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SYLLABUS AND LECTURE OUTLINE
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY I
FALL 2004
NAME __________________________________
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Syllabus
3
Chapter 1
An introduction to the human body, 5
Chapter 2
The chemical level of organization, 7
Chapter 3
The cellular level of organization, 9
Chapter 4
The tissue level of organization, 13
Chapter 5
The integumentary system, 16
Chapter 6
Bone tissue, 19
Chapter 7
The skeletal system: the axial skeleton, 22
Chapter 8
The skeletal system: the appendicular skeleton, 26
Chapter 9
Articulations, 28
Chapter 10
Muscle tissue, 31
Chapter 11
The muscular system, 35
Chapter 12
Nervous tissue, 36
Chapter 13
The spinal cord and spinal nerves, 40
Chapter 14
The brain and cranial nerves, 43
Chapter 15
Sensory, motor and integrative systems, 48
Chapter 16
The special senses, 51
Chapter 17
The autonomic nervous system, 57
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ST. LOUIS COMMUNITY COLLEGE AT FLORISSANT VALLEY
BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MSET DIVISION
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1 (BIO:207-503 & BIO:207-504), FALL 2004
Instructor
Dr. Chaya Gopalan, PhD
Lecture
SM-265 BIO:207 503 10:00-10:50AM; BIO:207 504 12:00-12:50PM MWF
Office
SM-227
Phone
595 2392
e-mail
[email protected]
Web Page
http://users.stlcc.edu/cgopalan
Office Hours
MWF 8:00-9:00AM, 1:00-3:00PM; T 12:00-12:30PM, 2:30-3:00PM
Text
Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, 10th ed. by Tortora and Grabowski.
Lab Manual
Lab manuals by Allen and Harper and Gopalan packaged with the text
Credit
Three Lectures and one Lab = 4 credit hours
Prerequisite
BIO-111
Course Objective
This course covers an introduction to the structural and functional organization of the human
body where Integumentary, musculoskeletal and nervous systems will be discussed in detail.
Purpose
Anatomy and Physiology course is a prerequisite for majority of the allied health professions.
Honors
This course can be taken as an Honors credit course. Last day to sign up for honors is Oct. 5.
Fieldtrip
A fieldtrip to the cadaver lab at the Forest Park campus will be scheduled.
Grading Scale: Ninety-100% is an A, 80-89% is a B, 70-79% is a C, 60-69% is a D, 59% and below is an F. Last day to
withdraw from regular semester course with a grade of "W" is Nov. 12. If a student is not successful in obtaining a passing
grade, an F will be automatically given. If the student is making progress but not being able to pass the course, the
student may request for a PR (progress reenroll) grade. Final grade is based upon the completion of the following
assignments. Each assignment carries the specific weight shown.
Number
1
2
3
4
Weight
15
15
15
15
Name
Lecture Test 1
Lecture Test 2
Lecture Test 3
Lecture Test 4
5
15
Final Exam (Lecture Test 5)
6
7
25
15
Lab Grade
Quizzes and other assignments
There will be 5 unit tests. Fifth test is also considered as the final exam, which is not a comprehensive exam. The total
number of points earned towards attendance, quizzes, class participation, and other assignments will be added up at the
end of the semester. If the weight of the extra credit work is more than your lowest test grade, extra credit grade will
replace the lowest test grade or a missed test.
Accessories: The Science and Math Learning Center (SM 246) has study guides, models, microscopes, slides, and
textbooks available for your use and experienced tutors provide additional help.
ADA Statement: Any student in this class with a documented disability, who needs special testing arrangements, note
taking, or other accommodations, should feel free to discuss this with the instructor. All discussions will remain
confidential. No information will be shared without your permission.
Attendance: Lectures will include materials not found in the text, as well as elucidation of text materials. Thus, attendance
is very critical. Accurate records of attendance will be maintained. Attendance for lecture tests is required during your
scheduled date and time. If you could not be present for a scheduled test due to sickness or unavoidable circumstance,
contact your instructor as soon as possible. In such case, the instructor will give you another test at a mutually agreeable
time. If the student has not contacted the teacher prior to the test and does not attend a scheduled test and wants to take
the test at a later time, a test will be given and graded at 80% scale (20% points are cut). In case class is cancelled, the
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test will be given at the next scheduled class period. Short quizzes, announced or unannounced, will be given regularly to
check student progress and encourage regular study habits. No make ups will be given for quizzes or other in-class
activities that would contribute towards extra credit. Students are responsible to obtain handouts or important
announcements shared when they were absent either by contacting the instructor directly or through Blackboard or their
classmates.
Cell phones must be turned off during class time.
Students are required to successfully complete both lecture and laboratory portions of this course in the same
semester. You must earn a lab grade of at least 50% in order to qualify for a passing grade in this course.
TENTATIVE SCHEDULE
WEEK
DATE
Lecture Assignment
1
8/23-8/27
Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 2 The Chemical Level
2
8/30-9/3
Chapter 2 The Chemical Level continued
3
9/6
9/8-9/10
9/13-9/15
9/17
NO SCHOOL, Labor Day Holiday
Chapter 3 Cellular level
Chapter 4 Tissue Level
LECTURE TEST 1
5
9/20-9/24
Chapter 5 The Integumentary System
Chapter 6 Bone Tissue
6
9/27-10/1
Chapter 6 Bone Tissue Continued
Chapter 7 Axial Skeleton
7
10/4-10/8
8
10/11
10/13-10/15
Chapter 7 Axial Skeleton Continued
Chapter 8 Appendicular Skeleton
Chapter 9 Joints
LECTURE TEST 2
Chapter 10 Muscle Physiology
9
10/18
10/20
10/22
Chapter 10 Muscle Physiology
NO SCHOOL
Chapter 11 Muscle Anatomy
10
10/25-10/29
Chapter 12 Nervous Tissue
11
11/1
11/3-11/5
LECTURE TEST 3
Chapter 13 Spinal Cord
12
11/8-11/12
Chapter 14 Brain
13
11/15-11/19
Chapter 14 Brain Continued
Chapter 15 Integration of CNS and PNS
14
11/22
11/24
15
11/29-12/3
Chapter 15 Integration of CNS and PNS
LECTURE TEST 4
NO SCHOOL, Thanksgiving
Chapter 16 Sensory Organs
16
12/6-12/10
Chapter 17 Autonomic Nervous System
17
12/13 or 12/17
FINAL EXAM: Exact date and time will be announced
4
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Chapter 1
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
Anatomy:
Subdivisions- Systemic AnatomyGross AnatomyMicroscopic Anatomy- Cytology:
Histology:
Physiology: Systemic PhysiologyLEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION: (Fig. 1.1, page
3).
Chemical (molecular) Cellular  Tissue Organ 
Organ system  Organism.
Organ Systems (pages 4-6): Eleven systems:
IntegumentarySkeletalMuscularNervousEndocrineCardiovascularLymphatic and immuneRespiratoryDigestiveUrinaryReproductiveHOMEOSTASIS (pages 7-8): a steady state.
Three Components (receptor, control center, and the effector)
help maintain homeostasis.
Feedback Systems (pages 8-10): help maintain homeostasis.
Two types:
Negative feedback- when a change is reduced back to normal;
most common.
Positive feedback- when a change is made bigger and bigger.
SUPERFICIAL ANATOMY: ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS
Anatomical position: (Fig. 1.5 page 13)
Regional names: These are some examples: cranial, facial,
cephalic, oral, mental, cervical, acromial, axillary, brachial,
thoracic, mammary, carpal, femoral, gluteal, tarsal, popliteal,
pedal, plantar, calcaneal (Fig. 1.5, page13).
Directional terms: superior-inferior; anterior (ventral)-posterior
(dorsal); medial-lateral; superficial-deep and proximal-distal
(Exhibit 1.1, page 14; Fig. 1.6, page 15).
Planes through the human body: (Fig. 1.7 and 1.8, page 16)
SagittalTransverse (cross or horizontal)Coronal or FrontalBody Cavities (Fig. 1.9-1.11, pages 17-18):
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Dorsal: spinal and cranial.
Ventral: thoracic and abdominopelvic.
Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions- four quadrants and nine
regions (Fig. 1.13, page 20).
Review Questions
1. Define anatomy and physiology.
2. List all the subtypes of anatomy and physiology.
3. Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body in order
of increasing complexity.
4. List the 11 organ systems in the body. What are the major organs in each organ system
and briefly explain major function(s) of each system.
5. Define homeostasis. What three components help maintain homeostasis? How do they
help maintain homeostasis?
6. Define receptor and effector.
7. Define a feedback system.
8. Distinguish between a negative and a positive feedback system. Give examples of each.
9. Describe the anatomical position.
10. Name each region of your body by its common and anatomical term.
11. Use correct anatomical terminology to describe body directions, planes, cavities and
regions.
12. What are the two major body cavities? What are the two subcavities of the ventral cavity?
List the subcavities within the thoracic cavity. List the major organs in each cavity or
subcavity.
13. What is mediastinum? What do you find in the mediastinum.
14. How is the abdominopelvic cavity organized? Draw and label all the quadrants and
regions.
15. Define the term 'visceral'.
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Chapter 2
THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
Atoms- (Fig. 2.1-2.2; page 28-29)
Atoms through chemical bonding become molecules.
Chemical bondsIonic bond: define cation/anion (Fig. 2.4, page 31)- attraction
between opposite charges.
Covalent bond: (Fig. 2.5, page 33)- electrons share the outer
Orbit.
Two main types of molecules are inorganic and organic.
INORGANIC MOLECULES
Water (pages 38-39)Structure and its significance:
Acids, Bases and Salts- page 40
Acid-base balance: the concept of pH: page 40
Buffers- (page 40):
Bicarbonate buffer system: pages 40-41
Acidosis and alkalosis:
ORGANIC MOLECULES
Carbohydrates- (pages 42-45)
Monosaccharides:
Disaccharides:
Polysaccharides:
Lipids- (pages 45-48)
Fatty acids- two types: saturated and unsaturated.
Triglycerides (neutral fat)Steroids- cholesterolPhospholipidsProteins- (pages 48-51) are chains of amino acids linked by
peptide bonds.
Four forms: Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
structures: (Fig. 2.22, page 51)
ENZYMES- as examples of proteins (pages 50 and 52)
Structure: active site.
Nucleic Acids- (pages 52-54)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
(will discuss in detail in chapter 3).
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)- an important high-energy
compound (pages 54-55).
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is an atom? Describe its general structure.
2.
What is an ion?
3. What is a cation?
4. What is an anion?
5. Distinguish between an ionic, a single covalent and a double covalent bond.
6. Define acid, base, salt, buffer, acidosis, and alkalosis.
7. Define pH in terms of hydrogen ion concentration and be able to identify any given pH as
acidic, alkaline, or neutral.
8. Describe how buffers minimize pH changes.
9. What is the normal range of pH in the human blood?
10. What are some of the differences between the organic and inorganic molecules?
11. Name the four major groups of organic molecules.
12. What are the functions for each major group of organic molecules?
13. Distinguish among saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats.
14. What is a peptide bond?
15. What are enzymes?
16. What are the two nucleic acid types?
17. What is the most important high-energy compound? Describe its structure.
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Chapter 3
THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
CELL STRUCTURE (Fig. 3.1, page 60)1. CELL MEMBRANEStructure- made up of phospholipids and proteins and is
selectively permeable (Fig. 3.2, page 61).
Functions- One of the functions of the cell membrane is its
ability to transport certain things across. Many types of
transportation could be found some of which are discussed
below (pages 64-74; Table 3.1, page 74):
DIFFUSION- movement of solute from higher to lower
concentration (Fig. 3.6, page 65).
OSMOSIS- diffusion of water (solvent) across a membrane from
lower to higher concentration of solute (Fig. 3.7, page 66).
Osmotic pressure- the force of water movement across the
membrane.
Osmolarity (tonicity)- total solute concentration in a solution (Fig.
3.8, page 67).
Isotonic- solute concentration is the same on both sides of the
membrane.
Hypotonic- when solute concentration is lower than that of
cytoplasm.
Hypertonic- when solute concentration is higher than that of
cytoplasm.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION- is diffusion by carrier proteins (Fig.
3.10, page 69).
ACTIVE TRANSPORT- movement of solute from lower to higher
concentration. Requires energy (ATP).
Eg. Sodium-Potassium exchange pump (Fig. 3.11, page 70).
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
Endocytosis- importation of extracellular material into the cell
(Fig. 3.13, page 72).
Phagocytosis- cell eating (Fig. 3.14, page 73).
Pinocytosis- cell drinking (Fig. 3.15, page 73).
Exocytosis- exportation of intracellular material.
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2. CYTOPLASM- includes two major subdivisions.
Organelles- are subdivided into membranous and
