Download Stiahnuť prednášku

PHRASES
1.) Noun Phrase (NP)
→ structure = d – m – h – q
→ The tall girl is sitting here.
2.) Verb Phrase (VP)
→ auxiliary verb (more) + full verb (one)
→ She goes home. FV
→ It will be reconstructed. AV+FV
3.) Prepositional Phrase → consists of a preposition + prepositional complement
→ The book is on the table. PP=prep.+Cp
4.) Adjectival Phrase (AdjP) → (may be) intensifier + adjective
→ She is tall. / She is very tall.
5.) Adverbial Phrase (AdvP) → (may be) intensifier + adverb
→ It is hard. / It is much more harder.
CLAUSE ELEMENTS (vetné členy)
1.) Subject → S (kto? Čo?) – podmet tak ako v slovenčine
2.) Verb → V (čo robí? čo sa s ním deje?) – prísudok – v AN je to verb phrase
3.) Object
a) Object direct – Od – (koho? čo?) – there is just one Od in a sentence
– when there is an Oi after and Od it is an adverbial
– I gave a book to him.( S V
Od
Adverbial)
b) Object indirect – Oi – (komu? čomu?) – always must precede object direct
– Od follows Oi
– I gave him a book. (S V
Oi
Od)
c) Object prepositional – Op – it is an Od with a preposition
– We are talking about him. Op
4.) Complement
a) Subject Complement – Cs – it has the same referent as Subject
– Cs always link with Subject with linking or copular verbs
= is, to be, became, turned, seems = just on verb
– Cs made either a NP or a AdjP
– She is a student.( S V Cs)
b)Object Complement – Co – it must always follow an Od
– I find English easy. (S V
Od
Co )
5.) Adverbial → príslovkové určenie miesta, času, spôsobu, príčiny (Adverb = príslovka)
6.) Apposition → prístavok → My older brother, Peter, is not here.
COUNT.
Award
Accident
Breath
Bridge
Bottle
Candidate
Coin
Cough
Ceasefire
Chair
Drop
Experiment
Exam
Fact
Finger
Gadget
Garment
Guard
Injury
Job
Joke
Journey
Kitchen
Plan
Permission
Poem
Report
Remark
Reaction
Smile
Shower
Suitcase
Table
Thunderstorm
Tune
University
Vehicle
Word
UNCOUNT.
Air
Anger
Architecture
Behaviour
Cash
Clothing
Cooking
Courage
Education
Equipment
Engineering
Fun
Flu
Harm
Information
Lightering
Leisure
Laughter
Luck
Luggage
Music
News
Peace
Permit
Poetry
Progress
Research
Safety
Travel
Traffic
Work
Water
Weather
Warmth
THE SYSTEM OF NOUN CLASSES
1.COMMON
COUNT
- concrete (table, book, pig, chair, bun)
- abstract (dead, mind, difficulty, dream)
UNCOUNT
- concrete (milk, butter, gold)
- abstract (music, passion, sadness, pain,
laziness, time, love feelings)
BOTH
- concrete (paper-material, stones)
- abstract (work, clothes)
2. PROPER (Henry, London, the Thames)
NOUNS THAT CAN TAKE –S GENITIVE
- we use -s genitive if it is about people
- it is a possessive, an inflected case
used with :
 personal names (Peter´s brother)
 personal nouns (student´s book)
 collective nouns – when we mean people
(government’s decision)
 higher animals (horse´s tail, dog´s food)
 geographical names, institutional names
– when we mean people (London’s history)
 temporal nouns (three week’s holiday)
 some more nouns connected with
human activity (my garden’s duties)
 following nouns – usually phrases:
sake, edge (God´s sake, forest´s edge)
SYSTEM OF ENGLISH PRONOUNS
1.CENTRAL PRONOUNS
Personal - I, me, you, he, she, it, they, them, us, him, her
Reflexive - myself, yourself, themselves
Possessive - my / mine, you / yours, their / theirs
2.RELATIVE PRONOUNS
- which, that – for inanimate
- who, whom – for animate
- whose – for both
3.INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
- what, whom
- which – for inanimate
- who – for animate
4.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
- this, those, these, that
-
they function as determiners or as functional pronouns
5.INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
- they have general meaning, they are non-specific
- most of them occurs in compounds
- they function as determiners or pronouns
A) personal – universal (both, each, every)
assertive (several, one) / non-assertive (any)
B) negative (nobody, neither)
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ADJECTIVES
- There are no special forms of adjectives,
but many of them can be identified by suffixes:
Ө, -able, -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -al, -ic, -y
(comfortable, playful, useless, greyish, dangerous,
seasonal, scientific, dirty)
- Characteristic features of the adjectives can be:
1.)attributive position (as modified head) an ugly painting
2.)predicative function (Cs, Co) -- the painting is ugly
3.)some adjectives can be premodified by an intensifier
the children are very happy
4.)some adj can have comparative and superlative forms
– e.g. colours are disputable the children are happier now
There are central adjectives
– they function as attributive or predicative (pretty, tall)
and peripheral adjectives
– they can be only attributive (you poor man) or only predicative
(most common referring to the health of an animate being)
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
- normally there is a regular difference of form between an adj. and an adver.
in that the adverb is distinguished by its –ly suffix
( a rapid car = adjective / he drove rapidly = adverb )
- some adjectives and adverbs have the same form without the –ly suffix
( Bill has a fast car = adjective / Bill drove fast = adverb )
- sometimes there is also an –ly adverb form but with a different meaning
Have you seen her lately?
