Download Unit Seven

Psychology 30:
Developmental Psychology
Unit Seven
Early Childhood: Social and
Emotional Development
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May be reproduced for educational purposes.
Psychology 30
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Unit 7
Psychology 30
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Unit 7
Unit Seven: Early Childhood: Social and
Emotional Development
Concept Map
The following concept map illustrates the major topics presented in this unit.
Introduction
Unit Six in Psychology 30 began to examine change and development in early
childhood in the physical and cognitive domains.
Early childhood encompasses children
from two to seven years old.
Unit Seven focuses on early childhood development in the social/emotional domain.
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Young children learn and practise their social and emotional competencies within
the microsystem, especially in their families. In some cases, siblings may become
stronger socializing agents than parents; by this we mean that siblings interact more
often and in a variety of circumstances. Family life is dynamic and change happens
daily. Children of all ages are raised in a variety of settings by diverse caregivers.
Many children live in families where the parent(s) are working and caregiving may
be taking place in a daycare or at the home of extended family or neighbours. As
children begin to form relationships with others, they also learn more about
themselves. Peers are powerful socializing agents who become sources of
information outside the family.
Social play in early childhood gives experiences that would
be hard for adults to acquire at a later stage in life. Among
the different types of social play, dramatic play helps
children to try out different social roles, express their fears
and fantasies, and learn to cooperate with others. Children
often become aware of cross-cultural and ethnic practices
and personal values through interactive play.
You have learned that young children are egocentric in that they are just becoming
aware of themselves. Some people see toddlers as being very possessive of their
toys and self-centred in their viewpoints. In actual fact, children are learning about
themselves and what self-concept means. This egocentric period is important in
establishing identity. Then, as children grow older, they develop a sense of
empathy, values, and sharing. They begin to consider others and learn to make less
emotionally reactive decisions. Researchers agree that moral development can only
begin at ages 6 and 7. You will learn more about how this happens and become
familiar with the variety of theories of moral development in this unit.
Are there differences in social/emotional development between the genders? Early
childhood is the time when children learn about gender roles and begin to develop
their gender identities. Psychologists no longer say with certainty that biology alone
is the cause for differences in gender roles and identity.
How important is creative expressiveness in early childhood?
What is the basis of creativity? How is creativity related to
decision-making and relationships with others? Both nature and
nurture influence the development of creativity in early childhood.
Unit Seven examines some of the ways that psychologists
understand creativity and creative problem solving skills.
In this unit you will also continue to work on your research project that involved
making a choice. Perhaps, you took the opportunity to spend time with young
children. Whether you chose the case study method, naturalistic observation, or
participant observation, you will be guided to share your research findings in Unit
Seven.
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Reflecting on the Topic
Have you ever thought about how children view the world around them? How do
they learn to get along with others and respect all people? Young children are
involved in the day-to-day lives of their parent(s) as well as the people in their
community. How much influence do others have on the lives of young children?
Think back to your early school years. Do you remember all of the children in your
class? Can you think of classmates who have changed over the years by becoming
even more involved in their communities in positive ways?
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Social and Emotional Development
How do children develop social skills?
Socialization begins in infancy when babies learn what their families expect of them.
Socialization is the process by which children
learn, through everyday interactions with others, how
to function with other people in their society.
Very young children do not have the social skills to maintain responsive interactions
with other children. As children mature and interact with parent(s), siblings, and
peers, they learn to develop social competency and emotional awareness.
Social competency refers to the social,
emotional, and cognitive skills and behaviours
that are needed for successful interpersonal
relationships and social activities.
Being self-centred is natural in toddlers as they begin to develop
confidence and learn about themselves. Early childhood is often
called the preschool years. During the preschool years, children
become socialized through interactions with their siblings and,
especially, their peers. As preschoolers, children become less
self-centred as they learn that others have needs and rights also.
Peers are people of the same age.
Toddlers tend to play alongside each other while preschoolers
actually play together. As they play, they learn how to adjust to each
other’s needs and personalities. Preschoolers begin to understand
physical differences, gender roles, differences in abilities, and a
variety of family values and lifestyles. Their sense of self, identity,
and their developing personalities take on new dimensions as they
build relationships with other children their own age.
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Preschool children’s physical skills and abilities are a factor in
their social interactions. They start to be aware of who they are
becoming. They are usually proud of their physical changes and
rapidly developing motor skills. Self-image is enhanced when
children engage in activities with others. Consider the boy who
says, “Look at me!” to his parents as he throws and catches a
baseball, or the girl who says she wants to become an Olympic
gymnast after she performs for her friends on the monkey bars.
Consult the chart to see how relationships and social understandings change for
children at certain ages.
Relationships with
Parent(s)
Age
Relationships with
other children
Social Understanding
Birth to
2 years
Babies and infants form
attachments with primary
caregiver(s).
Play focuses on toys,
objects, actions, rather
than other children.
Babies and infants react
and respond to emotional
expressions in others.
2 to 4
years
Children become more
independent and
autonomous. They no
longer need their parents’
constant attention.
Children interact with
each other through their
toys and their play.
Young children recognize
others’ emotions and
intentions.
4 to 10
years
Children actively socialize
with other children.
Parents are proactive in
children socializing with
other children.
Children begin to
cooperate, compete, play
games, and form
friendships with peers.
Children learn social
rules, values, and roles,
such as gender roles.
In general, children are not able to share toys and fully cooperate with others on
tasks until the later preschool years, five to seven years old. Social skills, like
cognitive skills, are learned. Friendships and social activities give children a context
for developing and practicing social competencies and emotional awareness.
Children express themselves and their emotions according to their personalities,
and within accepted cultural and familial ways.
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What are the factors that influence children’s personality
development?
Personality refers to various aspects of the self. As children socialize with others,
they also learn about themselves. As in all aspects of development, children reflect
both nature and nurture in their actions, how they interact with others, and who they
are becoming. Which factors would you say have had impact on your developing
personality in early childhood and how you see yourself today?

