaks Washington D.C. to discuss plans for an international organization to be
named the United Nations. 39 delegates from US, Great Britain and Russia gathered.
San Francisco Conference, 1945, and UN Charter: A meeting of world nations to establish
a international organization for collective security. The conference established committees;
General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice,
Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat.
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UN: Security Council, General Assembly, Secretary-General: January 10, 1946 was the
first UN General Assembly, electing Trygve H. Lie of Norway as Secretary General. The UN
represented a worldwide attempt for a peaceful world after the hidden treaties and chaos
caused by WWII.
Atomic Energy Commission: To oversee the control and development of nuclear weapons.
The "Barouch Plan" set up the International Atomic Development whose goal was for use of
peaceful potentials for atomic energy and to provide nations with security against surprise
attacks.
superpowers: The world powers after WWII created a new balance of power. These
superpowers consisting of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain began
proceedings such as the Yalta and Potsdam. Conferences represented the superpowers and
their importance in postwar reconstruction.
socialism, communism: Two forms of governing, socialism and communism became fearful
subjects after WWII as fears of war led to hatred against socialist and communist American
troops. Fear and hatred against communism and Socialism continued throughout the Cold
War.
satellites: The countries surrounding the Soviet Union created a buffer zone between Russia
and the rest of Europe. These "satellites" were nations conquered by the Soviet Union during
the counteroffensive attack of the Russians against the Germans during WWII.
Nuremberg trials: Thirteen trials held accusing leaders of Nazi Germany of crimes against
international law from 1945-1949. Accusations included murder, enslavement, looting and
atrocities against soldiers and citizens of occupied countries.
Department of Defense created: The Department of Defense was created in 1947 by the
National Security Act. Reforming the Departments of War and Navy they became the
Departments of Army, Navy and the new Department of the Air Force. Result of need for a
consolidated department.
Voice of America, CARE: A part of the US Information Agency, Voice of America was a
US government radio station sent to Eastern Europe nations.
Yugoslavia, Tito, Marshall: Marshall Tito is the name used by Josip Bronz since 1934. Tito
was the communist dictator of Yugoslavia until proclaiming himself president in January
1953. Through his rule he kept Yugoslavia independent of Soviet control and was recognized
as the only lawful authority in Yugoslavia.
Czechoslovakian coup: On February 25, 1948, a communist coup led by Klement Gottwald
took control of the Czechoslovakian government after the October 5 announcement of
Moscow's plan to block the Marshall Plan in Europe. Czechoslovakia became a communist
satellite of the Soviet Union.
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•CONTAINMENT, Kennan, George F.: An advocate for tough foreign policy against the
Soviets, Kennan was the American charge d'affaires in Moscow through WWII. He was also
the anonymous Mr. X who wrote "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in the magazine Foreign
Affairs advising a policy of restricting Soviet expansion to protect western institutions. The
theory of containment was accepted by the U.S. government and seen through the domino
theory and US actions in Vietnam and Korea.
•TRUMAN DOCTRINE: From Truman’s address to Congress on March 12, 1947, the
president announced that the United States would assist free people resisting "armed
minorities or...outside pressure." Meant as a offer for aid against communism the Truman
Doctrine established the United States as a global policeman, a title proved by US actions in
the UN, Vietnam, Korea and Egypt. The Truman Doctrine became a major portion of Cold
War ideology, a feeling of personal responsibility for the containment of communism.
•MARSHALL PLAN: Truman's secretary of state George C. Marshall proposed massive
economic aid to Greece and Turkey on Feb. 27, 1947 after the British told the US they could
not afford to continue assistance to the governments of Greece and Turkey against Soviet
pressure for access to the Mediterranean. The Marshall Plan was expanded to mass economic
aid to the nations of Europe for recovery from WWII. Aid was rejected by communist nations.
The Marshall Plan also hope to minimize suffering to be exploited by communist nations.
Point Four: A post-WWII foreign aid treaty devised from the fourth point of President
Truman's inaugural address in 1950. Plan would make provisions to supply US investment
capital and personnel to agricultural and industrial development as well as development in
other national interests.
Gandhi: Spiritual and political leader of India. 1920 led nonviolent disobedience movement
for independence for India. During 1924 led another civil disobedience movement for India's
freedom in exchange for India's help against Japan Assassinated.
Israel created, 1948: From the UN General Assembly on April 28, 1947, the Palestine
partition of Arab and Jewish states. On May 14, 1948 Israel proclaimed independence and US
recognized the new state but the Arabs rejected the proclamation and declared war against
Israel. Admitted in U.N in 1949.
•BERLIN BLOCKADE: On March 20, 1948 the Soviet withdrew representation from the
Allied Control Council and refused to allow US, British, and France to gain access to Berlin.
June 24, the Western Powers began Berlin Airlift to supply residents of Berlin. After 321 days
in 1949 Russia agreed to end blockade if the Council of Foreign Ministers would agree to
discuss Berlin. The airlift provided food and supplies to the blockaded people and intensified
antagonism against Stalin.
•NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO): Following the Vanderberg
Resolutions on April 4, on October 1948, Denmark, Italy, Norway, and Portland joined the
Canadian-US negotiations for mutual defense and mutual aid. The North Atlantic Treaty was
signed in Washington on April 4, 1949 creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The
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organization considered an attack against one member of the alliance, an attack on all.
Warsaw Pact: Treaty unifying communist nations of Europe signed May 1955 by: Russia,
Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia. East Germany. Hungary, Poland, and Romania after the
signing of the NATO treaty in 1949. Communist China dedicated support but did not sign the
treaty.
Southeast Asia Treaty organization (SEATO), Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
and the Australia, New Zealand US (ANZUS): All these treaties were formed post WWII
as mutual defense pledges in an attempt to halt the spread of communism through Europe and
Asia.
•NSC-68: In the 1950's President Truman called for a top secret investigation from the CIA to
review national defense policy. The NSA-68 called for a massive military buildup and
increase in defense spending through raising of taxes in fear of Soviet aggressive intentions
and military strength. The NSC-68 became of major importance throughout the Cold War as it
spoke of the need to remain a step ahead of the Soviet Union to protect its own security.
fall of China, Tse-tung, Mao, "lost China": Mao Tse-tung, head of the Chinese
Communists demanded US halt military aid and for US forces to leave China in January
1945. In 1949, the communists controlled major cities and to avoid a full scale war with
China, and the U.S. complied with Communist demands.
State Department "White Paper," 1949: The United States Relations With China; With
Special Reference to the Period 1944-1946 warned that the Nationalists were on the verge of
collapse because of political, military, and economic deficiencies, and US interference would
lead to outbreak of war.
Chiang Kai-shek, Formosa: Chiang Kai-shek was the Nationalist leader in China whom the
United States supported during the Chinese civil wars. After losing major cities, the
Nationalist government moved their headquarters to the city of Formosa. Chiang Kai-shek
was opposed by the communist leader Mao Tse-tung who opposed US involvement in the
war.
Quemoy, Matsu: On September 3, the Communist army attacked the Nationalist held islands
of Quemoy and Matsu. These attacks led to the Formosa Revolution which Eisenhower
issued, giving the president power to defend Formosa without committing to defense of
islands.
•KOREAN WAR, limited war: After Japan's defeat in 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th
parallel between Soviet troops to the north and the People's Democratic Republic and US
troops to the south. June 24, 1950 North Korean troops attacked the Republic of Korea,
provoking war. US gained UN approval to stop the considered communist domino. The
"limited" war was to hold the 38th parallel without beginning WWIII. A cease fire was
installed on July 26, 1953.
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Truman-MacArthur controversy: During WWII, MacArthur was general in the Pacific
Wars. At the beginning of the Korean War, he became the United Nations Commander in
Korea. He was recalled from duty after expressing unpopular opinions about the US policy in
Korea.
Truman and Domestic Issues
With the return of large amounts of soldiers from the Second World War, the population in
the United States increased rapidly with the baby boom. Also, women were forced to return to
their homes as former soldiers reclaimed the workplace. This exodus of working women
promoted the idea that the proper place for the women was in the home, but laid the seeds for
the later women’s movement. At this point in time, all the citizens in the United States wanted
was a return to normalcy.
G.I. Bill of Rights, 1944: Congress enacted the bill to provide living allowances, tuition fees,
supplies, medical treatment, and loans for homes and businesses. It was accepted June, 1944
and helped to stimulate economic growth and the accumulation of wartime profits, new
factories and equipment.
Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion: A 1943 organization that controlled all
aspects of the economy. Needed to facilitate cooperation in the war effort between the
government and representatives of industry and the military, the O.W.M. increased war
production 33% in May 1943.
extension of the OPA vetoed: Congress instituted a ration program to conserve materials and
battle inflation. Because of opposition from food producers, manufacturers, and retailers,
Truman vetoed Congress’ 1946 bill that would have extended O.P.A.’s life, and thus ended
price controls.
postwar inflation: Two years after the war, consumer prices rose only 8% while the total cost
of living rose 28% between 1940-1945. The National War Labor Board tried to contain
restriction by limiting wage increases and Congress gave the president the power in 1942 to
freeze wages to help combat inflation.
baby boom: The number of babies being born between 1950-1963 rose substantially and the
mortality rate dramatically dropped allowing for a 19% increase in the population. This
generation was able to fuel the economy and widen the realm of education.
Employment Act of 1946: Truman promised economic growth and established the Council
of Economic Advisors to assist the president in maximizing employment, production, and
purchasing power. Wary of federal deficit spending and increased presidential powers,
Congress cut the goal of full employment.
Taft-Hartley Act: Congress modified the Wagner Act in 1947 to outlaw the practices of
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delaying a strike, closed shop, and permitting the president to call an eighty-day cooling
period. Because it proved detrimental to certain unions, Truman vetoed the measure, although
Congress overrode it.
Taft, Sen. Robert A.: Representing a small group of Republican senators, he warned that
entering into NATO would provoke an arms race with Russia and force the United States to
provide military aid to Europe. He supported that tax measures favorable to the wealthy and
no minimum wage increase.
"right to work" laws: An area across TX and southern CA called the Sunbelt outlawed
unionized shops which were to prevent non-unionized workers to benefit, low taxes and
energy costs, plants moving their corporate headquarters here, transformed through
technology, and brought green lawn and suburbs.
1948 election; candidates, issues: Truman ran against Dewey, a republican devoted to
National unity and Strom Thurmond, who represented the Dixiecrats. representing states
rights. Truman wins with 24 million votes and the platform of the some of the New Deal and
bipartisan foreign policy.
Dixiecrats, J. Strom Thurmond: They helped Truman win by showing how the communists
in the Wallace campaign forced liberals back into the mainstream Democratic Party. Strom
Thurmond was able to collect 1.2 million votes and ran under the Democratic party symbol.
Progressive Party, Henry Wallace: He was nominated for President after being fired by
Truman for questioning action taken towards Russia. Considered the true New Deal liberal,
supported social-welfare programs and justice and equality for minorities. Wallace’s’
campaign forced liberals back into the Democratic party.
•FAIR DEAL: Truman proposed a social and economic program during his State of the
Union message in 1949. It enlarged the New Deal by adding housing, conservation, economic
security, health insurance, federal aid to education, agricultural subsidies, increased the
minimum wage, expanded social securities, flood control, slum clearance, expanded public
power, reclamation, soil conservation, building of low income housing units.
Americans for Democratic Action (ADA): Founded in 1947 to initiate the development and
promotion of a national liberal agenda of public policy. Citizen participation was essential
through direct democracy which was equal in only one way : all can exercise the right to vote.
Twenty-second Amendment: adopted in 1951, this bill proclaims that "No person shall be
elected to the office of the President more than twice." It resulted from the agitation following
FDR’s running for and being elected to a third or fourth term of office of president.
