Download Some Key Environmental Issues in South Africa

Some Key Environmental Issues in South Africa
This essay identifies some key environmental issues in South Africa. It is unlikely to
be comprehensive because the importance of various issues depends on the
individual’s perspective e.g. Zackie Achmat of the Treatment Action Campaign is
likely to consider AIDS more important than biodiversity loss. In my opinion, many
of the environmental issues in this essay are at least partially the result of bad
governance and lack of political will.
Many of these issues are interrelated with each other e.g. mining causing water
pollution.[1] I have grouped the selected environmental issues into biophysical and
socioeconomic categories though many of the issues overlap.
Biophysical Issues
In many cases, the reason for biophysical environmental issues is that the resources
are public goods and thus undervalued in the economy.[2]
Water
South Africa is water stressed (i.e. there are 1 000—1 699 m3 of water per person per
year) and is predicted to be short of water by 2050.[3] In the report, South Africa:
Initial National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, it is predicted that South Africa will use most of its freshwater
resources in the next few decades without considering the impacts of climate
change.[4] This means that water resources need to be carefully managed. The
excessive use (at rates greater than the recharge rate) of groundwater could reduce the
availability of surface water.[5]
Water use by agriculture, households and industry results in pollution which increases
the costs of ensuring clean and disease-free water.[3] Pollution reaches the oceans
through pipes (e.g. sewage outfalls and storm water outlets) and waterways and
contributes to biodiversity loss and other coastal problems.[5]
Biodiversity
Habitat destruction and fragmentation are the biggest threat to South Africa’s
biodiversity. Invasive alien species are the second biggest threat to South Africa’s
biodiversity.[5]
My experience of municipal workers in Penhill, Eersterivier is that if it is natural, it
must be destroyed. During my secondary education, I prevented the brush cutting of a
small patch of indigenous vegetation on the public open space next to my home. The
municipal worker pointed to a Protea scolymocephala (planted) and more-or-less said
“What about that?” A more recent example is arriving home from Stellenbosch to
find the entire open space diagonally across from my home had been mowed on the
excuse that it was a fire hazard. A fire break would have been quite adequate
especially since roads provide fire breaks on three sides and on the side without a road
there is a drainage ditch a few metres from the household boundaries. The public
open space has not yet fully recovered from that mowing.
Declining Fisheries
There are two aspects to the issue of declining fisheries: firstly, the decline in fish
stocks and hence fishing quotas and secondly the allocation of fishing quotas.[6, 7, 8]
Non-renewable resources
Mining is not sustainable as the resources are depleted by the process Goodstein[2]
contends that this is not the case if we somehow use created capital to offset
reductions in natural capital. The evidence of Eskom’s budget for renewable
electricity generation[9] suggests that such an offset is unlikely in South Africa.
Mining causes acidification in nearby water sources.[1]
Mining also prevents agriculture or urban development and in turn, urban
development may prevent mining.[5]
Air pollution
South Africa generates 50% of the air pollution on the African continent. Vehicular
transport and electricity generation are two major contributors to air pollution in
South Africa.[5]
Global Warming
The potential impacts of global warming are likely to exacerbate existing issues (e.g.
water and biodiversity) and need to be considered in planning for the future.[5, 10, 11]
The Stern Report indicates that, without action, global warming will eventually harm
the economy.[12]
Socioeconomic Issues
Education
South Africa claims to follow an outcomes-based education system at the level of
primary and secondary education but this is not visible in the schools – even those
with adequate resources[13] (pers. comm. R.R. Raitt). In the poorer areas, schools may
lack: infrastructure and/or the infrastructure may be in poor repair; resources and
competent teachers. For such schools, overcrowding in the classroom (i.e. too large
classes) is frequent and teacher absenteeism may be a problem.[14, 15] The fact that
these problems exist indicates unequal allocation of resources by the government.
At the tertiary education level, there are problems with increasing numbers of students
admitted to university that are inadequately prepared for tertiary education –
indicating deficiencies in secondary education.[16] In South Africa, English is a
frequent medium for tertiary instruction. Many students are not first language English
speakers and do not have sufficient skill in English to be able to understand the
content they are taught. A final problem in tertiary education is that many lecturers
lack teaching experience and/or knowledge of learning theories. This means that they
are unable to effectively convey knowledge and skills to the students.[17]
AIDS and Population Growth
AIDS (Acquired Imunodeficiency Syndrome) occurrence was estimated at 13% in
2001 and projected to grow. AIDS affects the economically active 25—45 years-old
age bracket most which results in the number of orphans and aged people requiring
government assistance increasing. Population growth will be drastically reduced.[18]
The U.S. Census Bureau[19] estimates South Africa’s population at July 2007 as
43.998 billion but their projection for 2050 is only 33.003 billion.