biology

economics

temperament

self-concept

family

emotional regulation

parenting

social behaviour

attachment and caregiving

media

birth order

culture
What are some theories related to personality and the development
of social competencies and emotional awareness in early
childhood?
Recall that personality is defined as the behaviours and cognitive processes that
people acquire through experiences in their social world. In other words,
socialization helps us to develop self-concept, identity, and social competencies
and, as some psychologists have called it, emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to
understand one’s emotions, perceive subtle social
cues, “read” complex social situations and demonstrate
insight about one’s as well as other’s motivations
and goals in any given situation.
Emotional and social experiences engage children in personality development.
There are several theoretical perspectives as to how personality develops, and
continues to develop, throughout one’s lifespan. Some are explained in the graphic
on the following page. These perspectives consider factors related to nature and
nurture as experienced in childhood and throughout life’s experiences.
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Theoretical Perspectives of Personality Development
Psychodynamic Approach
Trait Approach
Personality and behaviour are determined
more by psychological factors than by
biological conditions or current events.
People are partly controlled by unconscious
factors and needs.
Three main assumptions, related to
personality development, are that personality
traits remain stable and predictable over
time; and remain stable no matter the setting
or the situation. Each person’s character
varies from others by degrees and in his/her
unique expression of him/herself.
Humanistic Approach
Cognitive-behavioural Approach
People are naturally motivated toward
personal growth, to fulfil their unique and
natural potential. People are innately good,
creative, loving, and joyful. Each individual
perceives reality somewhat differently and
this accounts for personality differences.
Personality is a set of behaviours that people
acquire through learning, rewards, and
punishments. Behaviours are exhibited in
relation to different situations.
Traits relate to dimensions of one’s
temperament, such as extroversion/introversion,
openness/guardedness, easy going/difficult,
conscientious/unfocussed, and secure/anxious.
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Why is it that some children develop a positive attitude and are
resilient no matter what their circumstances, while others may
develop a negative attitude towards themselves and others?
Researchers have observed that a shift in self-awareness occurs between the
toddler stage and early childhood around the age of four. This may be because
children at this age develop greater self-awareness due to maturity,
autobiographical memory, and a more complex theory of mind.
Autobiographical memory is related to how
we construct our personal sense of self or
perceive and recall our own story.
It is clear that personality development is affected by biological factors, such as
genetic makeup, as well as social factors, such as family dynamics and peer
interaction. Our behaviour relates to the context in which we find ourselves. Our
identity is a reflection of self-concept; who we see ourselves to be.
Both Freud and Erikson,
supporters of the psychodynamic
theory of human behaviour,
believed that, for children, peer
interaction and play are essential
in helping children to master
anxieties and conflicts. Recall
that Erikson (1968) believed that
we develop social and emotional
competencies in relation to an
issue or crisis inherent to a
particular age and stage in life.
How we learn to act in each stage
of development shapes our personalities; how we see the world; and our
interactions with others in social situations.
In infancy, children form emotional attachments to their parents. In this first stage or
first year of life, children develop trust or mistrust about their world. If children
develop mistrust in the first stage, Erikson believed that they may become
psychologically troubled and cope less effectively in later crises. Trust, he
theorized, is the foundation of all emotional development and socialization
throughout the lifespan.
In the second stage or the second year of life, children’s task is to learn to become
independent of their parent(s) and to develop autonomy. If children learn to
differentiate themselves from their parent(s), how to make good choices, and how to
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gain self-control, they will become self-reliant. If not, they will become self-doubting,
uncertain in their interactions with others, and insecure about their own skills and
abilities in the world.
Erikson’s theory identified the crises and their resulting coping abilities from the first year
of life up to old age. His theory, called a stage theory, looks at change across the
lifespan. Each stage contains a crisis that is the impetus for change. Development is
continuous and each stage in development is followed by another equally important
stage. Examine the chart that outlines the stages in Erikson’s theory along with the
resulting effects on self-concept, social competencies, and emotional awareness.
Age
Issue or Crisis
First year
Trust vs. Mistrust
Infants learn how to see the world in terms of whether or not their basic needs will be
met. If relationships with parent(s) and caregivers are generally positive, then trust will
develop.
Second year
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Toddlers learn to make choices, exercise their will, and self control. If they learn to be
somewhat self-reliant, they learn autonomy. If they are not allowed to develop
separately from their parent(s), they will learn to doubt themselves and be insecure
about the world.
Third to fifth
year
Initiative vs. Guilt
In early childhood children begin to initiate activities, enjoy their accomplishments, and
develop a sense of purpose or intent. If they are not allowed to be inventive and
independent, they learn to feel guilty for their need to individuate and interact with
others outside of their family.
Sixth year
through
puberty
Industry vs. Inferiority
If children are given the opportunity to be curious, inquiring, eager to learn, and seekers,
they will learn to be industrious. If not, they may feel inferior to others and lose interest in
their own learning and meaningful activities. They may lack direction or look to others to
define their interests.
Adolescence
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence is a time when we learn to see ourselves as unique and developing
human beings with our own ideologies and motivations. If we do not learn to integrate
our beliefs, values, and identities with our social relationships, we may become
confused about what we want out of life and who we are.
Early
adulthood
Intimacy vs. Isolation
As a young adult we learn to become committed to our relationships with others, in
particular, to one other person. If this does not happen, then we may develop a sense
of isolation and feel that we can only rely on ourselves.
Middle age
Generativity vs. Stagnation
As adults, we learn to care for others, for our children, and to devote ourselves to our
work and our communities for the common good. If this does not happen, then we may
become self-centred and inactive.
Old age
Integrity vs. Despair
As we enter into old age, we begin to reflect on our lives and reassure ourselves that
our lives have been productive and meaningful. Death is seen with dignity and
acceptance. If we find that we have been unproductive with many unaccomplished
goals, or that we are a failure, then despair may occur and we may fear death.
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Erikson’s theory of personality development provides one clue as to how children as
well as adults are affected by their relationships with others and their experiences in
the world. His theory continues to be relevant. Today, researchers know more
about the ways that children learn, how the brain works, and the effects on very
young children of being raised in diverse settings with a variety of caregivers and
other children. The world and our social environments are becoming increasingly
more complex.
In Activity A you are invited to apply your knowledge about socialization and
personality development.
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Activity A
Apply your understanding of socialization and personality development to the
following questions.
(14)
1.
Review the factors that influence personality development.