nonmembranous organelles (Table 3.2, page 86).
Nonmembranous OrganellesCytoskeleton- consists of microfilaments (5-6 nm), intermediate
filaments (7-11 nm), thick filaments (15 nm), and microtubules
(25 nm) (Fig. 3.16, page 76).
Centrioles- important in the movement of chromosomes to
opposite poles during cell division (Fig. 3.17, page 77).
Centrosome- (Fig. 3.17, page 77): dense cytoplasm; contains
centrioles.
Cilia and Flagellum (Fig. 3.18, page 77)- Cilia are small hairlike
projections that protrude from the surfaces of many types of
cells. Flagellum is a larger structure than cilia. They both aid in
locomotion.
Ribosomes- made up of RNA and protein (Fig. 3.19, page 78);
has large and small subunits. Important role in protein synthesis.
Two types: free and fixed.
Membranous OrganellesEndoplasmic Reticulum- an intracellular system of membranes
(Fig. 3.20, page 78).
Two types:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum- covered with ribosomes and
involved in protein synthesis.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- contains no ribosomes;
important in the synthesis of many types of lipids, stores calcium,
and also detoxifies drugs and other chemicals in the body.
Golgi Complex- a specialized cellular organelle composed of a
set of cytoplasmic membranes. Functions principally as a protein
processing and packaging plant (Fig. 3.21, page 79).
Mitochondria- powerhouses of the cell (Fig. 3.24, page 83).
Lysosomes- are vesicles filled with digestive enzymes. Function
as the digestive system within the cell (Fig. 3.23, page 81).
Peroxisomes- absorb and neutralize toxins.
3. NUCLEUS- contains chromatin (DNA and protein) and
serves as the control center of the cell (Fig. 3.25, page 84).
Nucleolus-
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GENOMICSNucleotide- DNA and RNA are made up of subunits called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose
in DNA and ribose in RNA), a phosphate group and a
nitrogenous base (page 53).
There are four different types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) or uracil (U).
Nucleotides in DNA contain adenine, guanine, cytosine and
thymine. Nucleotides in RNA contain adenine, guanine, cytosine
and uracil.
Complementary base pairing- adenine pairs with thymine (DNA)
or uracil (RNA) and guanine pairs with cytosine.
Double Helix Structure of DNA- the two nucleotide chains of
DNA are twisted into a double helix (fig. 2.24, page 53).
Types of RNA (page 87)- messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer
RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Base triplet- a sequence of three nucleotide bases on the DNA
Codon- a sequence of three nucleotide bases on the messenger
RNA
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS- involves transcription and translation.
Transcription (RNA Synthesis)- production of RNA (messenger
RNA [mRNA]) which carries information from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm (Fig. 3.28, page 87).
1. separation of the two strands of DNA: sense and
antisense
2. antisense strand serves as the template
3. a complementary RNA strand is synthesized (mRNA)
4. separation of RNA strand from the antisense strand
5. two strands of DNA rejoin.
Translation: mRNA thus produced is now used in the synthesis
of a peptide or a protein (Fig. 3.29, page 88; fig. 3.30, page 89).
1. mRNA strand attaches to ribosomal subunit
2. exposed codons attract anticodons on tRNA
3. codon-anticodon pairing leaves amino acid in place
4. this process repeats (elongation)
5. amino acids are attached to one another by peptide
bond forming a peptide.
6. stop codon terminates the process.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define a cell. Name the principal parts of the cell.
2. Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane.
3. Describe the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane.
4. Describe the functions of the cell membrane.
5. Define diffusion and give an example.
6. Define osmosis and osmotic pressure.
7. Define the terms isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic, crenation, hemolysis, and physiological
saline.
8. Define facilitated diffusion, active transport, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.
9. What are the structural and functional differences between smooth and rough endoplasmic
reticulum?
10. Describe the structure and functions of the ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia and flagella, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
11. Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus. Why is it called a control center?
12. Describe the structure of DNA.
13. Define a nucleotide.
14. What are the four bases of DNA? How do they pair? And what are the four bases of RNA?
How do they pair?
15. Compare DNA and RNA.
16. Define transcription.
17. Define a base triplet, a codon, and an anticodon.
18. What are the different types of RNA? Describe the role of each type of RNA in protein
synthesis.
19. Define translation.
20. Summarize the events that occur in transcription and translation.
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Chapter 4
THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
Tissue- is a group of cells specialized to perform specific
function(s).
Four types: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
tissues.
Cell junctions (Fig. 4.1, page 105):
a. Gap junctions
b. Tight junctions
c. Adherens junctions
d. Desmosomes (hemidesmosomes)
EPITHELIAL TISSUEGeneral Features- Epithelial tissue is avascular.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE will be discussed in
the lab and will be tested in your lecture test.
Types- (1) based on the shape of the cell (page 107):
Squamous- thin and flat
Columnar- cylindrical
Cuboidal- cube-shaped
2) Based on the number of layers (page 107):
Simple epithelium- one layer in thickness.
Stratified epithelium- several layers of cells
Pseudostratified epithelium- single layer that appears
to be several-layered.
Simple squamous epithelium (Table 4.1A, page 109)- portions
of the urinary tract, respiratory surfaces of the lungs, lining of the
body cavities and the inner surfaces of the circulatory system.
Simple cuboidal epithelium (Table 4.1B, page 109)- portions of
the urinary tract, forms glandular epithelium that secretes
enzymes and buffers in the pancreas and salivary glands, and
line kidney tubules.
Simple columnar epithelium (Table 4.1C, page 110)- lines most
of the digestive tract and many excretory ducts.
Stratified squamous epithelium (Table 4.1E, page 111)- surface
of the skin, lining of the mouth.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (Table 4.1I, page 113)trachea and portions of the male reproductive tract.
Glands- are derivatives of epithelial cells.
Two categories: Exocrine and endocrine glands (Table 4.1J&K,
page 114):
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Exocrine glands- secretion through a duct that leads to outside of
a membrane.
Structural classification of exocrine glands:
Unicellular exocrine glandMulticellular exocrine glands (Fig. 4.3, page 116)Functional classification of multicellular exocrine glands (Fig. 4.4,
page 117)1. Merocrine secretion- no loss of cell structures. Eg. Sweat
glands.
2. Apocrine secretion- loss of cytoplasm and the secretory
product. Eg. Milk secretion.
3. Holocrine secretion- the cell becomes part of the secretion.
Eg. Sebaceous glands.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE- supports and protects the body.
General Features-Three basic components are specialized cells,
extracellular proteins (fibers) and ground substance. The
fibers and ground substance are collectively called the matrix.
Types of cells- fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, adipocytes
and plasma cells.
Types of connective tissue fibersCollagen fibersReticular fibersElastic fibersGround substanceClassification1. Loose connective (areolar) tissue (Table 4.3A, page 122)Specialized loose connective tissues:
a. Adipose tissue (Table 4.3B, page 122):
b. Reticular tissue (Table 4.3C, page 123):
2. Dense connective tissue-Two types:
a. Dense regular connective tissue eg. Tendons, elastic
tissue, aponeuroses, and ligaments (Table 4.3D, page 123).
b. Dense irregular connective tissue: eg. Dermis part of the
skin (Table 4.3E, page 124).
3. Cartilage- hard connective tissue consists of chondrocytes.
Provides support for soft tissues and is the precursor of bone in
the fetus.
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Perichondrium: is the covering of the cartilage.
Chondroitin sulfate:
The three types of cartilage are
Hyaline cartilage (gristle) (Table 4.3G, page 125)Fibrocartilage (Table 4.3H, page 125)Elastic cartilage (Table 4.3I, page 126)4. Bone tissue
5. Blood
6. Lymph
The above tissues, 4, 5, and 6 will be discussed elsewhere.
Membranes (Page 129)1. Epithelial membranes:
a. Mucous membrane- lines cavities that
communicate with exterior.
b. Serous membrane- lines sealed internal cavities:
Parietal and Visceral.
2. Synovial membrane- lines joint cavities.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Define a tissue.
2. Name the four tissue types. Give their general functions and locations.
3. What are the different types of junctions? How are they important?
4. List several characteristics that typify epithelial tissue. Describe the criteria used to classify
epithelia structurally.
5. Name and describe the various types of epithelia, indicate their main function(s) and
location(s).
6. What are the three types of epithelial tissue a. based on the shape; b. based on the number
of layers.
7. What is a gland? Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
8. Describe the classification of exocrine glands based on their functions and give one example
of each type.
9. Describe common characteristics of connective tissue.
10. Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body and their functions.
11. Define matrix, ground substance, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, collagen fiber, elastic
fiber, reticular fiber, fibroblast, adipocyte, chondrocyte, and lacuna.
12. What is a membrane? What are the different membranes and what is the unique purpose of
each one?
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Chapter 5
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Includes skin (integument) and its exocrine glands, hair, and
nails.
THE SKIN
Functions (page 151)- protection, defense, prevention of
dehydration, maintenance of body temperature, excretion of
wastes, reception of stimuli, storage of nutrients, and vitamin D
synthesis.
Structure: two main layers: outer epidermis and inner dermis
(Fig. 5.1, page 141).
Epidermis- avascular. Consists of four or five layers (Fig. 5.3,
page 143).
1. Stratum basale- innermost layer. Immediately adjacent to the
dermis, consists of cells (stem cells or keratinocytes and
melanocytes) that are constantly undergoing cell division.
2. Stratum spinosum or prickle cell layer- about ten rows of cells
(keratinocytes and Langerhans cells).
3. Stratum granulosum- cells begin to die due to the
accumulation of keratin precursor molecules (keratohyalin).
Three to 5 layers.
4. Stratum lucidum- consists of keratinized cells; present in the
palm and sole. Three to 5 layers. Cells with keratohyalin.
5. Stratum corneum or horn-like layer- outer most layers,
consists of flattened keratinized cells (25-30 layers).
SKIN COLORMelanin- a brown pigment produced by the melanocytes in
the basal layer of the epidermis gives brown color.
Dermis- consists of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves.
Papillary layer- upper dermal region; consists of loose
connective tissue; uneven with projections (epidermal ridges).
Supports upper epidermis.
Reticular layer- contains blood vessels, nerves, sweat and
sebaceous glands.
Subcutaneous layer or Hypodermis- consists of loose
connective tissue, including adipose tissue. Stabilizes the skin’s
position against underlying organs and tissues.
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HAIR (Pili)- (Fig. 5.4, page 146)
Structure- consists of a root and a shaft. Hair cell production
involves cell specialization to form a soft core, or medulla,
surrounded by a cortex.
Muscle- arrector pili: goosebumps
Hair GrowthSKIN GLANDS
1. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS- secretes sebum (oil). Sebum
functions to oil the hair, lubricates the surface of the skin,
and form an oily film that retards water loss from the body
surface.
2. SWEAT (SUDORIFEROUS) GLANDS- help regulate body
temperature. In this process, they excrete excess water and
small amounts of nitrogenous wastes. Two types of sweat
glands:
Eccrine sweat glands- distributed all over the body; secretion
is mainly water, some salts and a trace of urea and uric acid
(Table 5.3, page 148).
Apocrine sweat glands- found in the axillary and genital
areas; secretion is thick, sticky and odorous (Table 5.3, page
148).
3. CERUMINOUS GLANDSNAILS- are a modification of the horny epidermal cells and
consist mainly of compressed, tough keratin.
INJURY AND REPAIR:
Skin exhibits inflammation and regeneration responses to injury.
The process includes formation of a scab and granulation tissue
(Fig. 5.6-5.7, page 152-153).
Burns- First-degree burns, Second-degree (partial thickness)
burns and Third degree (full-thickness) burns (page 156).
Rule of ninesThe Lund-Browder method- (Table 5.5, page 157)
Skin Cancer (page 154)- basal cell carcinoma
squamous cell carcinoma and
malignant melanoma.
Some interesting facts:

The skin is the largest organ in the body.

There are 650 sweat glands in one square inch of skin
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
500 million dead skin cells fall off da ily due to ordinary wear and tear

There are over 5 million hair follicles on the body, but none on the lips, palms or
soles of the feet

The average head has 100,000 hairs, with each one living 2 -4 years

50-100 scalp hairs fall out daily

Fingerprints form 6-8 weeks before birth

Fingernails grow four times faster than toenails

Humans are the only primates that do not have pigment in the palms of their hands.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the organ and its accessory structures in the integumentary system.
2. List the functions of the skin.
3. What is the function of vitamin D?
4. List all the characteristic features of the epidermis.
5. Name the different cell layers in the epidermis starting with the innermost cell layer.
6. What is the difference between thin and thick skin?
7. Name the different types of cells in the epidermis. What are their functions?
8. What is the significance of melanin in the body?
9. Where do you find papillary layer of the dermis? What is the significance of this layer?
10. List all the structures that are found in the dermis.
11. What is the significance of subcutaneous layer?
12. What is the permanent structure in the dermis that produces hair? Describe its structure.
13. What is the purpose of hair papilla?
14. How does the hair grow?
15. What are sebaceous glands? What is the importance of these glands in the body?
16. What are the two types of sweat glands? What are some of the differences between them?
17. What are ceruminous glands? Where do you find them? How are they important?
18. What are the three types of burns? Which is the most destructive type? How would you treat
these patients?
19. What are the three types of skin cancers? What type of cells do they affect?
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Chapter 6
BONE TISSUE
Functions- support, protection, movement, hemopoiesis, storage and
release of minerals and lipids (page 162).
Structure- (Fig. 6.1, page 163).
Bone Parts- Diaphysis, epiphysis, and metaphysis.
Bone Coverings1. Periosteum- is the outer covering of the bone.
2. Endosteum- is the internal surface of the bone.
Marrow Cavity- is the space in the center of a long bone that is filled with
bone marrow.
Yellow or red marrowHistology of Bone tissueBone Cells- osteogenic (stem) cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and
osteoclasts (Fig. 6.2, page 164).
Bone Matrix- is made of hydroxyapatite crystals (calcium phosphate,
calcium carbonate, and calcium hydroxide) and collagen fibers.
Depending on the arrangement of the bone matrix, bone can be divided
into:
1. Spongy bone- the matrix is in the form of struts or plates called
trabeculae (Fig. 6.4, page 166).
2. Compact bone- Haversian system or osteon- Haversian canal,
lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi, osteocytes, and canals of Volkmann or
perforating canals (Fig. 6.3, page 165).
Ossification- Formation of bone.
1. Intramembranous Ossification- occurs within the embryonic tissue
(Fig. 6.6, page 169). Mesenchymal cells cluster → differentiate into
osteoblasts (ossification center) → spicules (spongy bone) → trap
blood vessels → add more matrix → remodeling → compact bone.
Eg. Skull bones, mandible, and clavicle.
2. Endochondral ossification- cartilage → bone (Fig. 6.7, page 171).
Hypertrophy of chondrocytes near the center of the cartilage →
chondrocytes die and disintegrate → matrix begins to calcify →
blood vessels into the perichondrium → perichondrium becomes
periosteum → osteoblasts → replace cartilagenous matrix with bony
matrix → spongy bone → compact bone. Eg. Limb bones.
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Bone GrowthGrowth in lengthEpiphyseal plate: four zones: zone of resting, zone of proliferation, zone
of hypertrophy and zone of calcification (Fig. 6.8, page 172).
osteoblast activity → bone formation extends towards the epiphyseal
plate → cartilage becomes bone. Epiphyseal plate → epiphyseal line.
Growth in thickness- occurs by appositional growth (Fig. 6.9, page
173).
Bone formation → ridge formed → ridges fuse trapping the blood vessel
Bone Remodeling (page 174):
Fracture- is a broken bone. Depending on the nature and extent, the
fracture can be classified as complete, incomplete or partial, simple
(closed), compound (open), transverse, spiral, displaced, nondisplaced,
greenstick, Colles', comminuted, Pott’s, compression and pathologic
fracture (Fig. 6.10, page 175).
Fracture repair- bleeding → clot. Osteocytes die around the cut area.
Cells of endosteum and periosteum divide and cells migrate to fracture
Inside the callus osteoblasts deposit spongy bone. Fusion of external
and internal callus → continuous bone (Fig. 6.11, page 176).
Bone and calcium homeostasis (Fig. 6.12, page 178)- two hormones
help regulate blood calcium concentrations:
1. Parathyroid hormone:
2. Calcitonin:
Bone diseases (page 178-179)Osteopenia- inadequate ossification → thin and weak bones →
Osteoporosis (porous bone).
Osteogenic sarcomaRickets/OsteomalaciaOsteomyelitisREVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the functions of bone?
2. What is hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis? Where is it done?
3. Name the parts of a long bone and discuss their functions.
4. What are the two coverings of the bone? Describe their structures, locations, and their
functions.
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5. Name the different types of bone cells and their functions.
6. What is bone matrix made of? How is it arranged in the two types of bones?
7. What are the differences between the spongy and compact bone?
8. Describe Haversian system.
9. What is ossification? What are the two types of ossification?
10. Describe
a. Intramembranous ossification
b. Endochondral ossification.
11. How does bone increase in length?
12. What is the role of epiphyseal plate in children?
13. What are the four zones in the epiphyseal plate and their role in bone growth.
14. Define proliferation, hypertrophy and calcification.
15. How does bone increase its thickness? Or describe appositional growth.
16. What is bone remodeling? How does stress affect bone remodeling?
17. What is a fracture? Define complete, incomplete (partial), simple (closed), compound (open),
transverse, spiral, displaced, nondisplaced, greenstick, Colles', comminuted, compression,
and pathologic fractures.
18. Describe how a fracture is repaired.
19. What are the two hormones that are important in regulating blood calcium ion concentration?
How do they control normal concentrations of calcium in the blood (mechanism of control)?
20. Write a short note on osteoporosis.
21. What is rickets? What is it called in adults?
22. What is osteomyelitis?
23. Discuss osteogenic sarcoma.
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Chapter 7
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE AXIAL SKELETON
Types of bones- long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular
bones, and sesamoid bones (Fig. 7.2, page 188).
AXIAL SKELETON
Include bones that are present around the body's center (axis).
Three parts: the skull, the vertebral column and the bony thorax
(Fig. 7.1, page 184).
SKULL- consists of 22 bones. Composed of two sets of bones:
Cranium and facial skeleton (Fig. 7.3-7.8, pages 190-195).
Sutures- are immovable joints between the bones of the skull
(page 200).
1. Sagittal suture- midline articulation point of the two
parietals.
2. Squamous suture- point of articulation of temporal with
parietal.
3. Coronal suture- point of articulation of parietals with frontal.
4. Lambdoid suture- site of articulation of occipital and
parietals.
Fontanels- soft spots in the infant’s skull (anterior and posterior)
(Fig. 7.14, page 202).
Individual bones will be discussed in the lab and will be in
your lecture exam.
THE CRANIUM- is composed of eight bones.
Frontal- anterior part of the cranium. Forms forehead and
superior part of the orbit.
Parietal- posterior to the frontal bone forming sides of cranium.
Temporal- two major parts:
a. Squamous portion adjoins the parietals.
b. Petrous portion forms the lateral inferior aspect of the
skull.
Occipital- most posterior bone of cranium forms floor and back
wall.
Sphenoid- bat-shaped bone forms the anterior plateau of the
middle cranial cavity across the width of the skull (Fig. 7.8,
page193).
Ethmoid- irregularly shaped bone anterior to the sphenoid (Fig.
7.9, page 197).
FACIAL BONES- fourteen bones. The mandible and vomer are
single bones. All other facial bones are paired.
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Nasal bones- small rectangular bones forming the upper part of
the bridge of the nose.
Zygomatic- lateral to the maxilla; a prominent portion of the face
(cheekbone) and forms part of the lateral orbit.
Mandible- lower jawbone. Articulates with temporal bones. The
only freely movable joints of the skull. Alveolar processes (Fig.
7.10, page 198).
Temperomandibular Joint syndrome (TMJ syndrome)- painful
condition resulting from misalignment of the mandible at the
temporomandibular joint.
Lacrimal- small bones forming a part of the medial orbit walls
between the maxilla and the ethmoid.
Maxillae- forms the upper jawbone and part of the orbits. All
facial bones except mandible join maxillae. Alveolar processes
maxillary sinuses.
Cleft palatePalatine- form posterior hard palate.
Inferior nasal conchae- thin curved bones protruding from the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
Vomer- irregularly shaped bone in median plane of nasal cavity;
forms the posterior and inferior nasal septum.
Paranasal Sinuses- frontal, sphenoidal, ethmoidal and maxillary
(Fig. 7.13, page 202).
SinusitisOrbits (Fig. 7.12, page 200)Hyoid bone- is the only bone of the skeleton that does not
articulate with another bone (Fig. 7.15, page 202).
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN- consists of 26 vertebrae. There
are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 1 sacrum, and 1 coccyx.
The last two are formed by the fusion of several individual
vertebrae (Fig. 7.16, page 203).
Spinal curvature (Fig. 7.16c, page 204)- Two primary curves
(thoracic and sacral) and two secondary curves (cervical and
lumbar).
Abnormal curves of the vertebral column (page 214):
Kyphosis- ‘humpback’- exaggerated thoracic curvature.
Lordosis- ‘swayback’- exaggerated lumbar curvature.
Scoliosis- abnormal lateral curvature.
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Intervertebral discs- the vertebrae are separated by pads of
fibrocartilage that cushions the vertebrae.
Annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposusHerniated (slipped) disc (Fig. 7.24, page 214)The structure of a typical vertebra- includes body, neural or
vertebral arch, laminae, pedicles, vertebral foramen, spinous
process, transverse processes, superior and inferior articular
processes, intervertebral foramen (Fig. 7.17, page 205).
Spina bifida- vertebral laminae fail to fuse during development.
Neural arch is incomplete and membranes or meninges bulge
outward (page 214).
Cervical vertebrae- small, presence of transverse foramen, split
(bifid) spinous process, and large vertebral canal (Fig. 7.18,
pages 206-207).
Atlas- no body, makes you say ‘yes’ (Fig. 7.18b, page 207).
Axis- presence of dens. Makes you say ‘no’ (Fig. 7.18c, page
207).
Thoracic vertebrae- articulate with the ribs. Presence of superior
and inferior facets or demifacets, and extended transverse
processes (Fig. 7.19, page 208).
Lumbar vertebrae- large and massive (Fig. 7.20, page 209).
Sacrum- formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae (Fig. 7.21,
page 210).
Coccyx- formed by the fusion of 3-5 bones(Fig. 7.21, page 210).
THORACIC SKELETON- is composed of the sternum
(breastbone), costal cartilages, ribs (12 pairs), and thoracic
vertebrae (Fig. 7.22, page 212).
The Ribs (Fig. 7.23, page 213)True ribs or vertebrosternal ribs (1-7).
False ribs: vertebrochondral (8-10) and
floating (vertebral) ribs (11-12).
Costal cartilagesThe Sternum (breastbone)- manubrium, jugular notch, body and
xiphoid process.
Sternal puncture-
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How are bones grouped based on their shape? Give one example of each type of bone.
2. What is a sesamoid bone?
3. Define axial skeleton. What are the three main groups of bones that make up axial skeleton.
4. How many bones make up the skull? What are the two main groups of skull bones?
5. What are sutures? Where do you find a. Sagittal suture, b. Squamosal suture, c. Coronal
suture, and d. Lambdoid suture.
6. What are fontanels? How are they important? Name any two fontanels.
7. What are the different bones that make up the cranium?
8. Name where these processes, condyles, structures, or foramen are found.
Mastoid process, styloid process, mandibular fossa, external acoustic meatus and internal
acoustic meatus, occipital condyles, foramen magnum, sella turcica, optic foramen, foramen
ovale, cribriform plates, crista galli, jugular foramen, and greater and lesser wings.
9. Name all the facial bones.
10. Which bone is also called as the cheekbone?
11. Which bone is the only movable bone in the skull?
12. What are alveolar processes? Where do you find these?
13. What is TMJ syndrome?
14. What are the smallest skull bones?
15. All the bones of the facial skeleton are attached to this bone except mandible. Which bone is
this?
16. What is cleft palate?
17. Two facial bones form the roof of the mouth. Which ones are those?
18. What are sinuses? Name them. How are they important in the skull? Which is the largest
sinus?
19. Define sinusitis.
20. What are orbits? Name all the skull bones that contribute to the structure of the orbit.
21. Name the bone that is not attached to any other bone in the body. Where do you find this
bone?
22. How many bones make up the vertebral column? What are those?
23. What are the two primary and two secondary curves?
24. Define kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis.
25. What are intervertebral discs? Describe the structure and functions of the intervertebral disc.
26. What is herniated or slipped disc?
27. Describe the structure of a typical vertebra.
28. What is spina bifida?
29. What are the characteristic features of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae?
30. What is the first cervical vertebra called? What are the special features of this vertebra?
31. What is the second cervical vertebra called? What are its special features?
32. Where do you find these structures: transverse foramen, bifid spinous process, facets, or
demifacets, and dens.
33. How many vertebrae are fused together to form the sacrum?
34. What is the other name for the tailbone?
35. Name the components of the thoracic skeleton.
36. How many pairs of ribs are there? Which vertebrae are they attached to in the vertebral
column? How do you classify ribs?
37. What is the other name of the breastbone? What are the three parts of this bone?
38. Where do you find the suprasternal notch?
39. What is sternal puncture?
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Chapter 8
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Consists of 126 bones that include the upper and lower limbs,
and the pectoral and pelvic girdle. This chapter will be
discussed in the lab and tested in the lecture exam.
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle- two bones (Fig. 8.1, page 219):
The Clavicle or collarbone- ‘S’ shaped with sternal and acromial
ends (Fig. 8.2, page 219).
The Scapula- "wings" of humans (Fig. 8.3, page 221).
Upper limbArm- consists of humerus (Fig. 8.5, page 223).
Forearm- consists of two bones: radius (lateral) and ulna
(medial) (Fig. 8.6, page 224).
Carpals (wrist bones)- eight carpals make up the wrist (Fig. 8.8,
page 226).
Carpal tunnel syndromeHand (Fig. 8.8, page 226)a. Palm- Metacarpals: 5
b. Digits- Phalanges: 14
Pelvic (hip) girdle- composed of two hip bones (coxa). Each
coxal bone is derived from the fusion of three separate bones
designated as the ilium, ischium, and pubis (fig. 8.9, page 227,
fig. 8.10, page 228, fig. 8.11, page 230).
AcetabulumPelvis- the two hip bones together with the sacrum and coccyx
form the pelvis.
Comparison of male and female pelves (Table 8.1, page 231)The Lower Limb (Fig. 8.12, page 233)Femur or thighbone- largest bone in the body (Fig. 8.13, page
234-235).
Patella or kneecap (Fig. 8.14, page 235)Leg- consists of two bones, tibia (shin bone, medial) and fibula
(lateral) (Fig. 8.15, page 236).
Ankle(Fig. 8.16, page 237)- seven tarsals make up the ankle.
Foot- metatarsals- 5 and phalanges- 14
Arches of the foot: longitudinal and transverse (Fig. 8.17, page
238).
Flat foot- no arches.
Club foot- inherited developmental abnormality.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the groups of bones that make up the appendicular skeleton.
2. Define pectoral girdle and name the bones that form the pectoral girdle. Where does the
pectoral girdle attach to the main axis?
3. Name the bone of the upper arm. Why is it given this name?
4. What are the two bones of the forearm? Which is the medial and which is the lateral bone?
Name the specific condyles of the humerus they articulate with.
5. What are the wrist bones called? How many are there in each wrist?
6. Define carpal tunnel syndrome.
7. How many metacarpals make up the palm? How are they numbered?
8. How many phalanges in each hand? How are they arranged?
9. Name the bones of the pelvic girdle.
10. Name the bones that make up the hipbone and their specific locations within the hipbone.
11. Name the sitting bone.
12. What is Acetabulum? Where do you find it? What is the function of acetabulum?
13. Describe the structure of hipbone.
14. Where is obturator foramen located? What is its function?
15. Name all the bones that make up the pelvis.
16. Compare male and female pelves.
17. Name the thighbone. Describe its structure.
18. Name the two leg bones. Which leg bone articulates with the femur?
19. Which bone does fibula articulate with?
20. What are the anklebones called? How many are there in each ankle?
21. Where is patella found? Which bone is it attached to?
22. Where do you find lateral and medial malleolus?
23. How many metatarsals make up the foot? How are they numbered?
24. Name the arches of the foot.
25. Define flat foot.
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Chapter 9
ARTICULATIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:
Synarthroses
Amphiarthroses
Diathroses:
1. FIBROUS JOINTS (page 244):
Suture- between skull bones.
Gomphosis- fibrous connection between the tooth and its
socket (peg-in-socket).
Syndesmosis- ligament connects bones. Eg. Tibia and fibula,
radius and ulna.
2. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS (page 245):
Synchondrosis- cartilage between bones. Eg. Epiphyseal plate,
ribs and sternum.
Symphysis- bones separated by fibrocartilage. Eg. Pubic
symphysis and intervertebral discs.
3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS: include mainly limbs.
Structure- consists of joint capsule, synovial membrane, synovial
fluid, articular cartilage, fibrocartilage pads (menisci, fat pads),
accessory ligaments (extracapsular or intracapsular), and bursae
(Fig. 9.3, page 246).
BursitisTypes of Synovial Joints (Fig. 9.4, page 246)Planar joints (Fig. 9.4a page 249)- Flat surfaces. Gliding
movement. Eg. Between thoracic vertebrae and ribs, clavicle
and scapula, between carpals and tarsals.
Hinge joints (Fig. 9.4b, page 249)- Concave surface on one
bone and convex on the other. Monoaxial (uniaxial), angular
movement. Flexion, extension, and hyperextension. Eg. The
elbow or knee.
Pivot joints (Fig. 9.4c, page 249)- rotation (medial or lateral),
monoaxial; the proximal end of radius and ulna that turns palm
inwards (pronation) or outwards (supination). Eg Between the
atlas and axis.
Condyloid joint (Fig. 9.4d, page 249)- oval end sits within a
depression. Biaxial, angular movement: flexion, extension,
adduction and abduction. Eg between phalanges and
metacarpals, between radius and carpals.
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Saddle joints (Fig. 9.4e, page 249)- Concave end on one axis
and convex on the other. Gliding and angular motion. Biaxial.
Opposition. Eg. Base of thumb (trapezius and metacarpal 1).
Ball-and-socket joints (Fig. 9.4f, page 249)- Round head rests
within a cup-shaped depression. Multiaxial (triaxial). Movements
include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation.
Eg. Joints of the shoulders and hips.
Special Movements- Elevation/ depression,
protraction/ retraction, inversion/eversion, dorsiflexion/plantar
flexion.
Joint DisordersSubluxation/LuxationArthritis- damage to articular cartilage.