The unskilled have the highest incidence of AIDS.[20] The impacts of AIDS include a
decline in savings, increased medical expenditure, decreased productivity and changes
in the structure e.g. a movement away from sectors requiring unskilled labour. On a
macroeconomic level, AIDS has a negative impact on GDP and does not reduce
unemployment in the unskilled/semi-skilled sector.[18]
Electricity
There are two aspects regarding the electricity supply in South Africa at present. The
first is generation capacity and the second is the type of electricity generation.
Personal experience of some of the unplanned power outages of the last two years (at
least) suggests that electricity supply in South Africa is inadequate. My personal
experience is that the quality of Eskom’s service has declined in the last few years.
Eskom plans to bring three coal-fired power stations back into service to increase its
capacity.[21] It is also in the process of building more power stations: one new coalfired station has been approved, another is awaiting approval, a pebble bed nuclear
reactor is planned near Koeberg, two peak time gas turbines and a peak time pump
storage station are planned.[5, 22]
The principle form of electricity generation used by Eskom is coal (ten working
power stations).[21] This form of electricity generation contributes to the air pollution
issues in this country. Eskom also has Koeberg Nuclear Power Station, six
hydroelectric power stations, two gas turbines and two pumped storage stations.[21]
Koeberg generates nuclear waste to add to the country’s waste management problems
and the gas turbines contribute to air pollution. The Palmiet Pumped Storage Station
is situated in the Koegelberg Mountains and destroyed a relatively pristine natural
environment. In my opinion, it should never have been allowed to be built.
It is noticeable that none of Eskom’s base load power stations are using renewable
energy sources.[21] Eskom does have an experimental wind generation scheme[23] but
it has not budgeted for much expansion of its renewable electricity generation
capacity (R4.5 million vs R6 million for nuclear energy).[9]
Transport
There are two aspects to the issue of transport: firstly, the form of it takes and
secondly, the placement and state of the infrastructure required for transport (e.g.
roads and railways).
The number of private vehicles in South Africa is growing. This is causing
congestion problems and contributing a large portion of the country’s carbon
emissions.[5] Widening the roads will not improve the congestion in the medium or
long term.[5, 24] The country’s public transport is inefficient, subsidised and unsafe.
The capacity of all forms of public transport during off-peak hours is too great[5] and
during peak hours (at least for rail transport), too small (pers. obs. 2006)
The road network is deteriorating. Bypass roads with accompanying service stations
lead to a decrease in the economic activity of small towns.[5]
Waste management
The main factors involved in generating increasing amounts of waste are more
production of goods, economic growth and increasing population.[5]
Inadequate waste management contributes to pollution.[3, 5] Sewage systems in
various provinces are failing resulting in water pollution and potentially causing
health problems. The money allocated for repairs is inadequate.[5]
Handling wastes from informal settlements is a particular problem owing to the lack
of infrastructure and possibly the location of the settlement (e.g. avoiding river
pollution with an informal settlement on its banks is difficult). Weekly (at least)
rubbish collection is available to 55% of South Africans.[5]
Solid waste may be incinerated or sent to landfill sites. Landfills are classified
according to the type of waste (general or hazardous), their size and the chance that
significant amounts of leaching will occur. The location of new landfill sites is
difficult.[5]
Tourism
Tourism affects the environment both culturally and physically. The negative impacts
are the result of accommodation and infrastructure development and the tourists
themselves.[25] Tourism may be negatively affected by the appearance and/or location
of development.[5]
The International Ecotourism Society has defined ecotourism as travel to natural areas
that is responsible and contributes to the conservation of the area and the well-being
of the local communities.[25] Miller[26] provides useful guidelines for assessing the
sustainability of offered nature-based tourism packages. Blangy and Mehta[25]
indicate that the Phinda Private Game Reserve near St. Lucia in South Africa fulfils
the requirements for classification as an ecotourism operation.