McCarthyism
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As a result of the recent escalation of the Cold War and the spread of communism throughout
the world, domestic paranoia concerning communist infiltration increased. This laid the
foundation for the investigations of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Taking
advantage of this "Red Scare" was Senator Joseph McCarthy who utilized the fear and panic
of United States citizens to advance his own interests. Though many Americans believed the
investigations were wrong, few said anything.
National Securities Act of 1947, 1949: The CIA was enacted to pursue and conduct
espionage and analyze information and facts concerning the actions of foreign countries. It
also became involved in undercover operations to destroy operations made to be hostile
toward the U.S.
•HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE (HUAC) : FDR established this
organization to serve as a platform to the denunciation of the New Deal and communism
growth in the U.S. Used to investigate and expose communist influence in America and
blurred the line between dissent and disloyalty. It also brought about hysteria and caused
blacklisting to occur so that people considered to be "communists" never found work.
•MCCARTHYISM, McCarthy, Senator Joseph: He started the hysteria that occurred after
the second Red Scare and accused U.S. citizens of being communists. These accusations
appealed to Midwestern Americans who found that anti-communism was to fight against
liberals and internationalists. It took over the U.S. as a means of fighting communism without
realizing that the U.S. was in danger of losing what it was fighting for, Freedom and the
Constitution.
McCarthy, Senator Joseph: Republicans support and political power was given to senator
McCarthy to instill fear within the Democratic Party. He was supported by the GOP party and
many resented that he accused many people of being Communists without having proof of
their disloyalty. By accusing many of communism, McCarthyism arose.
Hiss, Alger: Identified as a member of the communist party by and initially denied claims.
Proof was given that Hiss was involved in espionage in the 1930s with the transmitting of
information to the Soviet Union through microfilm. Indicted for perjury and sentenced to five
years in prison, 1950
McCarran Internal Security Act, 1950: Required all organizations that were believed to be
communist by the attorney general to submit a roster of the members and financial statements
to the Department of Justice. It also excluded communists from working in defense plants,
passports to communists and deported aliens suspected of subversion.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg:. In March of 1951, based primarily on the testimony of their
alleged accomplices, Henry Greengrass and Harry Gold, the Rosenbergs were found guilty of
conspiring to commit espionage. Their electrocution in 1953 represented the anti-Communist
fever that gripped the U.S.
Hollywood 10: The 10 people from the entertainment industry called before the House Un-
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American Activities Committee as "unfriendly" witnesses in October 1947 became known as
the Hollywood Ten. All refused to state whether they were communists, served prison
sentences, and were blacklisted in the film industry.
Fuchs, Klaus: He was a German physicist who was a British citizen from 1942-1950 and an
atomic scientist in the United Kingdom and the United States from 1942 on. He was
sentenced to prison in England in 1950 for having given atomic secrets to the USSR. After he
was freed in 1959, he went to East Germany.
"Pink Lady" - Douglas, Helen Gahagan: When Richard Nixon ran against the liberal
Democratic Jerry Voorhis for a California congressional seat in 1946, he won easily by
suggesting that Voorhis had left-wing tendencies. When Nixon ran for the Senate in 1950, he
used similar charges to defeat the Democratic candidate, Congresswoman Douglas.
•ANTI-COMMUNIST VOCABULARY: Red, pink or pinko, left-wing, and commie were
some of the slurs thrown around during the McCarthy years to brand people with a communist
"taint." These campaigns were known as witch-hunts by those who opposed HUAC tactics,
and like the Salem witch-hunts, accusations alone, without any proof of wrong-doing, could
be enough to ruin someone and get them "blacklisted" and unable to find employment.
Eisenhower and the 1950s
Hailing Eisenhower as someone whom one might have as a regular neighbor, the country
overwhelmingly elected the former and celebrated World War Two Allied forces commander.
Although a former military leader, Eisenhower strongly believed in the ascendancy of civilian
control over the military and condemned what he termed the "military-industrial complex."
During Eisenhower’s administration, the USSR made several advances in the space race
pushing the United States to catch up.
1952 election: candidates, issues: Truman would not seek reelection. The Democrats drafted
Adlai Stevenson, who was unsuccessful. The Republicans decided to back the war hero
Dwight D. Eisenhower who chose Nixon as his running mate. The GOP controlled both
houses.
•IKE AND MODERN REPUBLICANISM: He provided Americans with the stability they
craved, and labeled his credo "Modern Republicanism." In general, he was conservative on
monetary issues and liberal "when it came to human beings." During his term as president, he
backed the most extensive public-works program in U.S. history: the Interstate Highway Act
and also extended social security benefits and raised the minimum wage.
"fiscal management": Large scale labor organizations and social welfare were used to deal
with powerful pressure groups. It rejected an extreme step to the right side of politics and a
return to the pre-New Deal policies. Also, it abandoned the goal of a balanced budget in favor
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of increased spending to restore prosperity.
Niebuhr, Reinhold, Rand, Ayn, The Fountainhead: Niebuhr was a theologian who
expressed neo-Orthodox Protestant views and liberal social thoughts. Ayn Rand was a U.S.
novelist who became a citizen in 1931 and wrote about the struggles of poverty. Her work
was important in expressing life’s hardships and was published in 1928.
McCarran-Walter Immigration Act, 1952: Passed over the presidents’ veto, it validated the
quota system firmly based on the idea that national origin restrained immigration from
southern and Eastern Europe. This act also empowered the attorney general to exclude and
deport aliens suspected of being communists.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW): Eisenhower transformed the
Federal Securities Agency into the H.E.W. and gave it cabinet rank in 1953. This agency
allowed for the reorganization of government in order to achieve greater efficiency and a
better economy.
Interstate Highway Act: Passed by Eisenhower, this was the largest and most expensive
public-works system in American history that allowed for the building of 41,000 miles of
expressways in 1956. Allowed for suburban growth, the decay of central cities, and increased
America’s reliance on cars.
St. Lawrence Seaway: Approved by Eisenhower, this seaway linked the Great Lakes and the
Atlantic Ocean in 1954. It was built to accelerate suburban growth, expand trade to promote
economic prosperity, and allowed boats greater access to transport goods. It connected
Montreal and Lake Ontario promoting good relations with Canada.
Landrum-Griffin Act: Passed in 1959 to regulate the government of unions, guarantee
members’ rights, provisions for anti-corruption, and fair elections. Enacted due to the concern
of financial misconduct on the part of union officials and connected to gangsters and
organized crime.
Hoffa, Jimmy: He became president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters in 1957.
Jury tampering was found after he was sentenced to thirteen years in prison for the fraudulent
use of the union pension fund. After losing his appeals, he was sentenced in 1967 but only
served about four years and nine months in prison.
AFL-CIO merger: In 1955, this brought 85% of all union members into a single
administrative unit, which promised aggressive unionism under the leadership of AFL’s
George Meany as president and CIO’s Walter Reuther as vice-president. However, the
movement was unable to achieve its old level of success.
Alaska, Hawaii: Congress approved Alaska as the forty-ninth state of the Union in June and
Eisenhower signed the Alaska statehood bill on July 7, 1958 . Congress approved of giving
Hawaii statehood in March of 1959 and it was admitted to the Union on August 21, 1959.
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•FIRST INDOCHINA WAR: After WWII, Ho Chi Minh of the Vietminh declared himself
leader of the Republic of Vietnam and began a war to drive the France imperialists out of
Vietnam in Dec of 1946. After a 55 day siege, the French surrendered at the fortress of Diem
Bien Phu and July 21, 1954 a truce agreement was signed with France surrendering North
Vietnam and granting independence to Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam.
Bricker Amendment: On January 7, 1954, Senator John W. Bricker proposed a
constitutional amendment to limit the executive power of the president. His proposal called
for a limit on the power of the president to negotiate treaties and executive agreements.
Rejected February 26, 1954.
Dulles, John Foster: Became Secretary of State under Eisenhower in 1953. Cold Warrior
who supported "massive retaliation," brinksmanship, and preemptive strike. In 1951 he was
author of Japanese peace treaty. Politically influential during WWII, from 1949-1959.
"massive retaliation": January, 1940s. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles signed the
Strategic Air Command as the primary deterrent for Soviet attack. Great Britain, Turkey, and
Italy stationed intermediate-range nuclear weapons in their countries to provide for a capacity
for "massive retaliation."
brinksmanship: This is another of the policies of John Foster Dulles that caused considerable
controversy during the Cold War. Dulles declared that the United States must be prepared to
"go to the brink" of war in order to attain its objectives. This stance was labeled
brinksmanship.
preemptive strike: A plan of acting first with nuclear or conventional weapons as a defensive
action. A preemptive strike would solve the problem before it became an issue by acting first
and swiftly. A preemptive strike is another Cold War term that generated fear for the
beginning of a nuclear war.
Khrushchev, 1955 Geneva Summit: The meeting of "Four Powers," US, Great Britain,
France and the Soviet Union. Also present was Khrushchev, the 1st Secretary of the
Communist Party. Decided to reunify Germany, and on disarmament, and how to improve
relations between east and west.
Hungarian revolt, 1956: Antigovernment demonstrations in Budapest on Oct. 23, 1956 as
revolutionaries demanded the denunciation of the Warsaw Pact and liberation from Soviet
troops. On Oct. 21, U.S. announced it wouldn’t give military aid to the revolutionaries. On
Nov. 4, Soviets attacked Hungary.
Nasser Suez Canal crisis: Dec 17, 1955, the U.S. offered Egypt a loan to build the Aswan
High Dam, withdrawing its offer after Egypt accepted Soviet Union aid and Pres. Nasser
nationalized the Suez canal to use tolls to build the dam. On Oct 31, Israel invaded Egypt with
French and British aircraft.
•PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE: A term applied to the actions of the US under Eisenhower
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and USSR under Khrushchev for maintaining peace and reducing the possibility of war
between the two nations. The implementation of the phrase is seen in the Geneva Summit
where the "spirit of Geneva" was one of peace and collaboration to create a secure and
peaceful world. March 1959 the USSR and the U.S agreed to suspend atomic testing.
Eisenhower Doctrine: January 5, 1957, Eisenhower made a speech to the joint House of
Congress to limit communist expansion. Authorized March 7, the Eisenhower Doctrine
allowed the president to extend economic and military aid to certain nations as well as use of
$200 million mutual security funds.
Common Market: Established 1958 by the Treaty of Rome to set up a wide customs union in
1968 and was joined by Great Britain in 1972. The EEC developed world wide trading
relations between European nations providing for a more solidified Europe, another symbol of
rearrangement of power after WWII.
Organization of American States (OAS): From the Charter of Bogotá regional association
was established with US and Latin America states and formed a Inter-American conference, a
Consultative Conference of Foreign Ministers, a Council with a delegate from each state, and
a Secretariat and Commissions.
U-2 incident: May 3, 1960, the USSR announced an American U-2 plane was shot down in
Soviet territory. May 5, NASA released a cover story of a lost weather research plane. May 7,
pilot Francis Gary Powers confessed to being a CIA spy. May 11 Eisenhower admitted to
authorization of U-2 flights.
ICBM: Intercontinental Ballistic missiles were developed in the 1950's in America. The
ICBM's with one or two nuclear warheads had the potential to destroy the USSR and the US.
ICBM's were one of the many factors that gave the American people the sense that war was
imminent.
•SPUTNIK: The Soviet Union launched this first satellite into orbit on October 4, 1957.
Humiliated at being upstaged by the Russians, the U.S. reshaped the educational system in
efforts to produce the large numbers of scientists and engineers that Russia had. In addition, to
better make scientific advancements, NASA was created in 1958. Created by Congress, it
brought a national aeronautics agency to administer nonmilitary space research and
exploration.