Osteorthritis or degenerative arthritis-

Rheumatoid arthritis-

Gouty arthritis-
Interesting facts about bones:

bone fractured most often = clavicle

bone fractured the least = scapula

most mobile joint = shoulder

most immobile joint = sutures of skull

strongest joint = hip joint

longest bone = femur

smallest bone = stapes

most prominent vertebra = 7th cervical

there are usually 12 pairs of ribs (same in men and women)

one in 20 people has an extra rib

your arm span is usually equal to your height

you shrink approximately 12.7 mm during the day due to compression of the
intervertebral discs
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

shiny white enamel on the teeth is the hardest material in the body
babies are born without bony kneecaps; they don’t ossify until the child reaches 2 -6
years of age
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are articulations?
2. Define synarthroses, amphiarthroses and diarthroses.
3. How do you classify joints?
4. What are the subtypes of fibrous joints? Give at least one example of each type.
5. What are the subtypes of cartilagenous joints? Give at least one example of each type.
6. Define synovial joint.
7. Describe the structure of a simple synovial joint. List the functions of each structure in the
synovial joint.
8. What additional structures do you find in a complex synovial joint? What are the functions of
those additional structures?
9. Define bursitis.
10. Define planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints with at least one
example of each type.
11. Define opposition, pronation, supination, flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation,
plantarflexion, protraction, and retraction.
12. Compare monoaxial, biaxial, and triaxial or multiaxial joints.
13. Compare hip and shoulder joints.
14. Which is the largest and the most complex joint in the body? Name the bones and the types
of joints you find in the knee joint.
14. Write short notes on osteorthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis.
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Chapter 10
MUSCLE TISSUE
Functions(page 274):
Three types: Skeletal muscle- voluntary; striated.
Cardiac muscle- involuntary; striated.
Smooth muscle- involuntary; lack striations.
SKELETAL MUSCLEGross Anatomy (Fig. 10.1, page 276)Covering- epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium.
Fascicle, Tendon, AponeurosisMotor unit (Fig. 10.14, page 291)Neuromuscular junction (myoneuronal junction or motor end
plate)- Synaptic cleft, synaptic knob, acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) (Fig. 10.11, page 287).
Microanatomy of skeletal muscle fibers- sarcolemma,
sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and transverse tubules or T
tubules, and myofibrils (Fig. 10.3, page 278).
Myofibrils are made up of myofilaments: thin (contain actin) and
thick (contain myosin).
Sarcomere and its organization- Myofilaments are organized in
repeating functional units called sarcomeres. Locate Z lines, I
band, A band, H zone and M line in a sarcomere (Fig. 10.4 and
10.5, page 274).
Structure of thick and thin filaments (Fig. 10.6, page 281)Thick filament: Myosin- each head with two binding sites and a
tail.
Thin filament- Actin or F-actin: components of thin filaments are
actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
Cross-bridges- myosin head (with its active site) connects
myosin with actin forming a cross-bridge.
Sliding Filament Mechanism- contraction  the distance
between adjacent Z lines because thin filaments slide
over and between thick filaments (Fig. 10.7, page 282).
MUSCLE CONTRACTION (Fig. 10.8, page 283 and fig. 10.9,
page 284) Nerve stimulation
 Release of neurotransmitter (acetylcholine [ACh]) from
the neuron (synaptic knob) to the synaptic cleft
 Binding of ACh to its receptor on the sarcolemma
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









action potential
Spreads to T- tubules
Release of Ca++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ca++ binds to troponin
Displacement of tropomyosin exposing the binding site
on actin
Myosin head binds to actin
Power stroke (bending of cross-bridge) pulling actin
towards the center of the sarcomere (shortening or
contraction)
New ATP binds to myosin head
Cross-bridge detachment
ATP  ADP
MUSCLE RELAXATION-