- there are some words in –ly that can function both as adjectives and as adverbs
I caught an early train = adjective / We finished early today = adverb
- sometimes there are 2 forms – one is either adjective or adverb
and the other is an adverb with an –ly suffix
Take a deep breath = adjective / Breath deep = adverb / Breath deeply = adverb
ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS
nouns commonly function as premodifiers of other nouns,
but they do not share other characteristics of most adjectives:
a) there is no corresponding predicative function
(the bus station – NOT the station is bus)
b) they cannot be modified by very ( NOT a very bus station)
c) they can not take comparison (NOT a busser station)
d) there is an article contrast (the bus / a bus)
e) there is a number contrast (on bus / two busses)
f) there is a genitive inflection (the student’s essays)
g) there is a premodification by an adjective (the young student)
h) there is a correspondence to a propositional phrase
with the noun as complement garden tool – tools for the garden
CONVERSION – some items can be both adjectives and nouns
– they have the same form, but they are another word classes
a) there are some adjectives that are in noun form
He is a criminal. / This is the criminal record.
b) there are some nouns that function as adjectives
school x school yard
girl x girl friend
Worcester porcelain x this porcelain is Worcester
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES
there are many adjectives that have the same
suffixes as participles in –ing or –ed
--- they have a verb form --- boared / boaring
attributive - his views were surprising
predicative - his surprising views
1. there are corresponding verb forms
amuse – amusing – amused
- when there is a corresponding verb, attributively
used –ed forms usually have a passive meaning
lost property – property that has been lost
2. there are no corresponding verb forms
- they include forms in –ed that have no corresp. verbs
she is talented , she is gifted
the results were unexpected / the unexpected results
- when there are no corresponding verbs
– the forms are obviously not participles
3. sometimes there are corresponding verb forms,
but they have different meaning
she is very calculating = adjective
she is calculating our salaries = participle
4. some adjectives are compound
good-looking, heart-breaking, open-minded, easy-going
5. some verbs have different forms for verbal use and for adj.
verbal use – he was drunk / adjective – I saw a drunken man
6. some adjectives have pronunciation [ed]
beloved, aged, naked, witched
THE USE OF ARTICLES IN UNIQUE REFERENCE
→ all names, any kind of names
Personal names:
“zero” article
– usual (Peter, Paul Smith, Mr.Brown, Lady Di, George Bush)
– president + name (president Bush)
common nouns behave as proper nouns
– mother, father, sister → they behave as proper nouns
– calendar items – days, months, seasons, Christmas, Easter
“the” article – formally used (the Lady Di, the President)
– “the” Jane Brown – významná
“a” article – “a” Jane Brown – nejaká
Geographical names:
1.)if it is one name - “zero” article (Slovakia, Bratislava)
2.)if the names are in Plural - “the” article
(the Bahams, the Netherlands)
3.)of constructions - “the” article (the Isle of Man)
4.) the name consist of more words and one
is a common noun - „the“ article (the USA)
5.)names of institutions, streets
- might be broken (Comenius University)
6.)rivers - “the” article (the Danube)
7.)lakes - “zero” article (Lake Windermere)
8.)mountains - “zero” article (Mount Everest)
9.)mountain groups - “the” article (the High Tatras, the Alps)
MEANING OF GENITIVE
 possessive genitive (Mrs Johnson´s coat. / The ship´s funnel.)
 subjective genitive (Jane’s opinion. / The parents´ consent)
 objective genitive (the family’s support)
 genitive of origin (Dickens´ room)
 descriptive genitive (children’s room)
 genitive of measure – temporal (three-week’s holiday, three-kilo’s baby)
 appositive genitive (the river of the Danube, the city of Bratislava)
 genitive of attribute (The victim’s outstanding courage.)
THE GRAMMATICAL STATUS OF THE G.
Genitives can function as:
a) determiners
My handsome cousin’s new briefcase.
That old gentleman’s son)
b) modifiers
They attend a women’s university.
She lives in a quaint old shepherd’s cottage.)
c) independent genitive
Jennifer’s is the only face I recognize
He has a devotion to work like his father’s.)
d) post-genitive / double-genitive
A sister of George’s is coming to stay with us.
-
GENERIC REFERENCE
B) COUNT NOUNS
- a tiger (any tiger)
- the tiger (one typical representative)
- tigers (most frequently used)
- limited grammar in generic reference
- “the…..of” constructions
(the students of university)
- “…..from” constructions
(students from Slovakia)
C) NON-COUNT NOUNS
- “I like….” constructions
milk, water, chocolate, tea
NATIONALITIES
- the Slovaks are …
- the English are …
- Englishmen are …
D) ADJECTIVES AS A NP HEAD
- the rich are… → whole class of rich people
- the evil is …
- the better is …
- the public is …
E) GENERAL SENSE
- very generally
the police, the countryside, the public
the press, the media, the seaside
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ADJ.
stative x dynamic
- adjectives are characteristically stative
- dynamic are that, that are susceptible to
subjective measurement
- stative adjectives cannot be used with the
progressive aspect or with the imperative
He´s being tall – NOT Be tall!
adjectives that can be used dynamically
include: brave, calm, cheerful, conceited, cruel,
foolish, friendly, funny, good, greedy,
jealous, naughty, noisy, tidy, helpful
gradable (descriptors) x nongradable (classifiers)
- farby → výnimka red--reder ???
- most adjectives are gradable
- gradability is manifested through comparison
tall – taller – tallest
beautiful – more beautiful – most
- gradability is manifeste through modification
by intensifiers
very tall, so beautiful, extremely useful
- all dynamic and most stative adj. are gradable
- denominal adj. (atomic scientist) are nongradable
- adj. denoting provenance (British) are nongradable
inherent (pravý v.) x non-inherent (prenesený v.)
inherent adj. applies to the referent of the object directly
a wooden cross = a cross made of wood
- the adjective has some type of metaphoric meaning
a wooden actor = the actor acts not naturally on stage
a perfect alibi / a perfect stranger
golden cross / a heart of gold