National Defense Education Act (NDEA Act) : Passed in 1958 to provide $300 million in
loans to students of undergraduate and graduate status, funds for training teachers, and for the
development of new instructional material to ensure a higher level of national security.
"military-industrial complex": The demands of national security had produced the
symbiotic relationship of immense military establishment and industry. These intertwined
interests helped lead to leverage in government and threatened subordination of the military.
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Civil Rights to 1960
After the army became desegregated in 1948, the position of African-Americans in civilian
society came under increasing scrutiny. There was widespread recognition that the
integration of society had not progressed as it was supposed to and that it was time for the
African-American citizens to take a stand. Landmark decisions in the Supreme Court as well
as civil rights laws foreshadowed the changes and upheaval that would come in this and
following decades.
Randolph, A. Philip: President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters who worked to
build his March-on-Washington Committee into an all-black protest movement. The
Committee also engaged in civil disobedience to protest racial discrimination in all aspects of
American life.
Fair Employment Practices Committee: Roosevelt issued this committee in 1941 to enforce
the policy of prohibiting employment-related discrimination practices by federal agencies,
unions, and companies involved in war-related work for the purpose of enforcing an
Executive Order and made possible the employment of 2 million blacks.
Detroit race riots, 1966: Erupted because of constant conflict between black citizens and
white cops, resulting in the bloodiest riot in this half-century. Forty-three were found dead,
thousands were wounded, and over $50 million in property was destroyed.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): The Congress of Racial Equality was formed in 1942
to help combat discrimination through nonviolent, direct action. Led by James Farmer, it
organized Freedom Rides that rode throughout the south to try to force desegregation of
public facilities.
Drew, Dr. Charles: As an African-American physician, he developed techniques for the
storing and processing of blood for transfusion in 1944. He also conducted research on the
preservation of blood and during WWII, he developed blood-transfusion programs for the
British and French.
Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: A Swedish economist, Gunnar wrote about
anticipated changes in race relations, as well as the problems between the races in 1944. He
specifically noted that Black veterans returned with very high expectations from civilian life
due to war.
rural and Southern to urban and Northern : Eisenhower sought to give low income
farmers increased training and trade as well as to improve industry and the health of citizens
of the rural South . In the urban North, a great emphasis was put upon renovation and the
rehabilitation of the cities opposed to clearance and reconstruction.
To Secure These Rights: The 1946 Committee on Civil Rights dramatized the inequities of
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life in the South and under the Jim Crow laws. It called for an end to racial discrimination and
segregation, and was called "an American charter of human freedom," by President Truman.
desegregation of the armed forces, 1948: Truman ended segregation in the army to provide
support during World War II to ensure victory. He was the first president to deal with the
legislative civil rights since the implementation of Reconstruction and fought for many other
civil rights acts but was denied.
Korean War: Seen as a Soviet-directed aggression to test American containment policy. On
June 27, 1950, Truman ordered American troops to invade South Korea. General Douglas
MacArthur sought total victory, and in 1953 a cease fire was issued after a truce agreement
was signed by the U.N. and Communists.
"separate but equal": Enacted because of the inferiority complex given to blacks, it set forth
an attempt to liberalize without losing control. The Supreme Court said that it had no place in
schools, so it ordered the desegregation of schools, navy yards and veteran hospitals.
•BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA: The Supreme Court reversed Plessy
v. Ferguson in 1954 by ruling in favor of the desegregation of schools. The court held that
"separate but equal" violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and
was unconstitutional. Refusing to force the white south to accept the ruling, defiance toward
the law sprang up. Many southerners saw it as "an abuse of judiciary power."
Marshall, Thurgood: 1st African American justice of the Supreme Court, famous for his
fight against discrimination, the death penalty, and his support of civil liberties and free
speech. Previously a lawyer with such key victories as in Brown v. Board of Education,
founder of the NAACP Legal Defense.
•MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, Rosa Parks: In December of 1955, Parks refused to
get up from her seat on the bus to give it to a white man, and was therefore arrested. This led
to massive bus boycotts in Montgomery, Alabama. Because of her actions she is known as the
"mother" of civil rights. Resistance to desegregation of buses was finally overcome by the
Supreme Court ruling that it was unconstitutional to segregate public transportation in
November, 1956.
King Jr., Rev. Martin Luther: An African-American leader who was the voice of his
people. His philosophy emphasized need for direct action by getting every African-American
involved in the pursuit of equality and to build a community of brotherhood in his "I have a
dream" speech. On April 4,1968 he was assassinated.
•LITTLE ROCK, ARK. CRISIS: Governor Orval E. Faubus sent the National Guard to bar
nine black students from entering Central High School in Arkansas in 1957. Eisenhower then
enforced a new court order that forced the men to withdraw, and a mob of whites reacted by
preventing the students from entering the school. Then The National Guard was sent to
protect the students from the violence for the rest of the school year. The school was then shut
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down in 1958-59.
Civil Rights Act,1957: Eisenhower passed this bill to establish a permanent commission on
civil rights with investigative powers but it did not guarantee a ballot for blacks. It was the
first civil-rights bill to be enacted after Reconstruction which was supported by most nonsouthern whites.
Civil Rights Act, 1960: Eisenhower passed this bill to appease strong southern resistance and
only slightly strengthened the first measures provisions. Neither act was able to empower
federal officials to register the right to vote for African-Americans and was not effective.
literacy tests, poll tax: Literacy tests were given to blacks with the idea that they would be
denied the right to vote since most could not read. The poll tax prevented African-Americans
from voting by requiring all voters to pay a tax, which blacks could not afford. In 1966, the
poll tax was outlawed in all elections.
grandfather clause, white primaries: The grandfather clause was a provision used to
exclude people who served in the war and their descendants from taking suffrage tests. It was
declared unconstitutional in 1915. White primaries were used to control everything even with
disenfranchisement and was declared unconstitutional in 1944.
• ROBINSON, JACKIE: He was the first African-American baseball player to play
professionally in 1947. He was able to break the color barrier and seemed to successfully
overcome the racism so prevalent in his sport. Robinson was also was able to contribute to the
winning of the pennant and Rookie of the Year in his first year of playing.
Overview of 1960-1990
Civil Rights to 1965
Frustrated by black disenfranchisement in the south and the blatant racism epitomized by
segregated schools, black militancy grew. Sit-ins, freedom rides, and other signs of the
explosive discontent ravaged the nation, especially in the south where such actions were met
by fierce resistance. Destroying the public’s complacency, nonviolent protest met by vicious
dogs, blasting water hoses, and sneering racists shocked the nation. Black Power and the cry
that "Black is Beautiful" resounded in the hearts of many African Americans.
Implementation of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: The Warren court decided in
1954 that the separate but equal concept that legalized segregation was unconstitutional.
Angered by the court decision, white southerners refused to comply; the president refused to
enforce it and blacks continued to attend segregated schools.
Montgomery bus boycott: After refusing to give up her seat for a white man in the front of a
Montgomery bus in Dec. 1955, Rosa Park was arrested. Black leaders, including King,
organized a massive boycott of the buses and took the case to a lower court where it was
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decided that bus seating would be based on a first-come-first-serve basis.
King Jr. Rev. Martin Luther.: One of the most prominent black civil rights leaders, King
called for black assertiveness and nonviolent resistance to oppression. He is famous for his
"Letter from Birmingham Jail" which promotes the doctrine of civil disobedience, a method
of protests that urges blacks to ignore all laws that they believe are unjust.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference: In protest to Jim Crow, King organized the
SCLC in 1957. It was made up of a group of ministers that supported the Montgomery bus
boycott. This organization coordinated future protests and preached the need for civil rights
activists.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The
NAACP was created in 1909 in New York to raise the quality of living for inner city blacks. It
became a powerful legal force and argued cases in the Supreme Court which led to the Civil
Rights Acts of 1957 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Urban League: Some southern blacks were not satisfied by the Brown v. Board of Education
and formed the Urban League. Rejecting the courtroom strategy utilized by the NAACP, the
League advocated more militant tactics. They sought direct confrontation and violence with
local governments.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): CORE was a group of black rights protesters created
in 1942. It organized freedom rides through the south to expose the violations of the 1960
Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on interstate buses and trains. CORE also
registered blacks to vote throughout the South.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Stokely Carmicheal, H. Rap
Brown: SNCC was a organization of college students that utilized nonviolent forms of protest
until Carmicheal and Brown rallied the members in favor of Black Power. The group became
more militant, pushing for direct armed confrontation with the police.
•SIT-INS, FREEDOM RIDES: Utilized in the spring of 1961, sit-ins and freedom rides
were forms of protest organized by CORE and utilized in the spring of 1961. Protestors sat in
a segregated section on a bus or restaurant until they were forced to move by racists. When
this happened another protestor took the place that had just been vacated. This type of action
was used to expose the violations of the court decision to outlaw segregation in public areas
and transit.
"I have a dream" speech: King gave this speech during the historic civil rights March on
Washington on August 28, 1963. The speech was said to be inspiring and reaffirmed the need
for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protesting. The speech reiterated the American
ideals of democracy and equality.
March on Washington: King organized this massive civil protest march in Washington in
August of 1963 as a result of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The march
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reaffirmed the need for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protest. It was also the site
where King made the "I have a dream" speech.
Evers, Medgar: Evers was an American civil rights leader who conducted campaigns to
register black voters and organized boycotts of firms that practiced racial discrimination. He
also was one of the early recruiters for the NAACP and was the first field secretary for the
state of Mississippi.
Powell, Adam Clayton: Powell was a Black civil rights leader serving as a Democratic
Congressman of New York and the Chairman of the House Committee on Education and
Labor in 1960-1967. Under his direction the House Committee on Education and Labor
passed the Minimum Wage Bill and Anti-Poverty Bill.
Weaver, Robert: Weaver was the first black cabinet member appointed by President Lyndon
B. Johnson in 1966. He served as the Secretary of Housing and Department of Urban
Development, a new office created to address the needs of those living in the inner city areas.
Marshall, Thurgood: Marshall was the first black residing under the
Warren Court
during the 1960s. Marshall was famous for pursuing cases that dealt with controversial issues
of civil rights and the status of racism in America. His presence in Supreme Court drew more
attention to the area of civil and individual rights.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was an influential black leader who called for unity between blacks
to combat oppressive forces in the United States. He was a part of the Nation of Islam, but
broke with them to form a black nationalist group, the Organization of Afro-American Unity
(OAAU). He advocated Black Power.
Black Panthers: The Black Panthers was a black rights political organization created in
Oakland, California in 1966 by Bobby G. Seale and Huey P. Newton. It was originally a small
community action group for defense against racism but later it began to urge black armament
and direct confrontation with the police.
Black Muslims: Formally called the Nation of Islam, the Black Muslims was a religious
organization of the Islamic faith that was also called the American Muslim Mission, World
Community of Al-Islam in the West. The group was known for its strict adherence to Islam,
and was a root for black militancy in America.
Davis, Angela: Angela Davis was an influential black leader and activist. In 1970, she went
into hiding after being accused of aiding an attempted courtroom escape that killed four
persons. Tried in 1972 and acquitted, she became the vice-presidential candidate of the
Communist party in 1980.
•BLACK POWER: Black power was a slogan created by Malcolm X and widely used by
Stokely Carmichael, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality. The slogan called for all
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blacks to organize together and overthrow the oppressive forces of racism in America. Black
power became the basis for black militancy in the civil rights movement. The slogan was used
by a number of new civil rights activist groups such as the Black Panthers.
Twenty-fourth Amendment: The 24th Amendment, adopted in 1964, gave voting rights to
every American citizen, regardless of their race or religion. It also prohibited the use of the
poll tax or any tax that denied the vote. The amendment gave Congress the power to enforce it
with legislation.