Decreased neuronal activity
No action potential
Sarcoplasmic reticulum reabsorbs Ca++
Tropomyosin assumes a position that blocks the binding
site on actin
No cross-bridge formation or no contraction
Acetylcholinesterase (page 286)- is an enzyme that breaks down
acetylcholine.
Myasthenia gravis- loss of ACh receptors.
Rigor Mortis (page 285)MUSCLE METABOLISM (fig. 10.13, page 289)Energy for muscle contraction- ATP, creatine phosphate (CP),
metabolism of glucose and fatty acids.
Aerobic and anaerobic processesMyoglobinLactic acid and Oxygen Debt-  oxygen consumption.
Muscle fatigueMuscle hypertrophy and atrophyCONTROL OF MUSCLE TENSIONTwitch contractionTetanusIsotonic and Isometric contractions-
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Muscle toneSMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUEMicroscopic anatomy of smooth muscle- presence of
intermediate filaments and dense bodies (fig. 10.19, page 298).
Physiology of smooth muscle: Contraction: Ca++ + calmodulin
stimulates enzyme (myosin light chain kinase) activity which
converts ATP to ADP  phosphorylation of myosin head 
binding to actin  contraction.
Types of Smooth muscle fibers (fig. 10.18, page 297):
Visceral (single unit) muscle tissueMultiunit muscle tissueLength-tension relationship in the skeletal and smooth muscle
(page 285):
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the functions of muscle tissue in general?
2. What are the three types of muscle tissue? What are the special features of each type?
Where do you find each type of muscle tissue?
3. How is epimysium, perimysium, endomysium and tendon are all connected to one another?
4. Differentiate between a muscle, its fascicles, and the individual muscle fibers.
5. What is a motor unit? How is a smaller motor unit different from the larger motor unit? Which
one would produce fine movement and which one would produce gross movement?
6. Name the two cells that are found in a neuromuscular junction. Describe a neuromuscular
junction including synaptic cleft, receptors, synaptic bulb, synaptic vesicles, and
neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
7. Define sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, and sarcoplasmic reticulum.
8. What are transverse or T- tubules? How are they important?
9. What are myofibrils? How are they arranged in a muscle fiber? What are they made up of?
10. What are myofilaments? What are the two types of myofilaments?
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11. What is a sarcomere? Describe its structure including I bands, A band, H zone, Z line, and M
line.
12. What are thick filaments made of? Describe the structure of myosin.
13. What are thin filaments made of? Describe the structure of a thin filament.
14. Describe sliding filament theory.
15. Describe skeletal muscle contraction mechanism. Include:
a. What initiates muscle contraction process (discuss the importance of neuromuscular
junction).
b. The role of Ca++ in muscle contraction
c. The role of ATP
d. The role of acetylcholinesterase (relaxation)
16. Define myasthenia gravis.
17. What is rigor mortis?
18. What are the different forms of energy that are available in the muscle tissue?
19. What is myoglobin? How is important in the muscle fiber?
20. Compare aerobic and anaerobic situations in relation to muscle contraction.
21. Define oxygen debt.
22. Define muscle fatigue.
23. Define muscular atrophy and hypertrophy.
24. Define twitch and tetanus.
25. Define muscle tone.
26. Describe isotonic and isometric contractions.
27. Describe the structure of a smooth muscle fiber.
28. Describe the mechanism of smooth muscle contraction. Include the role of calmodulin and
myosin light chain kinase.
29. Compare skeletal muscle fiber structure and function with that of smooth muscle fiber.
30. What are the two types of smooth muscle fibers? How are they different?
31. Describe the length-tension relationship in the skeletal muscle fiber. Compare the lengthtension relationship of the skeletal muscle fiber with that of smooth muscle fiber.
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Chapter 11
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Origin and Insertion (Fig. 11.1, page 310)Coordination within muscle groups (page 312)Agonists and antagonistsSynergistsPrimemoverArrangement of fascicles (Table 11.1, page 312)Parallel, circular, pennate (unipennate, bipennate or
multipennate), fusiform, and triangular arrangements.
Circular musclesNaming of muscles (Table 11.2, page 314)Interesting facts about muscles:

muscle means “little mouse”

