Download Theme 1: Interaction Between Humans and the Environment

Theme 1: Interaction Between Humans and the Environment
Classical China was an agricultural society. Most people were peasant farmers, with focus on production
of food for survival (subsistence farming). Peasants were clustered in villages, to provide mutual aid and
protection. Tight family organization led to a similar theme prevalent in other agricultural civilizations,
emphasis on unity and a patriarchal society. Cities and merchant activities played a secondary role to
the peasant class, which China was dependent on. Agriculture also created the basis for political power,
through ownership of large estates and ability to tax peasants. Though technology advanced, Chinese
society’s reliance on agriculture did not wane. Farming technology simply helped increase population, as
smaller amounts of land could support more families through more efficient tools and practices. Some
relevant technological advancements were ox-drawn plows, a new collar for draft animals, and iron
tools. Not all inventions were for agriculture though, as classical China also created paper and waterpowered mills. China was also isolated due to its geographic location, which led to less interaction with
other cultures and more independent development.
Theme 2: Development and Interaction of Cultures
The classical Chinese way of viewing the world was closely linked to a distinct political structure. The
Chinese emphasized obedience to state and a good life on earth, more than speculations about God and
the mysteries of heaven. In addition, they were very tolerant of other beliefs, as long as they did not
contradict political loyalties. The Zhou dynasty believed in a god or gods, but stressed a harmonious
earthly life and balance between earth and heaven rather than the nature of god. As the Zhou decline
began, Confucius, an influential philosopher, began teaching his ideas of political virtue and good
government. He believed in a proper hierarchy, where one must respect one’s social superiors.
However, he also insisted that leaders remain modest, shunning abusive power. Confucianism was
mainly a system of ethics, which showed the distaste that most Chinese had developed for religious
mysteries. Confucianism quickly took root and influenced all of China. However, during the Qin and early
Han periods, an alternate system of political thought, Legalism, emerged. Legalism believed in an
authoritarian state that ruled by force, and that human nature was evil. Though Legalism was not nearly
as popular as Confucianism, it was still present in Chinese political life. A major problem with
Confucianism that stopped its universal appeal was its reluctance to explore the spiritual life. Peasants
needed more than virtue to make it through their hard life. Thus Daoism emerged at about the same
time as Confucianism. Daoism said that true human understanding emerged from seclusion and
contemplation of the life force. As a result, it produced ethics that stressed humility and frugal living.
Daoism first appealed to the upper class, and ensured that the entire China would not be united by a
single philosophical system. Many people combined elements of various systems.
Theme 3: State Building, Expansion and Conflict
The Zhou Dynasty lasted from 1029 to 258 B.C.E. The Zhou dynasty ruled through alliances with regional
princes and noble families, rather than through a powerful government. This was China’s feudal period,
with rulers depending on a network of loyalties and obligations to and from their landlord-vassals. The
Zhou dynasty expanded China by taking over the Yangtze river valley, creating the Middle Kingdom,
China’s core region rich with agricultural land from the Hwang He to the Yangtze. In addition, the Zhou
created the Sons of Heaven concept, which justified imperial rule through a “mandate from heaven”.
The Zhou also unified China through banning many religions, promoting linguistic unity, and creating a
common culture. This unity mitigated the impact of the Zhou dynasty’s collapse. 402 to 258 B.C.E was
known as the Era of Warring States, in which regional rulers and armies fought for control as the Zhou
dynasty collapsed. Shih Huangdi arose to power, starting the Qin dynasty. He was a brutal but effective
ruler, centralizing power and crushing regional resistance. He expanded territory to present day Hong
Kong, and built the Great Wall to defend from Northern invasions. Huangdi ordered the first national
census, and standardized coinage, weights, and measures. He also attacked intellectuals, burning books.
The Qin dynasty ended with his death in 210 B.C.E, leading to massive peasant revolts. One peasant
defeated all opposition and established the Han dynasty. This was China’s golden age, which lasted over
400 years, to 220 C.E. The Han retained the centralized administration of the Qin, but reduced the brutal
oppression. The Han expanded on the power of the bureaucracy, linking the government to formal
training that emphasized Confucian values. As with the other dynasties, early Han rulers expanded
territory, pushing into Korea, Indochina, and central Asia. The most famous Han ruler, Wu Ti, enforced
peace throughout Asia, much like Rome. After 220 C.E, central control weakened, and invasion from the
Huns overturned the dynasty entirely.
Theme 4: Creation, Expansion and Interaction of Economic Systems
Trade became increasingly important during the Zhou and particularly the Han dynasties. Trade was
mainly internal, as a result of China’s relative geographic isolation. Most trade focused on luxury items
for the upper class, produced by skilled artisans in the cities. Copper coins began to circulate, which
facilitated trade, with merchants seen sponsoring commercial visits to India. However, trade did not
become the focal points of Chinese society, and Confucian emphasis on learning and service led to scorn
for money making. Though slaves were common before the Zhou dynasty, by the tie of the Zhou labor
was mainly done by the peasant class. Classical China reached much higher levels of technological
expertise than Europe or western Asia in the same period.
Theme 5: Development and Transformation of Social Structures
China consisted of three main social groups. The educated bureaucrats, called the Mandarins, formed
the top group. The Mandarins only made up about 2% of the population. Next came the laboring
masses, peasants, and urban artisans who manufactured goods. There was a significant gap between
the Mandarins and the laborers, as was common in agricultural societies. The peasantry depended on
intensive cooperation, and property was often owned by the village or extended family, rather than
individuals. The peasants sometimes worked directly on large estates, but in other cases had some
economic independence. The bottommost social group was the Mean people. They performed rough
transport and other unskilled jobs. In addition, performing artists were ranked in this group. Slaves were
also in this group, though they were few and not required for actual production. As the lowest social
group, the Mean people were more harshly punished for crime and forced to wear identifying green
scarves. In general, social status was passed through inheritance, though mobility was possible. Talented
individuals from a peasant background might be given an education and rise through the bureaucracy.
Wu Ti established examinations for bureaucrats, and established a school to train men of exceptional
talent from anywhere in the social system.