Watts, Detroit race riots: A confrontation between police and blacks in Watts and Detroit
took place after the voting rights bill was passed in 1965. It sparked a huge riot that lasted six
days. The National Guard was called to put down both riots. This violent growth of civil
discontent was given the name "The Long Hot Summers."
Kerner Commission on Civil Disorders: Created to investigate reasons for the massive
outbreaks of riots in 1965, the commission concluded that white racism caused mounting
violence, poverty, poor education and police brutality and recommended creating 2 million
jobs and 6 million housing units to lower tensions. The suggestion was ignored.
de facto, de jure segregation: De facto referred to the use of power and authority in the
absence of an actual government or legal authority. In the 1960s, this meant that segregation
was accepted as long as it was not outlawed. De jure segregation referred to the system of
segregation that was legal in the North such as New York and Chicago.
•WHITE BACKLASH: White backlash referred to white reaction against the massive ghetto
riots of thousands of young blacks across the nation. The reaction slowed the civil rights
movement because whites in power feared passing legislation and creating civil discontent
and riots.
•CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1964, public accommodations section of the act: Passed under
the Johnson administration, this act outlawed segregation in public areas and granted the
federal government power to fight black disfranchisement. The act also created the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to prevent discrimination in the work place.
This act was the strongest civil rights legislation since Reconstruction and invalidated the
Southern Caste System.
•VOTING RIGHTS ACT, 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed as a Great
Society program under the Johnson administration. It prohibited the use of literacy tests as a
part of the voter registration process which were initially used as a method to control
immigration to the United States during the 1920s. The act enabled federal examiners to
register anyone who qualified in the South, giving the power of the vote to underrepresented
minorities.
Civil Rights Act, 1968: The Civil Rights Act of 1968 barred discrimination in housing sales
or rentals. This act was a part of a series of new legislation that encouraged desegregation of
blacks in America. The act was a key piece of legislation which ensured blacks more equal
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rights.
New Frontier
Innovative, charming, self-confident, and energetic, JFK vigorously called on the American
people to support his programs of domestic reform and foreign policy. He hoped for "more
sacrifice instead of more security" in a nation on "the frontier of unknown opportunities and
perils."
election of 1960: candidates, "missile gap": The election of 1960 was a race between
Kennedy, who promised a new and better future for the nation, and the "middle way"
Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon. The issues included which path of action to take
against Russia to ensure an advantage of arms, thus closing the missile gap.
•"Impeach Earl Warren": The ultra-reactionary John Birch Society created the phrase,
"impeach Earl Warren" in 1954 as a result of Chief Justice Earl Warren’s rulings which
affirmed the rights of alleged communists and the desegregation of schools and public areas.
Warren was branded a communist sympathizer by his enemies. As a result, he lost the respect
and admiration of the American public, his political friends in congress, and the government.
Miranda Decision, Escobedo decision: The Miranda Decision referred to the 1966 case of
Miranda v. Arizona which required police to read a suspect their constitutional right which
included remaining silent and having legal council present during police questioning. The
Escobedo decision labeled the Warren Court as an intrusive presence.
Gideon v. Wainwright: The Warren Court ruled in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright that the
state was required to provide attorneys for defendants in felony cases at the public’s expense.
This ruling was a part of the effort to reform the criminal justice system and enable poor
people legal council.
Baker v. Carr: In 1962, the Warren court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote"
needed to be maintained in all elections. The ruling reaffirmed the requirement that
representation in legislative bodies would be based on the people’s vote. Also, this decision
would prevent later voting frauds.
Kennedy and the steel price rollback: In his attempt to lower business taxes and solve wage
problems, JFK was faced with a crisis when U.S. Steel raised their prices to $6 after JFK
worked with the steel union for noninflationary contracts and minimal wage increases for
workers. He threatened to file antitrust suits and the prices fell.
Peacecorps, VISTA: The Peacecorps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) were
created by the Office of Economic Opportunity to work in poverty areas. This was a part of
President Johnson’s training programs and support services created during the 1960s.
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Berlin Wall: The Berlin Wall was a concrete wire wall which divided East and West
Germany after World War II. It was erected by the government of East Germany in order to
prevent a brain drain, in which the skilled artisans of the population immigrated to West
Germany. The wall was dismantled in August of 1989.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963: The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was negotiated by
Harriman Averell, a diplomat to the Soviet Union after World War II. The treaty was the first
treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union that called for a ban on atmospheric
testing of nuclear devices.
Castro Revolution: Fidel Castro led a nationalist uprising against the former despotic Cuban
government. He initially asked for U.S. assistance, but American businesses feared the
nationalization of their industries. When the U.S. refused to help, he turned to Soviet
communism.
"flexible response": JFK’s policy of "flexible response" called for the preparation of more
conventional weapons versus atomic weapons. Kennedy felt that U.S, needed both a strong
military program and atomic weapons to combat the forces of communism. He reasoned
conventional weapons were essential, for atomic weapons were never used.
•Bay of Pigs: On Apr. 17, 1961, a group of Cuban exiles invaded the Bay of Pigs, in an
attempt to overthrow the Communist government and capture Fidel Castro. The Cuban
soldiers were secretly trained by the CIA and supplied by the U.S. government. The Cuban
exiles were captured and traded back to the U.S. for food. Their return embarrassed the
United States and the nation acquired a reputation as a belligerent imperial country.
UN in the Congo: During the 1950s the United Nations was called upon to act as a peace
keeping force throughout the world such as in Kuwait and the Middle East. In the 1950s the
United Nations sent a peace keeping force to the Congo, which is located in Africa.
•Cuban missile crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major confrontation between the U.S
and Russia in 1962 following the discovery of nuclear missile sites in Cuba. Kennedy placed
a blockade on the island and Russia agreed to remove the missiles rather than provoke a
nuclear war. It was the most imminent threat of nuclear annihilation and thereafter, a hot line
was established between the White House and the Kremlin to prevent accidental missile
launches. The U.S. removed nuclear weapons from Turkey.
Alliance for Progress: This was an economic assistance program proposed by President
Kennedy in 1961. It was to settle disputes between member nations and discourage foreign
intervention in their internal affairs. The program to give Latin America $20 million in aid
was protested after the fall of the democratic government in Haiti.
Dominican Republic, 1965: A civil war broke out in the Dominican Republic between the
Bosch forces, the current government regime, and the people. The United States intervened
with military forces and the Organization of American States restored peace by conducting
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elections where Joaquín Balaguer defeated Bosch.
Allende, Salvador: In 1933, Allende founded the Chilean Socialist party and was elected
president of Chile in 1970. He became the first elected Marxist leader in the Americas. His
socialist program led to inflation and strikes which resulted a military coup that overthrew his
regime in 1973.
Panama Canal treaties: After gaining its independence in 1903, Panama gave the rights to
use the Panama Canal to the United States. Another treaty was signed between the United
States and Panama stating that control over the canal was to be returned to the Panamanian
government on December 31, 1999.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): As frustrations concerning government policies
grew, this organization was created in 1962. The SDS became a focal point for activist
students. The SDS organized massive Vietnam Protests. They issued the Port Huron
Statement which called for support of liberalism.
Flower children: Flower children referred to the counterculture of the 1960s. This social
category consisted mainly of student protestors who envisioned a life of freedom and
harmony. They led pilgrimages to San Francisco and New York, but the counterculture rise
was stemmed as the idealism turned into thievery, rape, and drugs.
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring: Rachel Carson was a marine biologist that wrote and
published Silent Spring. It addressed her concerns on the environmental hazards of pesticides.
Her writings coincided with many other novels which brought social issues to the surface
such as Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique.
Reich, Charles, The Greening of America: In his critical novel of the New Deal, Reich
expressed his desire for courts to expand individual rights to protect nonconformists from
social standards in 1971. He stated that it was impossible to mix individual interests in large
general tax bills.
Oswald, Lee Harvey, Warren Commission: On Nov. 22, 1963 in Texas, John F. Kennedy
was shot and killed by Lee Havery Oswald. As a result, the Warren Commission was created
to investigate the controversial issues concerning a possible conspiracy. Oswald was later
killed by Jack Ruby on his way to a court hearing.
Great Society
An idealistic call for improved environmental, conservation, racial, educational, and health
programs, the Great Society was inspired by JFK and prompted by LBJ’s insecure need to
win over the American people. Largely successful in the first two years of the Johnson
administration, the idealism would later give way to virulent conservatism and a return to
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traditional values.
•Election of 1964: LBJ, Goldwater: In the election of 1964 Lyndon Johnson, the elected
Democratic party majority leader, defeated Barry Goldwater, the elected Republican majority
leader. Main issues of the election of 1964 included serious debates over the continuation of
Johnson’s Great Society plan, future civil rights legislation and the status of the war in
Vietnam. Lyndon Johnson attempted to continue his Great Society program after the election
with small social legislation.
Office of Economic Opportunity: The Office of Economic Opportunity was created as a part
of President Johnson’s Great Society. Established by the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964,
the office funded the Job Corps to train young people to work, VISTA, and Project Headstart.
War on Poverty: The term, War on Poverty, referred to Lyndon Johnson’s statement
describing his goal to create a better America. It was used to describe Johnson’s Great Society
package that created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the Economic
Opportunity Office, which began the first funding for education.
Elementary and Secondary Act: As a part of his Great Society vision, President Lyndon
Johnson rallied for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 which gave federal
aid to education. The law gave over one billion dollars to public and parochial schools for
books and special education programs.
Medicare: A program of national health insurance created by the Social Security
Amendments of 1965, this program gave health insurance for persons who were over the age
of 65 or seriously disabled. Although some states refused to administer the insurance the
Kerr-Mills Act of 1960 provided federal support for state medical programs.
Abolition of immigration quotas: President Lyndon Johnson’s program of liberalism, which
included social legislation in 1965, led to the liberalization of immigration laws. These laws
abolished the restrictions and the quota based system previously used by the U.S. to determine
the amount of immigration from a certain area.
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD): Created in 1966 to give aid to
needy families located in poor inner city areas, the Department of Housing and Urban
Development passed bills allocating funds to housing development projects under the
leadership of Robert Weaver.
New Left: The New Left encompassed the liberalism of college students during the 1960s.
They held idealistic views of civil rights movements, supported the election of John F.
Kennedy, and heralded the campaign against nuclear testing that created the nuclear test ban
treaty of 1963. It was also the root of protest over Vietnam.
Kennedy, Robert: Kennedy was the attorney general of the U.S. in 1968 and senator from
New York. He stressed that voting was the key to racial equality and pushed for the Civil
Rights Act of 1964. Kennedy gained the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968, but was
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assassinated in California during a campaign.
Election of the 1968: Lyndon Johnson did not run for reelection in 1968 due to his
dissatisfaction with the Vietnam War and public discontent. Richard Nixon captured the
presidency for the Republican party after he defeated George C. Wallace, the American
Independent and Hubert H. Humphrey, the Democratic candidate.
Czechoslovakia invaded: In Aug. of 1968, with the installation of reformers Alexander
Dubcek as party leader and Ludvik Svoboda as president, the USSR and its Warsaw Pact
allies invaded Czechoslovakia, forcing the repeal of most of the reforms. The Soviet Union
replaced Dubcek with the staunchly pro-Soviet Communist regime.
Chicago, Democratic Party Convention riot: In August 1968, the Chicago convention was
disrupted by violence due to the party split over the nomination of the majority leader.
Tensions rose as young SDS protestors against the Vietnam war arrived to voice their
discontent. The riot destroyed Democratic unity and resulted in a loss of support.
Nixon, Richard’s Southern strategy: In 1965, Nixon began his attack on radicalism in
America, focusing on the failure of southern white efforts to destroy racial equality. Nixon
went on television to condemn the court that enforced bus desegregation. He also appointed
W. Burger to counter liberalism in the Warren Court.
Wallace, Governor: George Wallace was an American politician and three-time governor of
Alabama. He first came to national attention as an outspoken segregationist. Wallace ran for
the presidency in 1968 and 1972 and was shot and killed during a 1972 election campaign
stop in Maryland.