there are about 650 voluntary (skeletal) muscles in the body

there are 20 muscles located in the hand

smallest muscle = stapedius

largest muscle = gluteus maximus

strongest muscle = masseter

smallest motor unit (3 muscle cells) is in external eye muscle

most active muscle = external eye muscle

greatest source of body heat = contraction of skeletal muscles

all body muscles pulling in one direction would develop 25 tons of force

banging your head against a wall uses 150 calories an hour
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Define origin and insertion.
Define agonistic and antagonistic muscles.
Define synergists.
Define primemover.
What are some of the arrangement of muscles? Give an example of each type.
How are skeletal muscles named?
Give the origins and insertion of sternocleidomastoid muscle.
8. Facial expression is possible because of what reason?
9. Where do you find flexors and extensors, in general, in the arm?
10. Most of the muscles in the back support one bone. Which bone is that and why?
11. Name some of the muscles that are important in normal respiration.
12. Why are abdominal muscles positioned in different directions?
13. What is linea alba?
14. Name quadriceps femoris muscles.
15. What are hamstring muscles? Why are they called so?
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Chapter 12
NERVOUS TISSUE
Classification- Two major divisions:
1. Central nervous system (CNS): includes brain and the
spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): includes nerves.
Cellular Organization in Neural TissueNeurons or Nerve CellsStructure (Fig. 12.3, page 389)1. Cell body- presence of Nissl substance (Nissl body).
2. Dendrites- generally conduct impulses toward the cell
body.
3. Axon- generally conducts impulses away from the cell body.
Axon hillock, axolemma, and synaptic knob.
Define: Nerve
Ganglion
Nucleus
Tract
Neuron Types (Fig. 12.4, page 391)- based on structure,
neurons can be classified as
Unipolar- one main process. Found in the sensory neurons of
the PNS.
Bipolar- unmyelinated, two main processes involved in sight,
smell and hearing functions.
Multipolar- many cell processes. Most common type. Eg. Motor
neurons.
Based on the function, neurons are organized into three groups:
Sensory neuron:
Motor Neuron:
Interneuron or association neuron:
Neuroglia (Table 12.1, page 392-393)- can be grouped into glial
cell populations in the CNS and PNS.
Neuroglia of the CNSAstrocytes- form a structural framework; maintenance of
interstitial environment; chemical balance.
Blood-brain barrierOligodendrocytes- form myelin sheaths around the axons
within the CNS.
Neurofibril node or Nodes of RanvierWhite matter and gray matter-
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Microglia- 'brain macrophages'.
Ependymal cells- line the ventricles and the central canal.
Neuroglia of the PNSSchwann cells- form myelin sheaths around the axons of the
PNS (Fig. 12.6, page 394).
Multiple sclerosisRegeneration of neurons in the PNS (Fig. 12.17, page 412)Neurophysiology
Resting Membrane Potential (pages 396-398)Membrane channels (Fig. 12.8, page 396)a. Leakage channels and
b. Gated channels
Two types of gated channels:
1. Chemically-regulated
2. Voltage-regulated
Graded potentials: Depolarization, hyperpolarization, and
repolarization (Fig. 12.10, page 398).
Action potential or nerve impulse (Fig. 12.11, page 399,
12.12, page 401)regulated Na+
close and K+
reinstates the original membrane potential.
+ channels
+/K+
pump
All-or-none principle (page 399)- amplitude/frequency:
Refractory periods (400): absolute and relative.
Conduction (propagation) of nerve impulses (Fig. 12.13, page
403)a. Unmyelinated- continuous conductionb. Myelinated: Saltatory conductionSpeed of nerve impulse propagationType A fibers- myelinated: 5 Type B fibers- myelinated: 2 Type C fibersSynaptic communication- electrical or chemical.
Electrical synapses- gap junctions.
Chemical synapses- presynaptic, postsynaptic, synaptic cleft,
synaptic knob (Fig. 12.14, page 405).
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)- is the depolarization
that is produced in response to a neurotransmitter.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)- is the hyperpolarization
that is produced in response to a neurotransmitter.
Summation- Temporal summation and Spatial summation
(Fig. 12.15, page 407).
Neural circuits in the nervous system (Fig. 12.16, page 411)1. Convergence- single neuron controlled by two or more
presynaptic neurons. Eg. Involuntary and voluntary control of
diaphragm.
2. Divergencepostsynaptic neurons. Eg. Sensory information reaching
various brain regions.
3. Reverberating circuit- continue to discharge.
Eg. Breathing.
4. Parallel processing- many responses at the same time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
2. What is central nervous system made of?
3. What is peripheral nervous system made of?
4. What are the two types of cells that you find in the nervous system?
5. Describe the structure of a typical multipolar neuron.
6. What is the function of dendrites in general?
7. What is the function of axon in general?
8. Define Nissl bodies, perikaryon, axon hillock, and axolemma.
9. What is axonal transport? What are the two types of axonal transport?
10. Define ganglion, nucleus, tract and nerve.
11. What are the three different types of neurons based on their structures? Where do you
find each type of neuron?
12. What are the three types of neurons based on their functions?
13. What are the different types of glial cells?
14. What are astrocytes? Where do you find them? How are they important?
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15. Describe blood brain barrier (BBB). Name the glial cell that contributes to the formation of
BBB.
16. Describe myelination.
17. Define node of Ranvier.
18. What is the difference between white matter and gray matter?
19. What is the function of microglia?
20. Where do you find ependymal cells? What is their function?
21. Where do you find Schwann cells? How are they important?
22. Where does regeneration of neurons commonly occur? Why?
23. What is multiple sclerosis?
24. Define membrane potential. What factors contribute to the maintenance of membrane
potential?
25. What are the two main types of ion channels? Describe how they function.
26. What are the two types of gated channels? How are they different?
27. Define depolarization, hyperpolarization, and repolarization.
28. Describe action potential or nerve impulse in detail.
29. Justify the all-or-none principle that applies to action potential.
30. Can increased strength of the stimulus increase the amplitude or not?
31. Define refractory period. What are the two types of refractory periods? How are they
different?
32. Describe the conduction of nerve impulses in an unmyelinated neuron.
33. Define saltatory conduction.
34. What are the three different type of axons (fibers) based upon the speed of conduction?
Where do you find each one of these?
35. Define synapse. What are the two types of synapses?
36. Describe electrical synapse. Where do you find these?
37. Describe chemical synapse. Define the terms presynaptic, postsynaptic, synaptic cleft,
and synaptic knob.
38. Describe EPSP AND IPSP. Compare the two.
39. What are the two types of summation? Describe each type.
40. What are some of the ways neurons are organized in the central nervous system?
Describe each type discussed.
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Chapter 13
THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES
PROTECTION AND COVERINGS
Spinal meninges or covering of the spinal cord- provide physical
stability and shock absorption (Fig. 13.1, page 421).
Three meningeal layers: outer dura mater, middle arachnoid and
inner pia mater.
Epidural space, Subdural space and Subarachnoid space.
MeningitisExternal anatomy of the spinal cord (Fig. 13.2, page 422)Two enlargements:
Cervical- supplies nerves to the shoulder girdle and arms.
Lumbar- supplies nerves to structures of the pelvis and legs.
Conus medullarisFilum terminaleCauda equinaDorsal (posterior) root ganglion- contains the cell bodies of
sensory neurons.
Dorsal (posterior) roots- contains the axons of sensory
neurons.
Ventral roots- contains the axons of motor neurons.
Anterior median fissure & posterior median sulcusSpinal tapInternal Anatomy of the spinal cord (Fig. 13.3, page 424)Central canalGray matter- anterior, posterior and lateral gray horns; gray
commissures.
White matter- anterior, posterior and lateral white horns.
Reflex actions- A reflex is an automatic, involuntary motor
response.
A reflex arc is a neural circuit of a single reflex (Fig. 13.5, page
427).
Spinal reflexes1. Monosynaptic reflex: Stretch reflex or Knee-jerk reflex (Fig.
13.6, page 428).
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Muscle spindles- the sensory receptors that monitor the length
of the muscle fiber (Fig. 15.4, page 506).
Slight stretching  muscle spindles  sensory neuron to spinal
cord  muscle contraction.
2. Polysynaptic reflexesa. The Tendon reflex- monitors the tension produced during a
muscular contraction and prevents damage to the tendons by
excessive stresses (Fig. 13.7, page 430).
Tendon organs- are the sensory structures that monitor tension
in collagen fibers of the tendon (Fig. 15.4, page 506).
 tension  activation of tendon organs  muscle relaxation.
b. Withdrawal reflexesFlexor reflex (Fig. 13.8, page 431)Ipsilateral and contralateral:
Crossed extensor reflex (Fig. 13.9, page 432)Positive Babinski sign- fanning of the toes: infants.
Negative Babinski reflex or plantar flexion reflex- normal adults.
NERVES
This section will be discussed in the lab and will be tested in
the lecture exam.
Connective Tissue Covering of the Nerve- Epineurium,
perineurium and endoneurium (Fig. 13.10, page 434).
SPINAL NERVES- thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves; mixed.
Cervical C1-C8, thoracic T1-T12, lumbar L1-L5, sacral S1-S5
and coccygeal Cx (Fig. 13.2, page 422).
Peripheral distribution of spinal nervesEach spinal nerve has two major rami (Fig. 13.11, page 435):
Dorsal Rami- skin and muscles of the back.
Ventral Rami- forms networks called plexuses.
Cervical Plexus- C1-C5; phrenic nerve (Fig.13.12, page 437).
Brachial Plexus- C5-T1; axillary, radial, ulnar, median, and
musculocutaneous nerves (Fig. 13.13, page 439).
Injuries to the brachial plexus (fig. 13.14, page 441)Lumbar Plexus- L1-L4: Femoral and obturator nerves (fig.13.15,
page 442).
Sacral Plexus- L4-S4; major nerve: sciatic (fig. 13.16, page 445).
Coccygeal plexus- S4, S5 and Cx; coccygeal nerve.
Thoracic nerves- T2-T11; intercostal nerves.
Dermatome and Myotome (Fig. 13.17, page 446)-
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the three meninges, their locations, and their functions.
2. Where do you find epidural space, subdural space, and subarachnoid space? What does the
subarachnoid space contain and how is it important? What does the epidural space contain
and how is it important?
3. What is meningitis?
4. What are the two enlargements of the spinal cord? Why are they larger than the rest of the
spinal cord?
5. Define conus medullaris, filum terminale, and cauda equina.
6. Define dorsal root ganglia, dorsal root, and ventral root.
7. Where do you find anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus?
8. What is spinal tap?
9. Define central canal. Where is it found? What does it contain?
10. Where do you find gray matter in the spinal cord? Name the three horns of the gray matter.
Where do you find gray commissures?
11. Where do you find white matter in the spinal cord? Name the three horns of the white matter.
Where do you find white commissures?
12. Define reflex, and list the components of a simple reflex arc.
13. Define monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex.
14. Describe stretch reflex.
15. What are muscle spindles? What is their role in stretch reflex?
16. Describe tendon reflex.
17. What are tendon organs? What is their role in the tendon reflex?
18. Describe flexor reflex. Give an example.
19. Describe crossed extensor reflex. Give an example.
20. Define positive Babinski sign. Where do you normally find positive Babinski sign?
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
What is a nerve made of? What are the three connective tissue coverings of the nerve?
Mention their exact locations.
How do you describe spinal nerves and why?
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there? How do you group them?
Define dorsal and ventral rami.
What are plexuses?
Define cervical, brachial, and lumbar, and sacral plexuses. Mention the important nerves
formed from each of these plexuses.
27. Define dermatome and myotome.
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Chapter 14
THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
Development of the Brain and Spinal Cord- the nervous system
is formed from the ectoderm of the embryonic tissue.
Inferior part
-14.26, pages 490-491).
Superior part at the end of 3rd week: 3 swellings:
prosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon.
Superior part at the end of 4th week: 5 regions: telencephalon
(cerebrum), diencephalon (hypothalamus, thalamus and
epithalamus), mesencephalon, metencephalon (pons and
cerebellum) and myelencephalon (medulla oblongata).
BrainstemPROTECTION AND COVERINGS
The Cranial Meninges- Outer dura mater, the middle arachnoid
and the inner pia mater (Fig. 14.2, page 454).
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN- lateral ventricles
-14.4, pages 455-457).
The Choroid Plexus and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) FormationChoroid plexus- is formed by the capillaries and specialized
ependymal cells. It is a site of CSF production. CSF cushions
and protects the brain.
Arachnoid villi- reabsorbs CSF.
Circulation of CSF within the brain-
HydrocephalusTELENCEPHALON
CEREBRUM- largest part of the brain. Consists of cerebral
cortex and cerebral medulla (Fig. 14.11, page 468).
Hemispheres- right and left hemispheres are connected by
corpus callosum.
Gyri- elevated ridges; Sulci- shallow depressions
Central sulcus- located between frontal and parietal lobes.
Fissures- deeper grooves; longitudinal fissure- separates two
hemispheres.
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LOBES- Each hemisphere is divided into:
Frontal lobe- involved in the motor control, motivation,
aggression and mood.
Parietal lobe- reception and evaluation of sensory information.
Precentral gyrus- primary motor cortex.
Postcentral gyrus- primary somatosensory cortex.
Occipital lobe- vision and for the coordination of eye
movements.
Temporal lobe- receives and evaluates olfactory and auditory
input.
Association areas- Premotor area or somatic motor association
area, somatosensory association area, visual association area,
and auditory association area (Wernicke's area).
Speech areaElectroencephalogram (EEG)- recording of the electrical
activity within the brain is called electroencephalogram (EEG).
Four main types of waves have been distinguished. Alpha, beta,
delta, and theta waves (Fig. 14.17, page 477).
Cerebral medulla: White matter: tracts (Fig. 14.12, page 469).