biology

economics

temperament

self-concept

family

emotional regulation

parenting

social behaviour

attachment and caregiving

media

birth order

culture
Imagine that you are an early childhood psychologist who has been
asked by the director of a playschool, along with the parents, to do an
assessment of their six-year-old child’s social and emotional skills.
Examine the pictures for some clues on the way each child might
interact with others and express his/her emotions. Circle your choice
of the six-year-old boy or the six-year-old girl.
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Create and complete a profile report of this (fictional) six-year-old girl or
six-year-old boy with details about how each of the factors has helped to
shaped self-concept and her/his interactions with other children.
Compile your report charting facts that you learned by talking with
parents and other caregivers. Include your observations and insights
about the child’s difficulties after seeing him/her in her social settings.
Provide some encouragement and two suggestions as to how his/her
family and preschool caregivers can help this child to form positive
interactive skills with others.
Profile Report
Child’s name and age:
Parent(s) name and listing of brothers and sisters:
Birth experience:
Family stresses or strains:
Child’s temperament:
Child’s self-concept:
Family dynamics:
How child regulates emotions:
Parenting Style:
Social interaction and behaviour:
Type(s) of attachment bond with caregivers:
Interaction with television and computer:
Birth order and siblings:
Cultural influences:
Overall assessment
Recommendations
•
•
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(3)
2.
Review each of the stages in Erikson’s theory. Select the age/stage
and crisis that most interests you. Give two reasons for your choice.
Age/stage/crisis:
Reasons:
3.
What do you think of daycare? Many parents work today and very
good daycare is in much demand. Some people; however, argue that
daycare may interfere with children forming healthy attachments to
their parents. Others believe that daycare helps in the social and
emotional development of children. Use the dialectical reasoning
approach to synthesize the viewpoints about the effects of daycare
into a more comprehensive understanding of this issue.
Recall that dialectical reasoning looks at opposing sides to an issue. This
analysis leads to a better understanding of the issue and a more informed
basis for synthesizing one’s one viewpoint.
Co
Consu
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(2)
a.
Thesis: State two facts from research you have conducted on the
viewpoint that daycare is not a threat to preschoolers forming secure
attachments.
•
•
(2)
b.
Antithesis: State two facts from the article to support the viewpoint
that daycare is a threat to preschoolers forming secure attachments.
•
•
(4)
c.
Synthesis: Combine the two viewpoints and complete the following
statement.
Preschool children . . .
____
(25)
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How do children learn to understand their own emotions?
Very young children have difficulty understanding conflicting emotions, and that they
might feel happy and sad at the same time. They usually look to others and tend to
accept adult judgements about their behaviour, their emotions, and their self-worth.
Parents’ and caregivers’ supportive behaviours, such as listening to them and
reading stories to their children help to build children’s high self-esteem. Positive
and uncritical feedback is vital in developing self-worth in children.
Much of children’s social and emotional skill development occurs in the preschool
years. When they describe themselves, they talk about concrete and observable
behaviours, physical characteristics, their possessions, family, and particular skills
rather than overall abilities. They generally see themselves in ideal terms.
By age four most children have internalized what their parent(s) and other
caregivers expect of them. They can talk about their feelings, understand others
feelings, and make connections with experiences, to what they want, and with
others’ intentions. Understanding and expressing their emotions helps children to
assess their own behaviour in social situations. Up to the age of seven children
need guidance to integrate such emotions as pride and shame as well as learning to
be accountable for their behaviours and interactions with others.
As children become older, they begin to understand that they may
have conflicting emotions and they are able to describe themselves
in multidimensional terms. For example, a seven-year-old boy might
say he is not so good at playing hockey but he is good at playing
video games. If children have internalized other’s teachings about
societal standards and acceptable behaviours, by middle childhood,
they begin to evaluate and become responsible for their own behaviours.
If a child’s self esteem is high, he/she is motivated to learn and
to achieve. On the other hand, if self-worth is based solely on
success, children may see that mistakes mean they are failures
and they learn to become helpless or discount themselves.
One research study conducted with groups of preschoolers, kindergartners, and first
graders has shown that one third to one half of them show aspects of helplessness,
such as self-blame, negative emotion, lack of persistence, and lowered expectations
of themselves. Parents, caregivers, and preschool programs that provide children
with uncritical, specific, and focused feedback related to their behaviours help to
foster self-reliance and self-worth.
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Can you feel the difference in tone between the two statements made by a dad to
his son?
Look, son, your computer
game
was left on my computer.
Can’t you exit out of your
computer game when you use
my computer?! When are you
ever going to learn to think of
someone other than yourself!