•MOON RACE, Armstrong, Neil: Frightened out of complacency by the Soviet launching
of Sputnik, a satellite, Kennedy promised the American people to put a man on the moon
before the end of the decade. Pouring vast amounts of money into the space program,
Kennedy was determined not to allow Russia to win. On July 21, 1969, Neil Armstrong
walked on the moon’s surface. Americans put fears of Soviet technological superiority to rest
for the United States had been the first to launch a human out into space.
Sunbelt verses Rustbelt: The leading work industries, the Rustbelt and Sunbelt, reeled under
the triple blow of slumping exports, aggressive foreign competition, and technological
obsolescence. About 11.5 million American workers lost jobs as a result of plant closings or
lack of work.
Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique: The Feminine Mystique elucidated to readers that
they were not alone in their unhappiness. Friedan’s personal demand for "something more
than my husband, my children, and my home" rang true to a growing number of middle class
American women who found joys in motherhood.
National Organization for Women (NOW): The National Organization for Women was
formed in 1966. Defining themselves as a civil-rights group for women, NOW lobbied for
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equal opportunity; they filed lawsuits against gender discrimination and rallied public opinion
"to bring American women to full participation."
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): By 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment
(ERA) to the Constitution. This amendment stated that "Equality of rights under the law shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on the basis of sex."
National Women’s Political Caucus: The National Women’s Political Caucus (1971)
endorsed candidates that promoted a feminist agenda in Washington and many other State
capitals. By 1972, many states had liberalized their abortion laws and banned sex
discrimination in job hiring.
Nader, Ralph, Unsafe at Any Speed: Ralph Nader, a graduate of Harvard Law School,
exposed the danger of automobiles that were "unsafe at any speed"; he brought forth the
movement of environmental concerns which would later launch major campaigns for federal
regulations.
Vietnam to 1968
As the French pulled out of an increasingly helpless situation, the United States became more
involved to fill the power vacuum. Though many liberal college students mounted large
protests against the conflict, the majority of the nation supported the war. Not until the Têt
offensive did massive opposition arise.
Gulf of Tonkin: The Gulf of Tonkin is the northwestern arm of the South China Sea. China
and the island of Hainan border it on the west by Vietnam. It is the site for the famous battle
that led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which committed the U.S. in Vietnam.
North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia: The French empire
condensed North and South Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia into one colony called
Indochina. The separate regions resented this and nationalist stirrings caused widespread
discontent among the people of each nation.
•Ho Chi Minh: Ho was the Vietnamese Communist leader and the principal force behind the
Vietnamese struggle against French colonial rule. Hoping for U.S. assistance in Vietnam’s
struggle for independence, Ho later turned to the Soviet Union when the U.S. aided the
French. He was a nationalist at heart and wanted Vietnamese independence far more than a
communist government. He led the Vietminh, a group of guerrillas. In 1954, they defeated the
French garrison at the battle of Dien Bien Phu.
First Indochina War: The French wanted Indochina back after losing control over the
colony during the Vichy era of the Second World War. Ho Chi Minh refused to give up
sovereignty which resulted in the First Indochina War; it drew the U.S. into the fight against
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communism, but Vietnam became more staunchly communist after the war.
•Domino theory: Eisenhower’s domino theory claimed that once one nation fell to
communism, bordering countries would follow like falling dominoes. The theory was used in
context of the monolithic view of communism, which claimed that all communist countries
were in a conspiracy to destroy democracy in the world. Applied to Asia, the U.S. could not
let Vietnam fall after "losing" China to communism. Fearful of Soviet expansion, Eisenhower
increased American involvement in Vietnam.
Dien Bien Phu: On May 7, 1954, the Vietminh surrounded and laid siege to the French
garrison, forcing them to surrender. The U.S. refused to give aid to the French for fear of
condoning imperialism. Facing this humiliating defeat, the French decided to give up their
futile attempt to fight nationalist stirrings in Vietnam.
•GENEVA CONFERENCE, 1954: After the fall of the French garrison at Dien Bien Phu,
an international conference was called in Geneva in 1954 to discuss the status of the war in
Vietnam. The delegates of the conference decided that Vietnam should be divided into North
and South at the seventeenth parallel until national elections took place in 1954. The elections
were never held. The conference also created an area known as the demilitarized zone.
•VIET CONG, National Liberation Front: The Viet Cong was the name given to the
Vietnamese communist army; the National Liberation Front was a part of this group. In
support of Ho Chi Minh, the group pushed to overthrow the South Vietnamese President Ngo
Dinh Diem. The National Liberation Front was partly responsible for the fall of Dinh Bien
Phu and organization of the Têt Offensive. The National Liberation Front consisted mainly of
guerilla fighters.
•GULF OF TONKIN RESOLUTION, 1964: After North Vietnamese gun boats assaulted
American ships that were organizing air strikes and military moves, Johnson and his advisers
drafted the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that committed the United States in Vietnam. It was
passed by Congress and gave Johnson a "blank check," granting him full authority against
North Vietnamese forces. This led to the increased U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
Demilitarized zone: A demilitarized zone (DMZ) refers to areas in which military weapons
and other installations are prohibited. The demilitarized zone during the Vietnam War was
surrounded the seventeenth parallel. The parallel and the DMZ were created as a result of the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions.
•Têt Offensive: The NLF and the North Vietnamese arm mounted a massive offensive
against the South Vietnamese and American armies on January 31, 1968, which was also the
first day of the Vietnamese New Year known as Têt. The nationalists successfully penetrated
Saigon and took the United States embassy. After being told that the enemy was virtually
defeated, the offensive showed that the nationalists were still capable of fighting and that the
government had lied. Popularity for the war vastly declined.
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Vietnamization and Détente
Skilled in foreign politics, Nixon gracefully pulled the United States out of Vietnam by turning
over the conflict to the South Vietnamese. With a major Cold War conflict over, the president
proceeded to lessen American-Soviet tensions through a call for "peaceful coexistence."
Bombing of Laos and Cambodia: As Nixon began to withdraw American forces in Vietnam
in 1972, he sent Henry Kissinger to negotiate with the communists’ foreign minister, Le Duc
Tho. In order to force a compromise, the president ordered massive bombings of Cambodia
and Laos, the locations of communist supply lines.
Kent State and Jackson State incidents: In 1972, the invasion of Cambodia spread the war
throughout Indochina which sparked massive American protests on college campuses. The
Kent and Jackson State universities were sites of protest in which student protesters were
killed.
Daniel Ellsberg, Pentagon Papers: Daniel Ellsberg was a analyst for the Department of
Defense, who in 1971 released to the press the Pentagon Papers, an account of American
involvement in Vietnam created by the department during the Johnson administration. The
papers revealed government lies to Congress and the American people.
My Lai, Lt. Calley: Lt. Calley was an inexperienced commander of an American army unit
massacred 347 defenseless women, children, and old men in 1968. The horrors of the
massacre were revealed to the public and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, an
organization of returning soldiers that renounced their war medals as a result.
Hanoi, Haipong: Hanoi was the capital of Vietnam before the war. It was located in the
northern part of the country. During the war it was heavily bombed in an attempt to force the
North Vietnamese to negotiate a peace treaty. Haiphong was located 10 miles from the Gulf
of Tonkin. It was the largest port in Southeast Asia and site of the Indochina naval base.
Fulbright, Senator: Senator Fulbright was an American senator of Arkansas, who proposed
the Fulbright Act of 1964. This act established the exchange program for American and
foreign educators and students. Senator Fulbright also served as the chairman of the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee. He opposed the war.
•Vietnamization: Popular discontent forced Nixon to pull out of the Vietnam war, but he
could not allow the United States to lose face. Leaving Vietnam without honor would
endanger U.S. global dominance and give a considerable advantage the Soviet Union.
Vietnamization, the process of replacing the American armed forces with South Vietnamese
troops trained by American advisors, allowed the U.S. to save its reputation and satisfy an
American public weary with a futile struggle.
Paris Accords, 1973: In 1973, after Lyndon Johnson died of a heart attack, Nixon declared
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that a peace had been reached in Vietnam. The Paris Accords ended the war between the
North Vietnamese government and Thieu government of South Vietnam. It was also agreed
that the future of North Vietnam would not be determined by war.
SALT I Agreement: At a meeting in Vladivostok, Siberia, in 1974, the SALT I agreement
allowed Ford and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to make enormous progress towards the new
arms-control treaty. This agreement was to limit each side to 2,400 nuclear missiles which
would reduce the rate of war to a mere fraction.
Détente: The evacuation of American troops from Vietnam helped Nixon and Kissinger
reduce Chinese-American tensions and achieve détente with the communist superpowers.
This dramatic development marked a significant change in American foreign policy by
developing a cordial attitude towards the communists.
China visit, 1972; recognition of China: On February 22, 1972, the President’s plane landed
in China. Part of his policy of détente, Nixon took advantage of the Sino-Soviet split to pit the
former allies against each other by recognizing China. The China visit sealed the new
Chinese-American friendship, leaving Russia more isolated.
War Powers Act, 1973: As an act passed by Congress, the president was given
unprecedented authority. Thousands of special wartime agencies suddenly regulated almost
every of American life. After the war, 15 million men had been trained and equipped with
armed forces ready for battle.
Six Day War, 1967: Israel’s decisive triumph in the Six Day War had left the Arabs
humiliated and eager to reclaim the militarily strategic Golan Heights which was taken from
Syria. Aided by massive U.S. shipments of highly sophisticated weaponry, the Israelis
stopped the assault and counterattacked.
Yom Kippur War: Syria and Egypt, backed by Russia, led an all out attack on Israel in 1973
on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. This war between the Israelis and their neighboring
countries spanned several years. There were frequent bombings and raids amongst the
countries for oil.
• KISSINGER, HENRY, "shuttle diplomacy": Henry Kissinger flew from capital to capital
and bargained with the Israelis and the Egyptian people. He organized a cease-fire in
November of 1973. Kissinger negotiated the peace agreement with the aid of the Organization
of Petroleum Exporting Countries to end the Yom Kippur war. His "shuttle diplomacy"
ameliorated the hostility between the Middle Eastern countries and the United States.
Nixon to Watergate
Basing his support on the conservative New Right coalition, Nixon actually broke from
Republican tradition in environmental protection, welfare reform, and finding solutions to
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economic problems such as the severe inflation. Yet Nixon’s insecurity as president and his
abuse of executive power led to his downfall.
Nixon, "New Federalism," The Imperial Presidency: Nixon’s "New Federalism" promised
to bring back law and order to the United States by promoting conservatism and executive
authority. The term Imperial Presidency referred to Nixon’s efforts to acquire absolute control
over his Presidency.
Agnew, Spiro T., his resignation: Vice President Agnew was charged with income-tax
evasion and accepting bribes. He pleaded no contest which was "the full equivalent to a plea
of guilty," according to the trial judge. Dishonored and distrusted, Agnew left the government
service with a three-year suspended sentence.
"revenue sharing": As part of Nixon’s "New Federalism," "revenue sharing" was a five year
plan to distribute $30 billion of federal revenues to the states. Congress passed it in 1972 in
response to the failing economy caused by the inflation, trade deficit, and massive spending
during the 1960s.
wage and price controls: In response to the troubled American economy, Nixon declared a
ninety-day freeze on wages, prices, and rents which would be followed by federally imposed
controls setting maximum annual increases of 5.5% for wages and 2.5% for prices and rents.
Nixon verses Congress: On July 27th, the House Judiciary Committee took in the first article
of impeachment. 6 out of 17 Republicans voted with the 21 Democrats to charge Nixon with
interruption of justice for controlling the Watergate investigation. The president had abused
his power.