Basal ganglia- A group of nuclei located bilaterally in the inferior
cerebrum, diencephalon and the midbrain. Involved in planning
and coordinating movement and posture. Includes caudate
nucleus, amygdaloid body, and lentiform nucleus (Fig. 14.13,
page 470).
Limbic system- consists of the rim of inner cortex surrounding
the corpus callosum and associated deeper structures such as
the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, fornix, mamillary
bodies, thalamus, and hypothalamus. It is concerned with
emotions, feeding, sexual behavior, rage, fear, motivation,
learning, and memory (Fig. 14.14, page 471).
Reticular formation- is a group of nuclei throughout the
brainstem, which receive afferent axons and keeps the body
awake (Fig. 15.10, page 518).
Alzheimer’s diseaseDIENCEPHALON- includes epithalamus, thalamus and
hypothalamus.
Epithalamus- forms the roof of the third ventricle. Contains
choroid plexus and pineal gland.
Pineal gland- secretes melatonin.
Thalamus- is a relay center through which all sensory
information (except smell) passes on the way to the cerebrum
(Fig. 14.9, page 464).
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Hypothalamus- is a link between the nervous and endocrine
systems. Contains control centers for thirst, appetite, body
temperature, regulates autonomic nervous system and pituitary.
Centers in the hypothalamus contribute to the regulation of
sleep, wakefulness, sexual behavior and emotions (Fig. 14.10,
page 466).
Optic chiasma- is located in the floor of the hypothalamus.
Infundibulum- connects the pituitary to the hypothalamus.
Mamillary body- regulate feeding reflexes.
MIDBRAIN or MESENCEPHALON- gives rise to cranial nerves
III and IV (Fig. 14.7, page 461).
Tectum- roof of the mesencephalon. Contains two pairs of
sensory nuclei, together called Corpora quadrigemina.
a. Superior colliculi- receives visual inputs from the thalamus.
b. Inferior colliculi- receives auditory information from the
medulla
Substantia nigra and Red nucleus- involved in coordinating
movement and controlling muscle tone.
Parkinson’s diseaseCEREBELLUM- involved in the control of coordination of
movement (Posture, position).
Structure- Anterior and posterior lobes, transverse fissure,
Purkinje cells, Arbor vitae (Fig. 14.8, page 463).
Vermis- separates cerebellar hemispheres.
Superior, middle and inferior cerebellar pedunclesPONS- bridges various parts of the brain. Contains centers that
help regulate respiration. Gives rise to cranial nerves V - VIII.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA (MEDULLA)- Gives rise to cranial
nerves IX - XII (Fig. 14.5, page 459).
Pyramids- contain descending fibers most of which decussate in
this Region.
Medulla is the home of vital centers which include
a. Cardiovascular center that regulates heart rate and blood
pressure.
b. Autorhythmicity (Respiratory) center that regulates
breathing.
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CRANIAL NERVES- Twelve pairs, some are sensory and some are mixed (Table 14.3, pages
485-489).
#
NAME
FUNCTION(S)
I
Olfactory
nerve of smell; sensory.
II
Optic
nerve of vision; sensory.
III
Oculomotor
to eye muscles; mixed: mainly motor.
IV
Trochlear
superior oblique muscle of the eyeball;
mixed: mainly motor.
#
NAME
FUNCTION(S)
V
Trigeminal
mixed: both sensory and motor
Motor: muscles of mastication.
Sensory: eye, face, sinuses and teeth; largest cranial nerves.
VI
Abducens
to lateral rectus (one of the eye muscles); mixed: mainly Motor.
VII Facial
Mixed: both sensory and motor.
Motor: facial muscles, submaxillary and sublingual salivary glands.
Sensory- anterior two-third of tongue and soft palate.
VIII
Vestibulocochlear
IX
Glossopharyngeal
X
Vagus
XI
Spinal accessory
XII
Hypoglossal
Sensory; made up of fusion of two nerves: cochlear: hearing; vestibular:
equilibrium.
Mixed: both sensory and motor.
Motor: pharyngeal muscles and parotid salivary gland.
Sensory: posterior one-third of the tongue, tonsil, pharynx, and carotid
artery.
mixed: both sensory and motor.
Motor: heart, lungs, bronchi, digestive tract.
Sensory: heart, aortic body, arch of aorta, lungs, bronchi, epiglottis,
trachea, pharynx, digestive tract and external ear.
Mixed: mainly motor: sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, constrictor
muscles of pharynx, larynx and soft palate.
Mixed: mainly motor: strap muscles of the neck and the tongue.
Interesting facts:
 least sensitive organ in the body = the brain
 the brain is 85% water
 the brain operates on the same amount of electricity as a 10 -watt light bulb
 most sensitive part of the brain = meninges
 the brain is buoyed up by cerebrospinal fluid, otherwise it would squash itself
 warmest part of the body = center of the brain
 largest cell in the body = motor neuron from cord to big toe
 cerebral hemispheres = 83% of brain’s weight
 the human brain triples in size during the first few years of childhood
 the adult brain has 14 billion nerve cells and weighs only 1.4 kg
 the brain uses 25% of all the body’s oxygen - breathe in!
 one in 12 men is colour-blind
 blinking causes the eyes to be closed for a total of one hour each day
 women blink nearly twice as much as men
 only nerve cells that are renewed = olfactory epithelium
 a nerve can send up to 1,000 impulses per second
 speed of nerve impulse = 362 km/h
 all nerves, laid end to end = 76 km
 one square inch of skin on the back of your hand has 12,000 nerve endings
 the body is more sensitive to pain late in the afternoon
 there are 30 times more pain receptors than cold sensors
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the five main regions of the brain? When are they formed? Name the structures
found in each part of the brain.
2. Define the brainstem.
3. What are the three cranial meninges?
4. What are dural sinuses?
5. What are ventricles? Where do you find lateral, third, and fourth ventricles? What do they
contain?
6. What is choroid plexus? Where do you find choroid plexus? What is the function of it?
7. Describe the formation, route of circulation and function of cerebrospinal fluid. Where is CSF
absorbed and how?
8. Define hydrocephalus.
9. What is the largest part of the brain?
10. What are the two parts of the cerebrum? How are they organized?
11. What is the outer region of cerebrum called? What does it contain?
12. What is the deeper part of the cerebrum called? What is it made of?
13. What are the two cerebral hemispheres called? What separates them?
14. Define gyrus and sulcus.
15. Define central sulcus, precentral gyrus, and postcentral gyrus.
16. What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? How are they specialized?
17. What is the function of association areas of the cerebral cortex?
18. How many association areas have you studied and where are they?
19. What is electroencephalogram (EEG)? What are the four different types of waves you can
record and what do they represent?
20. Name the motor area of speech. Where is it present?
21. Define aphasia and dyslexia.
22. Name some of the cerebral nuclei. Where are they located? How are they important?
23. Describe the location, structure, and functions of the limbic system.
24. Describe the location and function of the reticular activating system or reticular formation.
25. What is Alzheimer’s disease?
26. Where is pineal gland? Name the hormone secreted by this gland and its significance.
27. Where is thalamus? What is its function?
28. Name the important parts of the hypothalamus.
29. Describe the functions of the hypothalamus.
30. Where do you find substantia nigra? What is it important for?
31. Define Parkinson’s disease. What causes it?
32. Where is red nucleus? What is its function?
33. Describe the location, structure, and function of the cerebellum.
34. Describe the location, structure, and function of the pons.
35. Describe the location, structure, and function of the medulla oblongata.
36. Define decussation. Where does it occur?
37. What are the two vital centers? Why are they important? Where do you find these?
38. What are cranial nerves? How many pairs of cranial nerves are there? Mention their locations
and their main functions.
39. List all the sensory cranial nerves.
40. List cranial nerves that are mainly motor.
41. List cranial nerves that are both sensory and motor.
42. List cranial nerves that are involved in the control of eye muscles.
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Chapter 15
SENSORY, MOTOR, AND INTEGRATIVE SYSTEM
SensationComponents of Sensation- stimulus → transduction → impulse
generation → conduction → integration.
SENSORY RECEPTOR- is either a neuron or a specialized cell
that generates action potentials in neurons.
Comparison of General and Special Senses- receptors for
general senses are distributed throughout the body whereas the
receptors for special senses are found in sense organs.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSORY RECEPTORS
Sensory adaptation- is decreased sensitivity of the receptor to a
given stimulus.
Phasic receptors or fast-adapting receptors- initial response
declines when stimulus is applied for a long time.
Tonic receptors or slowly adapting receptors- maintain
relatively constant response to a given stimulus.
CLASSIFICATION OF GENERAL SENSORY RECEPTORS
Somatic Sensations (Fig. 15.2, page 503)1. Tactile sensations: touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and
tickle:
a. Meisnner's corpuscles or corpuscles of touch
b. Hair root plexuses
c. Merkel discs
d. End organs of Ruffini
e. Pacinian corpuscles
2. Thermal sensations- Thermoreceptors.
3. Pain sensations: Nociceptors.
Types of pain: acute pain, chronic pain, referred pain (fig.
15.3, page 505) and phantom pain.
Naming of ascending and descending spinal cord tractsPathway- two types: Sensory and motor.
Somatic Sensory Pathways (Fig. 15.5, page 508)First-order neuron.
Three major somatic sensory pathways are:
1. Posterior column pathway (Fig. 15.6, page 510)- carries
information regarding fine touch, pressure, vibration and
proprioception. Contains two tracts → decussate in the
medulla → thalamus → postcentral gyrus.
Sensory homonculus- ability to localize a specific stimulus (Fig.
15.5a, page 508).
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2. Spinothalamic or anterolateral pathway (Fig. 15.6b, page
510)- deals with sensation of crude touch, pressure, pain
and temperature. Contains anterior or lateral spinothalamic
postcentral gyrus.
Somatic Motor Pathways- involves upper motor neurons and
lower motor neurons (Fig. 15.8, page 513).
1. Pyramidal system: Direct Pathway- pyramidal cells (primary
motor area: precentral gyrus) and pyramidal tracts:
corticobulbar (brainstem) tracts, corticospinal tracts: anterior
and lateral tracts.
Motor homonculus (Fig. 15.5b, page 508)2. Extrapyramidal system: Indirect Pathways- examples:
tectospinal, rubrospinal and reticulospinal tracts.
Learning and Memory- short-term and long-term memory.
Memory consolidation- Conversion of short- to long-term
memory.
SLEEP- is a state of unconsciousness. Two main phases of
sleep are REM and non-REM sleep (slow-wave sleep) (fig.
15.11, page 519).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define sensation.
2. List the components of sensation.
3. Define the term sensory receptor.
4. What are somatic senses?
5. What are the simplest sensory receptors called? What do they sense?
6. What are proprioceptors?
7. Define sensory adaptation. Distinguish between phasic and tonic type of adaptation.
8. List cutaneous sensations.
9. What are tactile sensations? What type of receptors detect tactile sensations?
10. Define Meissner’s corpuscles, root hair plexuses, Merckel discs, and end organs of
Ruffini and Pacinian corpuscles.
11. Which receptors monitor pressure?
12. What are the different types of pain?
13. How do you name ascending and descending spinal cord tracts?
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14. What are the basic components of a somatic sensory pathway?
15. What are the two major somatic sensory pathways?
16. Trace the pathway of posterior column pathway (include decussation area).
17. What type of sensation does the posterior column pathway carry?
18. What type of sensation does the spinothalamic pathway conduct?
19. Follow the pathway (including decussation) of spinothalamic tract.
20. Describe sensory homonculus.
21. Define upper and lower motor neurons.
22. Define pyramidal system. Give examples.
23. Describe motor homonculus.
24. Define extrapyramidal system. Give examples.
25. Define learning and memory.
26. What are the two types of memory?
27. Define memory consolidation. Name the brain structure(s) involved in memory
consolidation.
28. What are the structural and biochemical changes that are linked to long-term memory?
29. Define amnesia.
30. Define sleep. What are the two levels of sleep? When does a person dream?
31. Is REM sleep longer in children than in adults?
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Chapter 16
THE SPECIAL SENSES
Five senses:
1. Smell is sensed by olfactory receptors (chemoreceptors that detect
chemicals in the air that are dissolved in the mucus). Olfactory receptors
are bipolar cells located in the roof of the nasal cavity.
2. Taste is sensed by gustatory receptor cells (chemoreceptors that
detect chemicals in the food that are dissolved in the saliva). Gustatory
cells are part of the taste bud located in the epithelial lining of the tongue.
3. Vision is sensed by rods and cones which are bipolar neurons
located in the retina of the eye. These are described as photoreceptors
as they respond to light.
4. Sound is detected by bipolar neurons located in the inner ear called
hair cells. They are described as mechanoreceptors.
5. Equilibrium is detected by bipolar neurons located in the inner ear
called hair cells. They are described as mechanoreceptors.
Olfaction10-100 million olfactory receptors replaced approximately every 4 weeks.
Structure of the olfactory receptor- bipolar neurons with cilia (hair) at the
end that are suspended in the mucus.
Olfactory pathways- Gaseous substances dissolved in mucus bind to the
surface of the receptors → depolarization → action potential → olfactory
bulbs → olfactory tracts → cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and the limbic
system (Fig. 16.1, page 528).
Olfactory discrimination- the olfactory system can distinguish thousands
of chemical stimuli; the CNS distinguishes smells by different patterns of
receptor activity.
Gustation (Taste)- Taste receptors are gustatory receptor cells
(epithelial cells) in the taste bud located on the surface of the tongue
(fig. 16.2, page 530). They respond to chemicals dissolved in saliva.
Papillae- are the epithelial projections where the taste buds are present.
Vallate, fungiform, and filiform papillae (fig. 16.2, page 530):
Structure of the taste bud- oval shaped structure with approximately 50
gustatory receptor cells plus supporting cells. Each gustatory cell has a
single long microvillus which projects to the surface of the taste bud
through taste pore.
The primary taste sensations are sweet, sour, bitter, and salt.
Gustatory sensory input travels through the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal
(IX) and vagus nerves (X).
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Chemicals in saliva → gustatory cells → action potential → cranial
nerves VII + IX → medulla → thalamus → postcentral gyrus.
Vision
Accessory eye structures- eyebrows, palpebrae (eyelids): palpebral
fissure, eyelashes, conjunctiva, Meibomian glands, and lacrimal
apparatus (lacrimal glands → lacrimal ducts → lacrimal puncta →
lacrimal canals → lacrimal sac → nasolacrimal duct) (Fig. 16.5 page
533).
Anatomy of the Eye:
The tunics of the eye- are
1. The outer fibrous tunic (anterior cornea which is transparent and
posterior sclera, the ‘white’ of the eye): avascular. Cornea allows light to
enter inside the eyeball. Sclera gives a shape to the eyeball, allows
extrinsic muscles to attach and protects inner parts.
At the junction of the sclera and the cornea is a tiny opening called
Scleral venous sinus or canal of Schlemm. Blockade of this opening
could lead to Glaucoma.
Why is corneal transplant the most successful organ transplant
operation?
2. The middle vascular tunic has three parts: choroid, ciliary body and iris.
Choroid is the highly vascular part. It lines most of the internal surface of
the sclera and supplies nutrients to the posterior layer of the retina.
Choroid becomes ciliary body anteriorly. Ciliary body is made of ciliary
processes and ciliary muscle. Ciliary processes contain blood
capillaries that secrete aqueous humor. Suspensory ligaments are the
extensions of the ciliary processes that attach to the lens. Ciliary muscle
controls the shape of the lens.
Lens structure: proteins arranged in layers.
Cataract: lack of transparency of the lens.
Iris is a colored band of smooth muscle that surrounds an opening called
pupil. It controls the amount of light entering the eye through pupil.
When there is bright light, the pupil becomes smaller and vice versa.
3. The inner retinal or nervous tunic (Fig. 16.6, page 535): this tunic lines
the posterior three-quarters of the eyeball.
Optic disc (blind spot) is the site where the optic nerve exits the
eyeball.
Macula lutea (fovea centralis) is in the exact center of the retina.
Fovea, the center of the macula lutea contains only cones. It is referred
to as the area of highest visual acuity.
Cavities of the eye (Fig. 16.10, page 538)- two cavities: anterior cavity
is filled with aqueous humor. It nourishes the lens and cornea. The
posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor. Both generate intraocular
pressure which helps stabilize the position of various structures within
the eyeball.
Physiology of visionRefraction of light- bending of light rays: cornea, aqueous humor and
the lens (Fig. 16.11, page 539).
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Accommodation- lens change shape due to the action of iris which
enables the image to fall on the retina.
Close objects- lens thickens; increased refraction; better focusing on the
retina.
Distant object- lens flattens; decreased refraction; better focusing on the
retina.
Near point of vision- the nearest distance the object can be seen clearly.
Far point of vision- a distance where the lens does not have to go
through any change in shape.
Snellen eye chartMyopia or nearsightedness- corrected by concave lens (fig. 16.12b, page
541).
Hyperopia or farsightedness- corrected by convex lens lens (fig. 16.12d,
page 541).
Astigmatism- uneven curvature of the lens or the cornea.
Retina- the outer zone of the nervous layer of the retina contains
rods and cones (Fig. 16.9, page 537).
Rods and cones (Fig. 16.13, page 541)Structure- outer and inner segment. Contain a pigment called rhodopsin
that dissociates into retinal (one type) and opsin (4 types).
Bleaching action (Fig. 16.14, page 542)- Light → breakdown of
rhodopsin to opsin and retinal (light adaptation).
Dim light → rhodopsin molecules reform (dark adaptation).
Dark: Dark current- Na+ gates open → resting potential (-30mV)
(Fig. 16.14, page 528).
Light: Arrival of photon- Activation of opsin (11-Cis to 11-trans form).
Opsin > Na+ gates close → resting potential (-40 to
-70mV) → glutamate release → photon absorption.
Night blindness- vitamin A deficiency.
Cones- color vision and visual acuity.
Types of cones- blue, green, and red cones.
Color blindnessNeural pathway of vision- Rods and cones → bipolar neurons →
ganglionic neurons → optic nerves → optic chiasma → optic tracts →
lateral geniculate nucleus (thalamus) → visual area (occipital lobe of the
cerebral cortex) (Fig. 16.16, page 545).
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Ear
Anatomy of the ear (Fig. 16.17, page 547).
Outer ear- pinna or auricle and the external auditory canal
Tympanic membrane (eardrum):
Middle ear- Ossicles [malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes
(stirrup)] and the eustachian tube (Fig. 16.18, page 548).
Oval window and round windowInner ear- membranous and bony labyrinths (Fig. 16.19, page 549).
Membranous labyrinth- endolymph
Bony labyrinth- perilymph
3 subdivisions are the cochlea, vestibule and the semicircular canals
(Fig. 16.20, page 549).
Sound- Hertz- number of cycles (waves)/sec; Pitch- frequency.
Cochlea- 3 chambers: scala vestibuli and scala tympani- perilymph and
scala media or cochlear duct- endolymph (Fig. 16.20, page 550).
Organ of Corti- hair cells.
Physiology of hearing (Fig. 16.21, page 552)- Sound waves → external
auditory canal → vibration of tympanic membrane → vibration of
malleus-incus-stapes → oval window → vibration in the perilymph →
vestibular membrane → endolymph → vibration of basilar membrane →
hair cells of organ of Corti → action potential → vestibulo-cochlear
nerves.
Neuronal pathway for hearing- Cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear
nerve → cochlear nuclei (brainstem) → inferior colliculus (midbrain) →
medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus) → auditory area (temporal lobe).
Physiology of EquilibriumVestibular complex- consists of vestibule and the semicircular canals.
Vestibule- responds to linear movement and gravity. Two distinct
regions in the vestibule are utricle and saccule. They contain maculae
which contains hair cells (the hairs are embedded in a gelatinous mass
that contains otoliths [ear stones]). Gravity and linear acceleration →
movement of gelatinous mass →
(Fig. 16.22, page 554).
Ampulla of semicircular canals has hair cells in a raised structure called
crista with their hairs embedded in a gelatinous mass (cupula) (Fig.
16.23, page 556).
Head movement → cupula moves → hair cells bend → depolarization →
Neuronal pathway for equilibriumof the vestibulocochlear nerve → medulla → cerebellum, spinal cord,
and cerebral cortex.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the location and structure of the olfactory receptors.
2. Describe the mechanism of sensation of smell.
3. How does the sensation of smell reach the brain?
4. How does the brain differentiate different odors?
5. Define gustation.
6. Name the structures that are involved in gustation. Where are they present?
7. Describe the structure of a taste bud.
8. What are papillae? What are the three types of papillae? Where are they found? Why are
they important?
9. What are the four primary tastes? Which part of the tongue is sensitive to which type of
taste?
10. Which two cranial nerves are involved in the sensation of taste?
11. Describe the mechanism of sensation of taste.
12. Trace the pathway of gustation.
13. List the accessory structures of the eye giving one function for each.
14. What are lacrimal glands? Where are they located? Describe the structures of the
lacrimal apparatus.
15. What are the three tunics of the eye?
16. Which is the outermost tunic? How is it important in the eye?
17. What is cornea? What is its function?
18. Why is corneal transplantation the most common type of transplantation?
19. Which is the middle tunic? Why is it dark in color? What is the significance of its color?
20. What are the structures associated with the middle tunic? Give one function of each.
21. Which is the innermost tunic? What is the most important function of this tunic?
22. What is lens made of?
23. Define cataract.
24. Define optic disc.
25. Define macula lutea and fovea centralis and its significance.
26. What are the two cavities of the eye? What do they contain? How is it important?
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27. What is the function of canal of Schlemm?
28. Define glaucoma.
29. What is refraction? Where does most of the refraction occur?
30. What is accommodation? Which structure of the eye is responsible for this?
31. What happens to the lens when you are looking at nearby objects?
32. What happens to the lens when you are looking at distant objects?
33. Define near point of vision.
34. Define far point of vision.
35. Define astigmatism, myopia, and hyperopia. How can these be corrected?
36. Differentiate 20/20, 20/15, 20/30 and 20/200.
37. Describe the structure of rods and cones.
38. What is rhodopsin? What is it made of? Where do you find it? How many types of
rhodopsins are there? How are they different?
39. Describe bleaching action.
40. What are the two forms of retinal? How are they interchangable?
41. What is dark current?
42. What happens when light reaches the visual pigment?
43. Define light adaptation and dark adaptation.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
65.
Define night blindness.
How are rods and cones different?
What are the different types of cones?
What color do you see when all three cones are activated?
Define color blindness.
How is the visual information taken to the visual area of the cerebrum? Describe its
pathway.
What are the three parts of the ear?
Where is tympanic membrane?
Name the three bony ossicles and their arrangement in the middle ear.
Where is eustachian or auditory tube? What is its function?
Define bony and membranous labyrinths.
Define oval window and round window.
What are the three important sensory structures that are found in the inner ear?
Describe the structure of the cochlea including the structure of organ of Corti.
Describe the physiology of hearing.
Describe the neural pathway of hearing.
Describe the structure of vestibule.
Describe the structure of macula and the way it senses linear equilibrium.
Describe the structure of crista and the way it works.
Summarize the neural pathway of equilibrium.
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Chapter 17
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems (fig.
17.1, page 567):
SNS
ANS
Lower motor neurons from the
CNS directly reaches the
neurons). Ganglia to effector
effector
(Postganglionic neurons).
Controls voluntary structures.
Controls involuntary structures
Eg. skeletal muscles
such as cardiac and smooth
muscle and glands.
Acetylcholine is the main
Acetylcholine, epinephrine and
neurotransmitter
norepinephrine are the main
neurotransmitters
Subdivision of the ANSTwo major divisions:
1. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS
Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) ANS- Preganglionic fibers
originate in the thoracic and lumbar levels of the spinal cord (T1L2) and end in a sympathetic chain ganglia or in the collateral
ganglia (celiac, superior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric) or
in the adrenal medulla (fig. 17.5, page 573).
Sympathetic axons exit the sympathetic chain ganglia by three
different routes:
1. Spinal nerves: white ramus and gray ramus.
2. Sympathetic nerves or autonomic nerves.
3. Splanchnic nerves.
Adrenal medulla- is often considered as a modified sympathetic
ganglion.
Parasympathetic (craniosacral) ANS or "Rest or repose
system": Preganglionic fibers originate in the brainstem and the
sacral levels of the spinal cord (cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X and
spinal nerves S2-S4). Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers
synapse in terminal ganglia that are located next to or actually
within the organs innervated.
Neurotransmitters of the ANS- the principle neurotransmitters
involved are ACh and NE. On the basis of the neurotransmitter
released, the ANS can be divided into cholinergic and adrenergic
divisions (Fig. 17.6, page 575).
All of the preganglionic and parasympathetic postganglionic
neurons and a few sympathetic postganglionic neurons are
cholinergic neurons. Most of the post-ganglionic sympathetic
neurons are adrenergic neurons.
Adrenergic receptors- two main types: alpha and beta.
Cholinergic receptors: two main types: muscarinic and
nicotinic.
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Central effects of sympathetic stimulation- "Fight or flight
response": → NE and E in blood ↑ mental alertness, ↑ metabolic
rate, ↓ digestive and urinary function, activation of energy
reserves, respiratory rate and dilation of respiratory
passageways, ↑heart rate and blood pressure and activation of
sweat glands.
Functions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System- ↓Metabolic
rate, heart rate and blood pressure, ↑secretion of salivary and
digestive glands, ↑ motility and blood flow in the digestive tract,
↑ urination and defecation.
Regulation of the ANS- ANS is under the regulation of CNS. The
medulla oblongata and the spinal cord are the structures that
directly control the activity of the ANS. These regions are in turn
influenced by the hypothalamus and other higher brain areas
such as the limbic system.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What are the differences between the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems?
2. Define preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.
3. What are the two major divisions of the ANS?
4. Why is sympathetic division also called as thoracolumbar division?
5. What are the three different nerves through which sympathetic division supplies PNS?
6. Why is adrenal medulla considered a modified sympathetic ganglion?
7. Give the divergence ratio between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons in the
sympathetic division. Is it the same in the parasympathetic division?
8. Why is parasympathetic division also called as the craniosacral division?
9. Which cranial nerves carry parasympathetic supply? Which cranial nerve carries more
than all others?
10. What is the name of the ganglion in the parasympathetic division?
11. Name the two neurotransmitters that are important in the ANS.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Define cholinergic and adrenergic neurons.
Which neurons in general, in the ANS, are cholinergic and which others are adrenergic?
What are the two main types of cholinergic receptors?
What are the two main types of adrenergic receptors? How do they function?
When is sympathetic division activated (fight or flight response)? How does it affect the
physiology of various systems in the body?
When is parasympathetic division activated? How does it affect the physiology of various
systems in the body?
Compare the anatomy of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
Compare the effects of activation of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
Which structures in the brain specifically control the ANS?
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