Which statement criticizes the child?

Which statement points out behaviour and allows for the
child to respond?
Families that discipline and guide their children in creative,
uncritical, and loving ways build positive social competencies
and emotional intelligence in their children. The children learn
to have self-worth. Accumulating evidence about academic and
personal success in the school years suggests that school time
and school programs include the development of social
skills and emotional awareness. Academic success alone
does not necessarily promote social and emotional skill
development. Children who learn to become knowledgeable,
responsible, and caring have a better sense of success and
self-worth.
Learning is often a social and relational process. Children who are taught to build
positive social and emotional skills know how to form cooperative groups,
communicate effectively with others, value their own contributions, and respect
diversity.
Children cannot learn to think clearly if they are anxious, afraid, or feel threatened
(whether the threat is real or imagined). Their physiological responses may drive
them to react and act impulsively, often with negative emotions. Research into
childhood shows that peer rejection can cause a child to have a variety of difficulties
in later life, such as school problems, mental health disorders, and antisocial
behaviour.
Positive peer relations play an important role in the development of social and
emotional behaviours. Key facets of social competency are:

prosocial skills (friendly, cooperative, helpful behaviours)

self-control skills (anger management, negotiation skills, problem-solving
skills)
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How do we assess social competency in early childhood?
Several signs indicate that a child's peer difficulties may not just be temporary.
However, with intervention these difficulties can be addressed. Assessing social
competency is important and involves asking the following questions.

What is the nature of the child’s social relationships?
Research indicates that children who behave aggressively
with peers, act bossy, act impulsively, are disruptive, and
seek constant attention will have long-lasting difficulties
relating to others.

How is the child treated by others in his/her peer group?
When children are actively disliked by others and the victims of teasing
or neglect, they have much more difficulty re-establishing positive peer
relations.

How long has the child been experiencing difficulties in peer
relationships?
Short-term difficulties are not unusual when a child experiences other
changes, such as during a move; however, when peer difficulties
continue to be a problem, more extensive intervention may be needed.

What types of relationships cause difficulty for the child?
If a child experiences difficulty in all social situations or his/her difficulties
are more unusual than his/her peers experience, ways to help will need
to be more specific to the child.

What do others observe about the child?
Obtaining information from parents, caregivers, preschool program
teachers, and/or directly from the child’s peers may provide useful
information about how to help the child overcome social difficulties.

What is the child’s evaluation of his/her peer relations?
The child’s understanding of his/her difficulties may help to shed light on
his/her social reasoning and perhaps, cognitive interventions will help.
Depending on the age of the child there are a variety of strategies that may assist
him/her in developing social competencies and building positive peer relationships.
Some common intervention strategies used by psychologists, counsellors,
teachers, parents, and trained professionals may be helpful in correcting negative
behaviours. Again, their guidance must be positive, using caring communication,
showing sensitivity to the child’s individual needs, and using uncritical discipline as
well as positive reinforcement to promote positive behaviours. A child’s confidence
builds when he/she can understand and respond to well-defined expectations.
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Some intervention strategies are listed below.

In social-skill training the child learns to be helpful, sharing, respectful,
communicative, and cooperative.

Problem-solving, anger management, how to be assertive, and how to resolve
conflicts are skills that psychologists, counsellors, teachers, and parents
demonstrate in helping children who are angry, bossy, and/or aggressive with
others.