Committee for the Reelection of the President (CREEP): Nixon created CREEP to ensure
every vote for the election of 1972. Appointing attorney general John Mitchell as the head,
CREEP financed many "dirty tricks" to spread dissension within Democratic ranks and paid
for a special internal espionage unit to spy on the opposition.
Watergate: The scandal exposed the connection between the White House and the accused
Watergate burglars who had raided the Democrats’ headquarters during the 1972 campaign.
The election federal judge, Sirica, refused to accept the claim of those on trial that they had
behaved on their own terms.
election of 1972: Nixon’s reelection was assured. He relied on his diplomatic successes with
China and Russia and his strategy towards the winding down of the war in Vietnam to attract
moderate voters. He expected his southern strategy and law-and-order posture to attract the
conservative Democrats.
White House "plumbers": Led by Liddy and Hunt, this Republican undercover team
obtained approval by Mitchell to wire telephones at the Democractic National Committee
headquarters in the Watergate apartment/office complex. The operation was thwarted on June
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17, 1992 by a security guard; it would bring about the downfall of Nixon.
Watergate Tapes: Another Presidential rumor shocked the committee and the nation by
revealing that Nixon had put in a secret taping system in the White House that recorded all the
conversations between his enemies in the Oval Office. Both the Ervin committee and
prosecutor Cox insisted to hear the tapes, but Nixon refused.
McGovern, Sen. George: George McGovern of South Dakota rose to fame on the energetic
support of antiwar activists rushing to the Democratic primaries. He was seen as inept and
radical, but Nixon was insecure about McGovern’s popularity; the senator contributed to
Nixon’s downfall.
Muskie, Sen. Edmund: The campaign of Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine collapsed when
he started to cry in public while trying to respond to an accusation of prejudice against
Canadian-Americans. Muskie’s campaign was never a threat to Nixon’s reelection, but Nixon
still feared him.
Haldeman, H.R., Ehrlichman, John, John Dean, John Mitchell: All were involved in the
Watergate scandal. Dean refused to cover up Nixon’s involvement in Watergate. Nixon fired
Dean and Haldeman and Erlichman who headed the White House Staff resigned. All three
and former Attorney General Mitchell were indicted on March 1974.
Impeachment proceeding: The most damaging to the President was when the hearings
exposed the White House’s active involvement in the Watergate cover-up. But the Senate still
lacked concrete evidence on the president’s criminality. Thus they could not impeach Nixon.
Twenty-fifth Amendment: Ratified in 1967, this amendment detailed the procedure by
which the vice president was to take over the presidency if the current president could not
uphold his status in office. It also limited the power given to the vice president from the
incapacitated president.
Twenty-sixth Amendment: This amendment guaranteed the rights of those who were 18
years of age or older to vote as citizens of the United States. It gave the power to Congress to
enforce and protect by appropriate legislation. The amendment allowed the politicians to
listen to the voices of younger people as voters.
Chicanos: Chicanos were segregated Mexican-Americans and also included Puerto Ricans.
Assumed as inferiors, they lacked all the civil liberties of citizenship. They typically worked
in the agricultural field as menial laborers and were unpaid and overcharged.
Cesar Chavez: As a Roman Catholic and a follower of King, Chavez worked to win rights
for migrant farmers. He is famous for a strike he organized with the help of grape pickers in
California in 1965. Chavez’s leadership brought guarantees of rights for the farmers. He was
an important figure in the Brown Power movement.
Burger, William appointed, 1969: Appointed in 1969, Warren Burger was to replace the old
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and retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He was young and a new addition to the Nixon court;
Nixon appointed him to moderate the liberalism of the Warren court and its controversial
decisions.
American Indian Movement (AIM), Wounded Knee: Native-Americans occupied Alcatraz
Island in San Francisco Bay in 1969, and Wounded Knee was their trading post site. The
reason they defiantly occupied Alcatraz Island was to protest their low status in America.
They advocated Red Power and demanded justice for past wrongs.
The Middle East Crisis
With a virtual monopoly on petroleum, OPEC drove up oil prices which caused severe
economic problems for the United States. Yet more turbulent conflicts existed in the Middle
East: religious issues and territorial disputes inflamed tensions between Israel and the
Palestinians.
Multinational Corporations: In the modern era, where transportation allows rapid
communication and exportation of products, corporations could span several nations. Many
took advantage of inexpensive labor in one country and depreciated taxes in another.
Arab oil embargo: Furious at American intervention in the Middle Eastern conflicts, the
Arab nations began to downsize the exportation of petroleum products to western nations.
Consequently, the western world which relied heavily on petroleum was forced to seek other
resources of fuel and energy.
•ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC): In the
1970s, Middle Eastern petroleum exporting countries formed a monopoly and agreed to raise
the price of oil. As a result, the economy in the western world fell into inflation and
unemployment; a nation-wide recession resulted which forced Jimmy Carter to seek new
economic programs at the end of his term in office. However, he could only do little to dispel
the effects of the rising prices of oil.
Palestinian Liberation Front, (PLO), Yasser Arafat: In June 1982, there was great
violence in the Middle East when Israel invaded Lebanon to extinguish the Palestinian
Liberation Front from its headquarters. The chaos and confusion escalated in Lebanon which
was already plagued by its own Civil War.
The Energy Crisis and Carter
Trying desperately to cope with the economic predicament spawned by OPEC, both Ford and
Carter dismally failed. In foreign affairs, Cold War tensions mounted as the Soviet Union
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became increasingly annoyed with Carter’s rigorous standard of human rights.
Balance of trade, trade deficits: A U.S. economic report during the 1970s revealed that the
nation imported more than it exported; the balance of trade was thrown off and the economic
experts worried that the U.S. economy would not survive. As a result, Nixon began such
programs as "revenue sharing" and wage and price controls for regulation.
Ford, Gerald, Nixon Pardon: On Aug. 9, 1974, Ford became the first vice president to
inherit leadership of the nation after the president resigned. To put the nation forward,
General Ford granted pardon for ex-President Nixon. As a result, many people were angry
that the government could easily forgive corruption and dishonesty.
•"STAGFLATION": As a combination of business stagnation and inflation, "stagflation"
severely worsened the American economy. When the government borrowed money to offset
the drastic loss of tax revenue, interest rates still increased. The federal government could not
repay the loan, and it was forced to find other methods to collect revenue. There was no
simple solution to "stagflation;" to lower interest rates to prevent stagnation would worsen the
ongoing inflation.
SALT II: In June 1979, Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev agreed and signed the SALT II
treaty. Carter presented it to the Senate and they ratified it. Due to the invasion of Afghanistan
by Russia, the Cold War thaw slowed. The U.S.-Soviet relationship grew sour, and the U.S.
boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.
Election of 1976: Jimmy Carter was elected President of the United States in 1976.
Climaxing a remarkable rise to national fame, Carter had been governor of Georgia from 1971
to 1975 and was little known elsewhere at the beginning of 1976. Carter defeated Gerald Ford
in the 1976 election.
Carter, Jimmy, Amnesty: Elected to the Presidency in 1976, Carter was an advocate of
human rights. He granted amnesty to countries who followed his foreign policy. They
excluded nations which violated Carter’s humane standards through cruel business practices.
Panama Canal Treaty: The Carter administration put together bargains on a number of
treaties to transfer the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone to the Panamanians by 1999. This
treaty was met with staunch opposition by Republicans who felt that they "stole it fair and
square."
Camp David Accords: Camp David was a place where the Egyptian leader Anwar el-Sadat
and the Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin came together with Jimmy Carter. They
discussed certain negotiations and tried to hammer out a framework for a peace treaty for the
Middle East. It represented peace and harmony in the modern world.
WIN: To compensate for the economic predicament caused by OPEC and the crisis of energy
conservation, Jimmy Carter proposed a innovative economic program. WIN was to provide
methods for conserving energy by creating the Department of Energy and regulating
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consumption of gas by automobiles.
Department of Energy: Carter created the Department of Energy and created an energy bill
including taxation on oil and gasoline, tax credits for those who found methods on saving
money and alternative-energy resources. It went well and the bill for energy consumption
came down in 1978.
Reagan Revolution
Reagan promulgated a program to restore U.S. prominence and honor globally, and fight
economic problems. He advocated a more laissez faire policy through a lessening of
government activism, taxes, spending, and restrictions on business.
•ELECTION OF 1980: The election of 1980 included candidates such as Republican Ronald
Reagan, Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter, and John B. Anderson as the Independent
candidate. The biggest issue at the time was American foreign policy, and Ronald Reagan had
a greater hand in that issue. Ronald Reagan became the President of the United States in 1980
with the promise of ameliorating the American economy against the forces of "stagflation."
Anderson, John: He was a Republican congressman from Illinois, and his running mate was
Patrick J. Lucey from Wisconsin. When he announced his candidacy, he was serving his 10th
term in the U.S. House of Representatives. He was known for his strong liberal statements
and spoke well on complex issues.
Economy Recovery Tax Act, 1981: Following his promise of bettering the U.S. economy,
Reagan proposed a 30% tax cut allowing the money supply to circulate. He liberalized
business taxes and decreased capital gains, gifts, inheritance taxes to encourage investments
in a plunging economy.
•REAGANOMICS: Also known as voodoo economics, George Bush named this new
economic strategy Reaganomics in the 1980 primary campaign. President Reagan believed
that the government should leave the economy alone. He hoped that it would run by itself. It
was a return to the laissez faire theory of Adam Smith, yet Reagan expanded his theory by
advocating supply-side economics as a method to solve the economic hardships.
Supply side economics: In contrast to Adam Smith’s belief in supply-and-demand, Reagan
assumed that if the economy provided the products and services, the public would purchase
them. Consequently, Reagan lowered income taxes to stimulate the economy by expanding
the money supply.
O’Connor, Sandra Day: She was a feminist who generally deplored Reagan’s programs.
However, she was delighted when he nominated her as the first woman justice on the U.S.
Supreme Court. Many people supported Reagan’s decisions in favor of women’s rights.
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Three Mile Island: In 1979, a near catastrophe occurred at Three Mile Island when there was
an accident involving a nuclear power plant. Safety measures were taken so that a future
incident would not occur. The plants were placed far away to reduce the hazards of near fatal
accidents.
Watt, James Secretary of Interior: James Watt received more than $400,000 for making
several calls to the Department of Housing and Urban Development officials. The people who
had interceded with the Department of Housing and Urban Development were paid hundreds
of thousands of dollars for federal subsides.
Love Canal, Niagara Falls, NY: In the 1970s and early 1980s, chemical wastes that had
leaked from a former disposal site threatened the health of residents in that area. Both the
New York state government and the federal government provided financial aid to help move
families from the Love Canal to other areas.
EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, OHSA: It was created in 1969 by President Nixon
to enforce government standards for water and the air quality for work safety. The
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was also created to enforce the
hygiene.
"New Federalism" proposals, 1982: New Federalism proposed to reverse the flow of power
and resources from the states and communities to the state capital. The president proposed a
revenue sharing bill that transferred some federal revenues to the states and prominent cities.
Deregulation-AT&T, airlines, trucking: To reverse the flow of federal power, Reagan
began to deregulate governmental controls over such companies as AT&T, airlines, and
trucking companies. He reasoned government must take its "hands off" from the economy to
encourage investments and free enterprise.
NEH, National Endowment for Humanities: The National Endowment for Humanities was
created to further promote artistic and cultural development in the United States. This was
targeted to foreigners. The project revealed the full cultural spectrum of America.
Friedan, Betty The Second Stage, 1981: In her novel The Second Stage, Friedan stresses the
need to add family matters to the cause of women’s rights. She reasons no person should
ignore such a significant issue while focusing on female independence and advancement in
society.