Unemployment
Unemployment was estimated at 25.5% in 2006.[27] The highest unemployment is in
the unskilled/semi-skilled sector (more than 50% in 1999) while the skilled sector had
more than 20% unemployment in 1999. Total available employment (formal and
informal sectors) in the unskilled and semi-skilled sector had declined to 92% of the
1970 level in 1999.[18] Arndt and Lewis[18] show real income increases in 1999
relative to 1970. Highly skilled people were receiving about 90% of the 1970 level of
income, skilled workers’ income was at 110% of the 1970 level and
unskilled/semiskilled workers’ income had increased 250% relative to the 1970 level.
They concluded that unskilled and semi-skilled workers have priced themselves out of
the market.[18] Unemployment due to the wages being above the market value may be
caused by government (by instituting laws pertaining to minimum wages and/or firing
of employees) and/or union action.[28] I think that in South Africa both of these
factors play a role (as partially demonstrated by the strikes this year).
Unemployment leads to poverty and increases crime and suicide. It allows employers
to pay low wages and minimal benefits (hence the need for minimum wage laws).
The cost of losing employment increases because the chances of finding other
employment are low.[28]
Poverty
Poverty for the purposes of this essay refers to a combination of material need and
endless lack of wealth.[29] The two variations are not automatically synonymous.
Poverty measures may be absolute, e.g. those living on under $1 per day (purchasing
power parity) or relative, e.g. measuring income inequality.[30] South Africa is
estimated to have 34.1% of its population living less than $2 per day (purchasing
power parity) and 10.7% of the population living on less than $1 per day.[31] The rate
of income inequality in South Africa is among the highest in the world.[32] In 2000, it
was estimated that 50% of South Africa’s population lived below the national poverty
line.[31] In contrast, there are three billionaires in South Africa.[33]
The poor consider the following, amongst other factors, as characteristic of poverty:
uncertain employment, restricted skills, physical restrictions, no security and abuse
from the officialdom.[29]
Crime
Crime in South Africa is comparable to developing countries rather than developed
countries. Carjacking, rape, assault and murder (especially the murder of farmers) are
among the forms of crime known to be a problem in South Africa.[34]
A good summary of why crime is increasing in South Africa is Charles Nqakula’s (the
Minister of Safety and Security) notorious comment that those who grumble about
crime in South Africa should stop whinging and emigrate (gist of comment found in
Wikipedia Contributors[34] but also personally remembered from news broadcasts at
the time).
Visible signs of the crime in South Africa are the proliferation of gated communities
and private security companies.[34]
Conclusions
The impact of many of these issues could be drastically reduced by appropriate
government action. Such action is, in many cases, unlikely for the foreseeable future.
This is in part due to the anthropocentric and amoral nature of economics.[2]
References
1. Naicker K, Cukrowska E, McCarthy TS. 2003. Acid mine drainage arising from
gold mining activity in Johannesburg, South Africa and environs. Environmental
Pollution 122 (1): 29—40.
2. Goodstein ES. 2002. Economics and the Environment. 3rd ed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons. 545p. 0-471-39998-1 ISBN
3. Clarke R, King J. 2004. The Atlas of Water: Mapping the World’s Most Critical
Resource. London: Earthscan. 127p. 1-84407-133-2 ISBN
4. Government of South Africa. 2000. South Africa: Initial National Communication
under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Pretoria: South
African National Government. 118 p. Available from:
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/zafnc01.pdf.
5. CNdV africa. 2005. Western Cape Provincial Spatioal Development Framework:
The Western Cape Province Today. Cape Town: CNdV africa for the Provincial
Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning. 460p. Available from: http://cndv.co.za/downloads.htm.
6. Ministry of Environmental Affairs & Tourism. Ministry of Environmental Affairs
& Tourism: Call for Restraint – Fishing Quotas, 25 September 1996 [Internet].
Ministry of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, Department of Environmental Affairs
& Tourism, Government of South Africa; Updated 2004 Jun. 22 [cited 2007 Oct. 9].
Available from: http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/1996/960927_0x18796.htm.
7. Marine Resources Service. 2005. Review of the State of World Marine Fishery
Resources. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 457. Available from:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y5852e/Y5852E00.htm#TOC.
8. Visser M. 2006. Welfare Implications of Peer Punishment in Unequal Societies.
Working Papers in Economics no. 218: 1—7.