Involving the child in more structured group settings or smaller groups with
specific tasks and goals is an effective starting place for him/her to learn and
practice prosocial skills. Providing opportunities to form positive friendships is
important.
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Creativity
How important is creativity to development in early childhood?
Creative development has been identified by some early
childhood educators as one of the top learning goals for
children between the ages of three and five. For the most
part creativity, in this sense, usually refers to making art,
using imagination, engaging in dramatic play, and
developing creative expression of ideas and communication
of feelings.
Creativity has been defined as the ability
to see things in a new way.
Creativity also involves thinking skills and problem-solving skills. As children gain
confidence in using their fine motor skills, they are able to take more responsibility
for their own personal care and grooming.
How should we view children’s art?
Children’s art progresses through a variety of stages as they become more
challenged to be creative and express themselves. Research shows that children
who are willing to express themselves through art, take risks in their art-making,
direct their art-making processes, tend to become divergent thinkers, and are less
critical of themselves.
Researcher, Rhoda Kellogg, studied more than one million drawings by children up
to the age of six and from diverse cultures. She found similarities between the
styles and skills that children’s art focuses on.
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1. Scribble stage:
2. Shape stage:
By age two children scribble in
specific formats, the scribbles are
not random. She identified 20
different types of scribbles, such
as zigzag lines and vertical lines.
She also found their work to have
17 patterns of placement.
Scribbling is likened to babbling in
language.
The pictures of three year olds
include six basic shapes, such
as circle, square, odd forms,
and crosses.
3. Design stage:
4. Pictorial stage:
Children quickly move on to the
design stage at ages three to four
in which they combine two basic
shapes into a more complex
abstract pattern.
Most children, between ages 4
and 5, though some do start
earlier, draw images that
suggest real-life objects or
people. Later drawings are
better defined. Kellogg found
that as children were
influenced by adults and their
responses to their drawings
encourages children to move
away from design and form
into drawing more realistic
images.
Kellogg stressed that adults should let children draw what they like without imposing
suggestions or standards. One way for adults to respond to children’s art is to
respect and acknowledge what they see the child has done in the picture rather than
telling them what they did not do or what they need to do to complete the picture.
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Is creativity related to intelligence?
Creativity is an aspect of intelligence and cognition. Recall Sternberg’s triarchic
theory of intelligence.
Creative thinking skills or creative problem solving are related to divergent thinking.
Tests to measure creativity examine divergent thinking skills while intelligence tests
(IQ tests) test for convergent thinking.
Divergent thinking is thinking that produces
a variety of fresh or diverse possibilities.
Convergent thinking is thinking that is aimed
at finding the one right answer to a problem.
Some psychologists have conducted research to see if there is a
strong link between creativity and IQ; however, they found that
one does not depend on the other. Their results suggest that
children benefit from being encouraged to pursue their interests,
exercise their abilities, and experience new environments. We
now know that fostering intelligence, creativity, and uniqueness in
children helps children to make the most of their potential.
Aspects of self-esteem relate to divergent thinking and creativity,
such as fluid thought (ideas flow from ideas), flexible thought, and
originality.
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Creative thinking skills can be taught and practiced in
challenging children’s divergent thinking skills and inspiring
interactive experiences. For example, dramatic play gives
opportunity for children to employ a variety of thinking skills,
to explore their potential, and use their imagination. Art
activities help children to express themselves, to act
independently, and test their creative problem-solving skills.
What makes a person creative?
In order to answer this question, Canadian researcher Elizabeth Ralevski compared
a group of highly creative and successful artists with a group of nonartists or a
control group. She measured aspects of personality, creativity on word
associations, and emotional tone. She summarized her findings as follows.

Creativity is not directly related to intelligence.

Creative people usually have a greater range of knowledge and interests;
combine ideas from a variety of sources; are good at using mental images and
metaphors in thinking.

Creative people are open to experiences; challenge assumptions; listen to their
feelings; examine mental sets.

Creative people enjoy symbolic thought, ideas, concepts, and look at
possibilities.

They tend to be interested in the creative process more than the resulting
product or personal recognition.