Defeat of the ERA: As the argument over the ERA and abortion went on more women got
jobs in the working industry. In the 1960s, 35% of women held jobs, but in 1988, 60% of
women worked. Even though women had children, 51% of them were working from day to
day.
Election of 1984: Former Vice President Walter Mondale got the Democratic nomination
over Jesse Jackson, backed by minority groups, and Gary Hart, who appealed to the young.
Reagan’s campaign revolved around the optimistic slogan "It’s Morning in America" and he
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rode the tide of prosperity to a decisive victory.
Ferraro, Geraldine: The first woman ever to be on the ticket of a major party, Ferraro was
chosen by Walter Mondale to be his Vice-Presidential candidate in 1984. However, her
presence failed to win Mondale the election, as a higher percentage of women voted
republican in 1984 than in 1980.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome): First diagnosed in 1981, 97,000 cases were
reported in 1989. Originally concentrated among homosexual men, needle-sharing drug users,
and sex partners of high risk groups, the disease soon spread. AIDS prompted a change from
the "free love" attitude of the 1970s, to a "safe sex" attitude of the 1990s.
•"MORAL MAJORITY": The Moral Majority was Jerry Falwell’s pro-Reagan followers
who embraced the new evangelical revival of the late seventies. The Moral Majority was
politically active in targeting such issues as abortion, homosexuality, pornography, and school
prayer. They was strongly conservative, anticommunist, and influential. The Moral Majority
was started in 1979 as a secular political group, and were finished as a political force by the
late 1980s.
Vietnam Veterans’s Memorial, 1982: Constructed in 1982, the memorial is a black marble
wall sunken below ground level in Washington D.C.’s National Mall. On it are inscribed the
names of all Americans who died or were missing in action. It also includes a statue of three
soldiers, located nearby.
Agent Orange: Agent Orange was a chemical sprayed by U.S. planes on the jungles of
Vietnam during the war which caused the defoliation of trees and shrubs and made enemy
positions more visible. In the 1970s it was found that Agent Orange was harmful to humans.
In 1984, manufacturers agreed to pay veterans injured by the chemical.
The Challenger Disaster, 1986: The space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds into
flight, killing all aboard. The explosion was caused by a faulty seal in the fuel tank. The
shuttle program was halted while investigators and officials drew up new safety regulations,
but was resumed in 1988 with the flight of the Discovery.
Tax Reform Act, 1986: In 1986, with the federal deficit exceeding $200 billion, Reagan
proposed a new, simplified tax system that lowered the taxes of individuals and corporate
incomes. The tax reform helped reduce the deficit by 1987, but the stock market crash in
October 1987 made higher taxes a necessity.
The "Teflon Presidency": Ronald Reagan’s popularity never seemed to change much
despite the scandals and failures of his presidency. He was called the Teflon president by
some because nothing would stick to him. Even with all the criticism, Reagan remained very
popular and charismatic.
HUD scandals: In 1989, revelations surfaced that during Reagan’s administration, prominent
Republicans had been paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for interceding with the
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Department of Housing and Development on behalf of developers seeking federal subsidies.
Once again, Reagan’s popularity was unaffected.
Heating and Cooling of the Cold War
Ambiguous in his position towards the Soviet Union, Reagan verbally attacked the USSR as
an "evil empire" yet his actions were friendly. Anti-Soviet rhetoric proved to be only rhetoric
and the two nations resolved many of their differences. By the end of Reagan’s
administration, the Cold War was unofficially over.
Afghanistan, 1979-1989: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in an effort to acquire more
land for Russia’s use. In Moscow’s attempt to take over Afghanistan, Russia wanted to setup
some sort of pro-Soviet Afghan regime. Not only did Russia try to take over Afghanistan, but
they wanted them to change religiously.
Olympic boycott, 1980: When Carter and Brezhnev could not agree on the rules and
regulations of the SALT II agreement, the United States picked up an anti-Soviet relationship
towards everything that had to do with Russia, which unfortunately included the 1980
Summer Olympics in Moscow.
Walesa, Lech, Solidarity: He became the leader of Poland’s government in 1980. Walesa’s
negotiations with Poland’s government that year led to the government’s recognition of
Solidarity. Solidarity was a organization composed of about 50 Polish trade unions.
Falkland Island War: In April 1982, Argentine troops invaded and occupied the islands.
Britain also responded by sending troops, ships, and planes. Air, sea and land battles broke
out between Argentina and Britain. Due to severe losses the Argentine forces surrendered in
June 1982.
Civil war in Lebanon, Israel moves into Southern Lebanon: President Reagan sent 2,000
Marines to Lebanon in 1982 in order to gain control over the crippled PLO, insure that they
got out of Tunisia, and help restore order to the war damaged country. It proved difficult as
fire broke out upon the U.S. Marine soldiers.
Grenada, 1983: On October 23, 1983, 2,000 U.S. Marine soldiers invaded the island of
Grenada, and overthrew the disruptive radical government, and put in a U.S.-friendly regime.
The new government that the United States had just installed was collaborating well with the
local Grenadians.
El Salvador, Duarte: Fear of Soviet expansion helped shape policy towards third world
revolutions. In El Salvador, the U.S. backed the military rulers in suppressing insurgents
(leftists backed by Cuba). The moderate Jose Napoleon Duarte was elected in 1984 with U.S.
support, but his ineffective government was voted out in 1989.
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•NICARAGUA—Somoza Family, Sandinistas, Contras, Ortega: First, Carter backed the
Sandinista revolutionaries in overthrowing dictator Anastasio Somoza in 1979, who was
replaced by Daniel Ortega. Reagan later reversed the policy thinking that the Sandinistas were
procommunist. The CIA organized an army of "contras" to oppose the Sandinistas. Fear of
another Vietnam-like war prompted Congress in 1982 to halt aid to the contras. Reagan
secretly began sending illegal aid to the contras, but was never held accountable.
Arias Peace Plan in Central America: Oscar Arias Sánchez, the president of Costa Rica,
was very influential in pushing for peace in Central America which was stalled because of
civil wars in the region and the tensions between Nicaragua’s Sandinista government and the
U.S. In 1986, the warring nations signed a peace agreement.
•SDI (STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE), "Star Wars": SDI was a proposed system
of space based lasers and other high-tech defenses against nuclear attack, popularly dubbed
"Star Wars." It was proposed by Reagan in 1983 in an effort to ward off the perceived threat
of a Soviet strike as U.S.-Soviet relations worsened. Many argued it would escalate the
conflict. The system carried a huge price tag, and was fiercely debated until the end of the
Reagan administration. The system was never used.
nuclear freeze movement: The movement was a popular reaction to the military and nuclear
buildup under Reagan. Protests, rallies, and resolutions against nukes were passed. It was the
first popular challenge to Reaganism. Responding to pressure, the U.S. began talks on
strategic-arms reductions with the Soviets.
Iranian crisis, the Shah, Ayatollah Khomeini: The Iranian crisis started when a Beirut
newspaper reported that in 1985 the United States shipped 508 antitank missiles to the
government of Iran. This exposure of U.S. intervention led to the American hostage situation
held in Lebanon by pro-Iranian radical groups.
Iran-Iraq War: The war began in 1980 over territorial disputes. Fighting spread throughout
the gulf region and the U.S. was dragged into the conflict several times, either being attacked
or attacking hostile targets. The war ended in 1988, as Iraq began preparing to invade Kuwait.
The area remained a volatile region.
•IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR, (or Irangate): Caught selling arms to the anti-American
government of Iran, Reagan admitted it and stated his aim had been to encourage "moderate
elements" in Tehran and gain the release of American hostages. Key players included Oliver
North, who sent millions of dollars from these sales to contras in Nicaragua when Congress
had forbidden such aid, and John Poindexter, who hid the affair from the president. Criminal
charges were filed against only North.
Panama, Gen. Noriega, drug-trafficking indictment, conviction: In 1987 the U.S. realized
that the U.S.-supported ruler of Panama, Manuel Noriega, was profiting on the flow of drugs
through his country. A U.S. grand jury indicted Noriega on various drug charges. He ignored
the actions. Marines were sent in and he was caught and convicted.
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South Africa, apartheid, Nelson Mandela, F.W. De Klerk: When opposition to South
Africa’s racist government grew in the U.S., Congress voted to boycott South Africa in 1986.
President De Klerk worked with Mandela, who had been jailed for 27 years, to end apartheid.
Free elections were held in 1994 and Mandela became president.
Marcos, Philippines, Corazon Aquino: Resistance to the corrupt government of Pres.
Ferdinand Marcos intensified after the 1983 assassination of opposition leader Benito Aquino.
His wife, Corazon led the surge after Marco’s fraudulent 1986 reelection and took control.
She was backed by the U.S. and the country was to face turbulent times.
Duvalier, Haiti: Jean-Claude Duvalier, dictator of Haiti from 1971-1986, used oppressive
measures and a violent secret police force to control Haitian citizens. Many sought refuge in
the United States. In 1986, Haitians staged a revolt against Duvalier and he fled the country.
This was followed by years of violent political turmoil in Haiti.
•GORBACHEV, glasnost, perestroika: Mikhail Gorbachev welded influence in
transforming the Soviet Union into a less rigidly communist regime. His program of
economic and political reform was called perestroika or restructuring. Gorbachev’s call for
more openness in government was given the name glasnost. Relations between the United
States and the Soviet Union continued to improve which furthered the thaw in the Cold War.
Col. Qaddafi, Libya: Colonel Muammar Qaddafi was a pro-terrorist and anti-American
leader of Libya. In 1986, Libya fired missiles at U.S. military planes and after an explosion at
a German nightclub popular with American GI’s, U.S. planes bombed five Libyan sites.
Hostilities continue in the region.
INF Treaty, 1987 (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty): The treaty was a 1987
agreement between Reagan and Gorbachev which banned INF’s but did little to end the
nuclear threat as 95% of the world’s nuclear arsenal remained. It is an example of the
warming Soviet-American relations and renewed the arms control process.
Bush and the Post Cold War Era
With the disintegration of the Soviet empire, the Cold War which shaped U.S. policy for
nearly a half-century finally died. The threat of nuclear annihilation subsided and the
American public breathed a sigh of relief.
Black Monday, 1987, Stock Market crashes: The market had enjoyed incredible success for
the past five years and had tripled in size. On October 19, 1987, it fell 508 points in the largest
single day drop in history. Though it soon regained the loss and surged to new heights, the
volatility and uncertainty remained.
Jackson, Rev. Jesse, Rainbow Coalition: Jackson, once an associate of King, tried to build a
"rainbow coalition" of blacks, Hispanics, displaced workers, and other political outsiders to
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try to gain nomination and election in 1984. Jackson ran several times for the presidency, but
was not moderate enough to gain popular approval.
Election of 1988--candidates, issues: Bush got the Republican nomination while Michael
Dukakis won the Democratic nomination over Jesse Jackson. Bush chose Quayle as his
running mate for his good looks. Taxes, crime, and personal appearance were the main issues
in 1988. Bush won fairly decisively on a negative campaign.
• BUSH, GEORGE: Bush was Vice President under Reagan, and was president from 1989 to
1993. As president, Bush was successful in areas of foreign relations. He eased relations with
Russia, resisted the Russian military’s attempted coup in 1991, and fought Saddam Hussein in
the Persian gulf. He was not as successful in domestic affairs as the economy dwindled and
the deficit rose; the effects of the era of Reaganomics. Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton and
Al Gore in the 1992 election.
holes in the "Iron Curtain": Due to Gorbachev’s more liberalized policies, Moscow began
losing direct control over Eastern Europe. The USSR reduced its military force in its eastern
satellites and allowed more freedom of expression. Non-Communist political movements
soon developed in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
Berlin Wall falls, Germany reunited: The dismantling of the Berlin Wall began in 1989.