9. Gosling M. Eskom favours nuclear above renewable energy [Internet]. Cape
Times; Updated 2007 Jun. 08 [cited 2007 Oct 8]. Available from:
http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=vn2007060801150315
0C550833.
10. Erasmus BF; Van Jaarsveld AS; Chown SL; Kshatriya M, Wessels KJ. 2002.
Vulnerability of South African Animal taxa to Climate Change. Global Change
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Raimondo DC, Rebelo AG, Rouget M, Thuiller W. 2005. Potential impacts of future
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[Internet]. Her Majesty’s Treasury, United Kingdom Government. First Issued 2006
[cited 2007 Oct. 8]. Previously available from: http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/stern
_review_report.cfm. (I downloaded it last year)
13. Raitt R.R. 2005 An Investigation into the Challenges Facing Grade 8 Natural
Science Teachers as They Implement Curriculum 2005 and Outcomes-Based
Education. Bellville: University of the Western Cape. 187 p.
14. De Jager T, Ferreira JG. 2004. Factors Preventing the Development of Process
Skills of Biology Secondary School Learners in South Africa. Educare 32 (182):
186—198.
15. Pretorius EJ, Machet MP. 2004. Literacy and Disadvantage: Learners
Achievements in the Early Primary School Years. Africa Education Review 1 (1):
128—146.
16. Linkonyane N, Sanders M. 2000. Skills Perceived Necessary for Academic
Success in the Biological Sciences at First-Year University Level. In: Proceedings of
the 8th Annual Meeting of the Southern African Association for Research in
Mathematics and Science Education. University of Port Elizabeth; Port Elizabeth;
SAARMSTE. pp. 259 –266.
17. Jacobs C. 2005. On being an Insider on the Outside: New Spaces for Integrating
Academic Literacies. Teaching in Higher Education 10 (4): 475—487.
18. Arndt C, Lewis JD. 2001. The HIV/AIDS Pandemic in South Africa: Sectoral
Impacts and Unemployment. Journal of International Development 13: 427—449.
19. U.S. Census Bureau. International Data Base [Internet]. United States Census
Bureau, Population Division, International Programs Center; Data Updated 2007 Jul.
16 [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbnew.html.
20. Arndt C, Lewis JD. 2000. The Macro Implications of HIV/AIDS in South Africa:
A Preliminary Assessment. South African Journal of Economics 58 (5): 380—392.
21. Eskom. b. Map of Power Stations [Internet]. Eskom Holdings Limited Reg No
2002/015527/06; Update unknown [cited 2007 Oct. 8]. Available from:
http://www.eskom.co.za/live/content.php?Item_ID=4673.
22. The Sunday Times. Meeting the Power Gap [Internet]. The Sunday Times;
Updated 2007 Jun. 10 [cited 2007 Oct. 8] Available from:
http://www.sundaytimes.co.za/article.aspx?ID=487296.
23. Eskom. a. Klipheuwel Windfarm [Internet]. Eskom Holdings Limited Reg No
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http://www.eskom.co.za/live/content.php?Item_ID=38&Revision=en/0.
24. Brown LR. 2001. Eco-economy: building an economy for the earth. London:
Earthscan. 1-85383-826-8 ISBN
25. Blangy S, Mehta H. 2006. Ecotourism and Ecological Restoration. Journal for
Nature Conservation 14: 233—236.
26. Miller GT. 2002. Living in the Environment. 12th ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole
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27. Wikipedia contributors. Economy of South Africa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free
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28. Wikipedia Contributors. Unemployment [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 4, 21:57 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unemployment&oldid=162335004.
29. Wikipedia Contributors. Poverty [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia;
Updated 2007 Oct. 4, 17:23 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poverty&oldid=162279660.
30. Wikipedia Contributors. Measuring poverty [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free
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31. Wikipedia Contributors. List of countries by percentage of population living in
poverty [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 4, 18:14
UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_popul
ation_living_in_poverty&oldid=162289412.
32. Wikipedia Contributors. South Africa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 3, 10:22 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 3]. Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Africa&oldid=161985682.
33. Wikipedia Contributors. List of countries by the number of billionaires [Internet].
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 6, 18:34 UTC [cited 2007 Oct.
9]. Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_the_number_of_billi
onaires&oldid=162708944.
34. Wikipedia Contributors. Crime in South Africa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Sept. 18, 13:20 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crime_in_South_Africa&oldid=158719098
.