Highly creative people value originality and complexity.
Do you see yourself as a creative person? Would describe yourself as good
at problem-solving, being inventive, or involved in the arts in some way?
Activity B invites you to consider your creativity as you respond in your
journal Highlights of Experience.
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Activity B
Answer the following questions by reflecting on your experiences, your thoughts,
and your self-knowledge. Write detailed, thoughtful responses in complete
sentences. These questions are intended to give you a better understanding of the
topics explored throughout this unit.
As stated in Unit One, your entries are evaluated according to the following rubric.
The writing in the journal is informal yet thoughtful. Develop your ideas fully and use
language that indicates a working knowledge of the topic. Twenty marks will be
allotted to the journal entries.
Marking Scale
No entries.
Points
0
Inadequate entries. Ideas are not clear;
some questions are missed or responses
are too short.
1-5
Ideas are limited and over generalized.
Understanding of the concepts/topics is
limited.
6 - 10
Ideas are straightforward and clearly
stated. Insight and self-reflection on the
concepts/topics is evident. Responses
are detailed and show some enthusiasm
for the learning.
11 - 15
Ideas are well constructed and explained
clearly giving additional information.
Responses show that learning is evident
and connections are made with other
concepts/ topics. The vocabulary shows
that the definitions of the concepts/terms
are understood. Learning has also been
applied to experience.
16 - 20
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Unit 7
Highlights of Experience: What do you think?
1.
Describe one of your experiences of being involved in the arts (visual art,
music, drama, or dance) as a child. Be sure to include your age, the situation
and whether or not it affected your involvement in this form of art today.
2.
Would you describe yourself as a divergent thinker or a convergent thinker?
Explain giving examples.
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3.
When you are experiencing a certain amount of stress, would you describe
yourself as more creative or less creative? Explain giving examples.
4.
Identify some of the hobbies and interests that you have continued to develop
since childhood. Explain what you enjoy most about these activities.
5.
Think of a career that you are seriously considering. Review Sternberg’s
triarchial theory of intelligence that were presented in the section on creativity
in this lesson. Explain how aspects of your career choice might use each of
the types of intelligences.
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6.
Do you think or have you observed that males and females express their
creativity differently? Discuss how or why not. Give examples that show your
viewpoint.
7.
Identify someone whom you believe to be your creative hero. This person
may or may not be called an artist. This person may be famous or well
known only to you. Explain your choice in detail.
8.
Discuss whether or not technology helps you to be creative. What are your
needs in this area?
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9.
Saskatchewan has been identified as having a high number of well-known
artists, e.g. writers, musicians, painters, etc. Explain your theory as to why
this is so.
10.
Is being creative your family heritage or are you different than your family in
this regard? Explain and give examples.
___
(20)
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Unit 7
Dramatic Play
How important is dramatic play in early childhood?
You learned about the different types of social play as outlined by Parten in a
previous unit. Recall that she categorized play according to its social dimension.
The first type of play, according to Parten, was the least social and, as children
matured, they learned to become more interactive and cooperative. Her theory
gave attention to children’s social and emotional development. Today, we know that
children of all ages engage in all of these types of play. The theory of multiple
intelligences suggests that children require a variety of play and learning styles,
each are equally important in healthy development.
Piaget categorized play according to its content; what children do when they play.
He and other psychologists after him, identified different categories of cognitive
play.
Cognitive play includes dramatic play or
pretend play where children use their imagination,
create storylines, and develop characters.
Researchers have observed that dramatic play begins after age two when children
are able to use their imagination.By this age they have the cognitive ability to think
symbolically, to create situations, and enact character roles.
Research tells us that dramatic play gives rich opportunities for
children to explore social roles and conventions. They practice
language and interpersonal skills when collaborating to create
characters, settings, and storylines. Children two to three years
old, often play mother-and-baby games or parent-child games.
Children of the opposite sex may imagine a husband-wife
situation. As children become a little older, their dramatic play
storylines become much more complex although they may
continue to involve domestic and family situations. Girls and
boys become involved in a variety of gender roles. Their
imaginative play may involve a host of characters and storylines
may be centred around imaginative threatening situations where
the children act out ways to face their fears.
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Dramatic play or pretend play involves complex cognitive skills
including imagination. Preschool children engage in dramatic
play more than any other type of play and they exercise both
cognitive and social skills. Researchers have found that children
who have the opportunity to engage in pretend play tend to be
more cooperative with other children and more joyful in their
interactions and their outlook on life. Culture also affects the
way that children play together. Some cultures value social
competition, independent thinking, and active learning. Some
cultures value respect for others above all and harmony. Many
cultures value academic excellence. Dramatic play styles vary
according to cultural values and beliefs, ways of self-expression
and emotional awareness, and acceptable ways of interacting
with others.
How does television viewing affect dramatic play?
Dramatic play lessens in school-aged children as they learn to play formal games with
rules, or on teams, or, perhaps, within diverse settings. Some researchers have found
that children who watch a lot of television may tend to be more passive in dramatic
play with others. They often imitate television characters, such as adventure heroes,
rather than modeling their play after real-life characters or real-life experiences.
According to Neilson Media Research conducted in 1996 children between the ages
of two to five in the United States watched television more than three hours a day.
Among the criticisms of television viewing were: it takes
away from active, interactive and imaginative play; it
sends faulty nutritional messages; and it exhibits
stereotypes that are racist, sexist, and ageist. Television
viewpoints are particularly harmful for inexperienced and
vulnerable viewers.
Television, on the whole, researchers say undercuts the skills, values, and attributes
that lead to prosocial activities. Being respectful and sensitive to others’ needs
depends on emotional regulation, active social relationships, and caring for others.
Research shows that children who watch a lot of television tend to be more
aggressive than those who do not because of the high incidence of violence in
television shows. Television violence tends to desensitize children to violence in
real life, making aggression seem normal. Bullying behaviours, physical retaliation
to perceived threats, passivity in the face of their own or another’s victimization may
be the result of children watching a substantial number of violent television shows.
On the other hand, some researchers have found that television viewing, depending
on the educational quality of the programming, and the home environment or family
viewing may support children’s cognitive skills and encourage an understanding of
both positive and negative interactions with others.
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Unit 7
Gender Identity
How does gender influence play?
In dramatic play children learn to explore gender roles. In the preschool years play
tends to occur in gender groupings. Boys and girls play differently, according to
some researchers’ findings. Their findings are summarized below.
Girls
Boys
 Like quiet play with one other
person
 Play cooperatively
 Storylines focus on maintaining
or restoring social relationships
 Prefer rough-and-tumble play
in large groups
 Enjoy competing in boisterous
games
 Storylines involve danger and
discord, e.g., battles
Gender differences appear to be differences between males and females in
behaviour or mental processing. For example, girls learn language at an earlier age.
Girls often reach developmental milestones earlier than boys; however, this
difference usually disappears by late adolescence.
How do children develop a sense of gender identity?
Biology, experiences, and learning have a profound impact on the development of
gender identity.
Gender identity refers to a person’s
sense of being male or female.
The way a person is raised and taught may set an example of gender appropriate
behaviours. By age three children form some sense of gender identity. Children at
four or five years old understand that their gender is permanent and they begin to
identify with same-sex behaviours.
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Developmental psychologists argue about how much gender identity is influenced
by biological factors and social stereotyping. Gender stereotyping peaks during the
preschool years. By age four, children are convinced that certain toys are
appropriate for one gender but not the other or that certain roles are gender specific,
e.g., a girl cannot be the father or a boy cannot play with a baking set. Four year
olds criticize peers who choose toys that are not appropriate for their gender and are
proud of themselves when they act in gender-typical ways.
There are several theoretical perspectives on the development of gender identity.