Germany, having been divided into East and West Germany since World War II, unified in
October 1990. The wall which separated the two countries fell, and citizens were once again
permitted to travel between East and West Germany.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act: Passed in 1986, the bill required the automatic unilateral
slashing of many budget items. These included many domestic and defense programs. The
goal of the bill was to reduce the enormous debt of the Reagan years and to have a balanced
budget by the year 1991.
national debt triples from 1980 to 1989, 908 billion to 2.9 trillion: In an effort to restimulate the economy, Reagan’s administration increased defense spending drastically while
lowering taxes. The debt skyrocketed during his term. His philosophy of supply-side
economics, or heavy spending in the corporate sector, was a contributing factor.
Clean Air Act, 1990 (also one in 1970): President Bush sponsored the bill, which set stricter
regulations on many airborne pollutants. The act was aimed at reducing the chemicals which
cause acid rain, smog, ozone damage and many airborne carcinogens. The act was a
cornerstone in pollution regulation legislation.
Bennett, William J., "drug czar"--Office of National Drug Control Policy: Bennett was
chosen as "drug czar" by Bush in response to national concerns about drugs. His job was to
coordinate federal programs against drugs, and his first target was the violent drug lords of
Washington, D.C.
Tiananmen Square, Beijing: 400-800 students were massacred by government troops during
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a pro-democracy demonstration in Beijing’s central square. A wave of repression and
executions followed. The U.S. responded with outrage and cut everything but diplomatic
relations.
Nicaragua, Pres. Ortega defeated in free election: President Daniel Ortega, the leader of
the Sandinista regime, was defeated in 1990 by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in national
elections. Chamorro’s election signaled a more moderate turn for the Nicaraguans, though the
transition has met resistance. The U.S. supports Chamorro.
August 1991, attempted coup in Moscow, Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin: In 1991, hard-line
communists seized power from Gorbachev, who wished to give more power to the states. The
coup failed, but the political turmoil led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union into
independent states. Yeltsin, the president-elect, called for Russians to resist the coup.
•END OF THE COLD WAR, Commonwealth of Independent States, 1991: After the
failed coup in August of 1991, the 15 Russian states declared independence. Fearful of
centralized power but mindful of the economic pitfalls of independence, 12 of the states
formed the Commonwealth of Independent States and severed all ties to the old Soviet
regime. The Commonwealth was a loose economic union, though it is still considered a single
country.
difficulties between Russia and the new republics: The new republics were wary of losing
power to Russia, by far the largest and most endowed state, which hampered political unity.
Violence erupted in some states. The economy was in shambles after the lifting of economic
restraints and a severe drought. The commonwealth was very weak.
Hussein, Saddam, Iraq invades Kuwait: On August 2, 1990, Iraqi president Hussein
ordered the invasion of Kuwait after oil negotiations between the two broke down. Iraq had
complained that Kuwait was exceeding its oil production quota and flooding the world
market, driving prices down. This was the direct cause of the Persian Gulf War.
UN Security Council Resolution 661 (trade embargo on Iraq): On Aug. 6, 1990, the
resolution imposed an embargo on Iraqi trade effectively halting oil shipments from Iraq and
Kuwait. Hussein responded by increasing his forces in Kuwait. The embargo had severe
economic effects on surrounding countries who depended on Iraqi trade and oil.
Desert Shield, Gen. Collin Powell: In August 1990, President Bush ordered a buildup of
troops into Saudi Arabia called Desert Shield. It was led by General Collin Powell, who
became so popular as to later contemplate a 1996 presidential run. Desert Shield became
Desert Storm on January 17 with the beginning of the allied air assault.
UN Security Council Resolution 678: The allied operation shifted to a potentially offensive
nature with this resolution, issued November 29, 1990. It authorized the use of force by the
allies if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15. The resolution was evoked early
on January 17 when Allied planes began the air offensive.
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•GULF WAR, Operation Desert Storm, Gen. Schwarzkopf: Beginning with a bombing
raid on January 17, 1991, Desert Storm was directed by Gen. Schwarzkopf. The air raid
utilized the most advanced missile technology such as smart bombs and cruise missiles to
weaken the Iraqi defenses. Iraqi forces, though more numerous than the Allied force, were far
behind technologically. The short ground war began on February 24 and ended two days later.
An estimated 110,000 Iraqi soldiers died with about 300 U.S. deaths.
SCUD missiles, Patriot Missiles: SCUD’s were Soviet-made surface to surface missiles used
by Iraq to bomb Israel during Desert Shield and Desert Storm. They were aimed at provoking
Israelite retaliation to fracture the Allied-Arab alliance but were countered effectively by the
U.S. Patriots launched to destroy SCUD’s while still airborne.
revolts in Iraq--Shi’ites in South, Kurds in North: Postwar uprisings by Shi’ite Muslims in
southern Iraq and Kurds in the North were crushed by Hussein’s army. The fighting claimed
nearly 25,000 lives and created massive refuge problems for bordering nations. The U.S. used
force to protect the Kurds. The UN created a safe zone for them.
Family Support Act, 1988, "work fare": This Act tried to reform the welfare system. It
contained strict work and child support guidelines. Some of its provisions required women on
welfare to work if they have no children under 3 years old, and parents without custody could
have child support payments withheld from their paychecks.
MTV: MTV was part of the "cable revolution." Cable TV became a fixture in many U.S.
households, leading to the rise of smaller networks. Once was dominated by ABC, NBC, and
CBS, now stations like CNN, FOX, and MTV were legitimate contenders. MTV specifically
became an important marketing tool for music and politics.
1991 Civil Rights Act: The act allowed women, people with handicaps, and religious
minorities to collect punitive damages for intentional on-the-job discrimination. Previously,
only racial minorities could claim damages. It widened the definition of discrimination and
forced businesses to respect citizens rights of equality.
Thomas, Clarence, Supreme Court, Anita Hill: Thomas, the second black justice on the
Court, was nominated and seated in 1991. His nomination was plagued with controversy due
to sexual harassment allegations by Anita Hill, a former associate. The charges were
dismissed in a series of highly public congressional hearings.
baby-boom generation hits middle age: Once called the "Me Generation," people of the
1980s were interested with personal over public concerns. The "yuppie" was a person
preoccupied with physical fitness, money, and materialism. TV’s, VCRs, and personal
computers were common.
gentrification: Reversing the trend of the middle-class exodus from urban centers, yuppies
bought run-down apartments and town houses in poorer districts and fixed them up. The
process often came at the expense of poorer and older residents, including a great number of
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elderly citizens.
increased Asian, Hispanic immigration: 45% of immigrants since 1960 have been from the
Western Hemisphere, and 30% have come from Asia, signaling a new pattern of immigration.
The issue of illegal immigration became a hot topic politically, especially in the south west
and west. Many bills were passed in an attempt to limit immigration.
"gridlock," Congress vs. the President: Because a Democratic President and a Republican
Congress were elected in 1992, both had the power to obstruct the other. This "gridlock"
occurred midway through Clinton’s term. Unable to resolve a dispute, many government
projects and parks were closed down for several weeks.
•ELECTION OF 1992—candidates, issues, Ross Perot: The election of 1992 was
primarily between the Democrat Bill Clinton and the Republican incumbent George Bush.
Ross Perot, of the Independent party, did well in early polls, dropped out of the running, then
returned near November with much less support. The major issues were the state of the
economy, which had taken a turn for the worse at the end of the Bush administration, the state
of medical insurance, and Bush’s record of foreign diplomacy.
bombing of World Trade Center: In 1993, a bomb in a parking structure of the World Trade
Center Building in New York killed six and injured nearly 1000 people. Officials later
arrested militant Muslim extremists who condemned American actions towards Israel and the
U.S. involvement in the Persian Gulf War.
European Economic Area, Jan. 1, 1993: The 7 nations of the European Free Trade
Association (except Switzerland) and the 12 European Community nations signed an accord
to create an enlarged free-trade zone, the EEA. Some nations have loosened border and
currency restrictions to make political unity easier.
GATT, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: An international plan to reduce tariffs
and establish laws governing trade of services, investments, and other economic issues, was
approved by the 117 members of GATT. The plan also established an agency to deal with
international trade disputes, called the World Trade Organization.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): After a fierce political struggle,
NAFTA was approved by Congress in 1993. It eliminated trade barriers between Canada, the
U.S., and Mexico, making the flow of commerce more efficient. The NAFTA victory for free
trade set the stage for the GATT treaty.
disintegration of Yugoslavia: In 1991-1992, Yugoslavia split into Croatia, Slovenia,
Macedonia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Violence erupted in Bosnia as Serbs and Croatians
fought, killing tens of thousands. Many of Bosnia’s Muslims were victims of "ethnic
cleansing," mass expulsions to promote a Serbian ethnic partition of Bosnia.
PLO-Israel Peace Treaty (1993), Arafat, Rabin: A historic treaty was signed between Yasir
Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin which would allow Palestinian self-rule in parts of Israel, protect
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Israelis in Palestinian areas, and a recognition of Israel and the PLO as legitimate entities.
Radical Israelis and Palestinians denounced the treaty and violence ensued.
Somalia: A massive famine caused by warring factions of the government prompted George
Bush to send troops (along with the UN) to protect relief efforts in December 1992. The effort
succeeded in ending the famine, but not the violence. Soon, the U.S. was sustaining
casualties, and by 1994 the U.S. left leaving the UN in charge.
Whitewater: A scandal which has plagued Bill and Hillary Clinton while in the White House,
the Whitewater affair revolves around the question if the Clinton’s benefitted improperly from
their involvement in a real estate venture, the Whitewater Development Corp. Investigators
began searching for incriminating evidence.
Clinton’s health plan: Clinton’s dream of universal health care package died as the bill could
not get approval by resistant Republicans. The bill would have required employers to pay
80% of their employees’ medical costs, among other major changes. Several compromises
were attempted by Clinton, but the issue was dead by September 1994.
"greenhouse effect": The large amount of fossil fuels burned by cars, homes, and factories
has led to a rise in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide traps heat
near the surface of the planet, raising its temperature. The problem is made worse by tropical
deforestation, and has become a major environmental concern.
1994 Congressional election: The Republican Party, capitalizing on Clinton’s perceived
inactivity, gained a majority in Congress. More than 300 GOP candidates signed a "Contract
with America" pledging support of several popular initiates. Gingrich authored the contract
and became Speaker of the House. Dole became the Senate majority leader.
intervention in Haiti: The term referred to Operation Restore Democracy. Supported by the
Clinton administration, the plan was designed to restore President Jean-Bertrand Aristide to
power. The mission was successful, but Aristide did little towards turning Haiti into a
democracy. Clinton later withdrew his support.
Oklahoma City bombing, 1995: On April 19, 1995 a 2½ ton bomb exploded in front of the
Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. The blast destroyed the front section of
the building, killing 68; of whom 19 were children. Officials Terry Nicoles and Timothy
McVeigh were right wing militant extremists angry at the government.
Million Man March, 1995, Farrakhan: Led by the radical Nation of Islam leader Louis
Farrakhan, a major rally for African-Americans was held in Washington DC. Farrakhan
preached the need for blacks to become active family and community members. Officials
estimated 400,000-837,000 black men came. Women were discouraged from attending.
Rabin assassinated, 1995: Israeli Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin was shot and killed by a
Jewish settler just after speaking at a mass peace rally. The man who shot him was arrested on
the scene. He acted in protest to the signing of the PLO-Israeli Peace Accord of 1993. The
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future is uncertain under newly elected P. Minister Netehayu.
budget showdown between Congress and the President: Negotiations between President
Clinton and Congress regarding balancing the budget wrapped up in May 1997. Republicans
had originally wanted a constitutional amendment specifying a balanced budget, but Clinton
resisted. The agreed upon plan is a moderate compromise.