Cognitive theorists maintain that gender identity develops from actively
thinking and attending to one’s gender identity; they learn to behave according
to gender roles.

Behaviourists support the idea that children adapt to gender roles through
positive reinforcement. Gender appropriate behaviours are rewarded while
mismatched behaviours are often criticized by adults and other children.
Children feel better about themselves and feel more accepted by others when
they exhibit gender-specific behaviours.

Social-learning theorists say that children learn much of
their gender values by observing other people, especially
their parents and siblings, who they see as nurturing and
role models. Children try to follow their example and they
may imitate attractive or powerful people that they see in
their community, or on television.

A theory, developed in the 1970’s, focused on children
adopting traits that would be seen in both genders. Androgyny theory supports
the view that children may be taught or become inspired to acquire the best
qualities of being human inherent in each gender. For example, a person who is
nurturing (feminine) and also independent (masculine), the researchers see as
developing higher self-esteem. Having both feminine and masculine qualities
allows children to deal with and express themselves more fully in a world where
traditional gender roles are rapidly changing. Critics of this theory, however,
argue that children who learn to develop gender-specific behaviours and
attitudes are better equipped to organize and understand their perceptions of
the adult world.
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What are the social and cultural influences on the development of
gender identity?
Parents and caregivers have a great deal of influence on how children learn about
males and females and their contributions to community. Parents may indirectly
encourage gender-stereotyped play by seeking out children of the same sex as
playmates for their own children.
Researchers have observed that children’s toys seem to promote gender
differences. For example, boys’ toys provide more opportunity for developing motor
skills, visual/spatial skills, and inventiveness. Girls’ toys provide more opportunity
for nurturance and social exchange. Parents may also encourage play with toys
that are gender specific. For example, fathers are less likely to give dolls to oneyear-old boys. Often young boys do not choose to play with dolls either.
Once children begin to play with other children
outside of the home, peers have a significant
influence on the development of their gender roles.
By the time children are three years old, they
reinforce gender-typed play by praising, imitating, or
joining in their behaviour.
Cultural views about gender roles impact significantly on the development of gender
identity. Men and women have very specific roles in the family and may conduct
defined work tasks within the community, no matter what culture or ethnic
background we come from. Parents, extended family members, peers, and wellrespected community members, for the most part, socialize children to respect, if
not accept, gender specific contributions.
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Piaget (1932)
Kohlberg (1969)

Moral reasoning involves cognitive skills.


Two stage theory.

Morality of constraint: children before 7 years
old believe in rules, right/wrong, every
offense is punishable.
Reasoning skills were tested by posing
dilemma stories where the child selected the
ending. Scenarios were specific to North
American culture.

Three level theory with two stages to each
level and including adult levels.

Preconventional: obey rules to avoid
punishment.

Conventional: maintain social order and
please authority.

Postconventional: make their own
judgements based on rights, fairness, and
justice.

Theory does not apply to international or
cultural definitions of moral behaviour.

Morality of cooperation: children ages 7 and
up are more adaptable, have wider
viewpoints, see other perspectives, and begin
to formulate their own moral code.
Gilligan (1982)
Helwig and Gasiobezka (2001)

Used Kohlberg’s research model with girls
and women.

Emphasizes individual differences amongst
children’s moral behaviour.

Girls scored higher than boys on the
dilemmas test. Psychologists also recognize
that girls generally mature before boys and
form closer social relationships than boys.

Moral behaviour is related to its context and
the type of moral issue.

Children as young as three understand the
psychological harm to others and focus on
the outcomes of certain behaviours.

By six years old children can evaluate
fairness, just and unjust laws or rules, and
are able to reason about consequences.

Moral reasoning is related to abstract thought
as well as the ability to articulate thinking.

Emphasized that women see morality not so
much as justice and fairness but as
responsibility to show care and avoid harm.
Exercise your knowledge about the social and emotional competencies,
dramatic play, gender identity, and moral development in Activity C that
follows.
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Activity C
Perhaps the concepts that you have learned about so far in the lesson have helped
you to see early childhood development in a new way. Be prepared to include your
knowledge as well as your insights as you respond to the questions that follow.
(5)
1.
Indicate whether the behaviours exhibited by each person are
prosocial (P) or antisocial (A).
Prosocial behaviours are those behaviours that are
helping, constructive, and positive to others.
Antisocial behaviours are those behaviours that
are hurtful, destructive, and negative to others.
Criminal behaviours are antisocial behaviours.
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a.
Six-year-old Janice accompanies her
grandmother one day each week when her
grandmother shops for groceries.
P
A
b.
Sandy, who is five years old, likes to hide his
elderly next door neighbour’s garbage cans and
throw the lids in the yards of their neighbours.
P
A
c.
Jeff and Cindy’s father likes to play guitar and
help the preschoolers celebrate special
occasions.
P
A
d.
Twelve-year-old Brian sneaks around at recess
time to poke a hole and let out the air in the tires
of other students’ bikes.
P
A
e.
Almost every weekend, Angel cons her little
brother into doing her cleaning chores for her.
P
A
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2.
(3)
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Imagine that you are a grade twelve student in a K–12 school and you
are interested in early childhood education. The kindergarten teacher
has a group of four children who often fight, hurt each other, and
argue. You have volunteered to help the group learn social and
emotional skills. You plan to visit the group three times to teach skills
in these three areas: positive communication skills, anger
management, and friendly behaviours. Each teaching session will
take about twenty minutes. Follow the plan below to organize your
lessons.
a.
Brainstorm three specific skills in each of the three areas.
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Unit 7
(12)
b.
Complete your lesson plan for one of the skill areas: positive
communication skills, anger management, or friendly
behaviours.
Lesson Plan
My goal is to teach (select one skill area and one of your brainstormed ideas):
Purpose:
Setting:
Group:
Lesson:
How will you evaluate the group’s success in learning this behaviour?
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Unit 7
(8)
3.
Select option 1, 2, or 3 as you explore gender roles, gender identity,
and gender differences.
OPTION 1:
Select two television programs that centre around family life; these can
be comedies, cartoons, or relatively serious programs. Compare and
contrast the role expectations and behaviours of the fathers, the
mothers, and the children between the two shows. Summarize the
overall cultural view of gender roles portrayed by these two shows.
Television programs:
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
Role expectations and behaviours of fathers, mothers, and children
in each program:
Program 1
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Program 2
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Cultural views of gender roles:
Program 1
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Program 2
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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OPTION 2:
Create a 1–3 frame cartoon that is hand-drawn or computer generated
and portraying some aspect of gender stereotyping. For example,
examine the cartoon below. How is the boy showing a gender
stereotype?
Skateboarding on a sunny afternoon…
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Jeff tries out Bill’s
skateboard…
97
Along comes Sandra on her
skateboard…
Unit 7
OPTION 3:
Read an article describing research into gender differences in brain
processes. Write a commentary of your reaction to this information
and make recommendations to preschool programs regarding ways of
promoting gender equity.
____
(28)
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Unit 7
Research Project
In the previous unit you were asked to select one type of research from the following
list.
A case study is an intensive study of one individual or one group.
Typically the case study may involve interviews, observation,
experiments, tests, and records.
In naturalistic observation the researcher becomes an observer and
does not intervene in the scene being observed. The researcher is
invisible and works hard not to interrupt the natural dynamics of the
situation being investigated.
In participant observation the researcher interacts with and
studies the group being observed as a recognized and
accepted member of the group. The participant(s) are
unaware that they are being observed for research purposes.
Which research method appealed to you? You will be given similar choices in the
research section of Unit 9 related to adulthood and old age. Between this unit and
unit 9, you must complete one case study project and one observational
research project. Have you viewed the research options in Unit 9 under Research
so that you have a good idea of what is expected in each unit and how you intend to
make your selection?
In Unit 6 you were given the opportunity to decide, design, prepare, and explain your
research project. In the assignment section of this unit, you will conduct your
research, compile your findings, share your research findings, and comment on your
research experience.
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Looking Back: What do you recall about the concepts presented in
the unit? Review the concept map.
As you work through the assignment that follows, you may need to re-read those
topics that require clarification or review. Combine the information in the unit with
your own experiences as you answer the assignment questions. This will make your
learning more relevant and useful.
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