Download File

Remember these three parts of a lab report:
1) Manipulated Variable: The part of the experiment you manipulate or change. This is the x axis (horizontal)
on a graph.
2) Responding Variable: The part of the experiment that responds or that you measure. This is the y axis
(vertical) on a graph.
3) Controlled Variable: This is the part of the experiment that you control. This part does not change.
Key Concepts:
interactions and interdependencies
environmental monitoring
environmental impacts
producers, consumers, decomposers
nutrient cycles and energy flow
species distribution
succession
endangered species
extinction
environmental management
-
Know all the bold words.
-
Know the difference between a population, community, and species.
-
Name at least three different ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic parts of that environment.
-
Carolus Linnaeus developed a system for naming organisms and for classifying them in a meaningful way.
Two words name each living thing: the first word indicates the name of the genus to which the organism
belongs and the second word indicates the particular species. Closely related species can have the same
genus name, but not the same species name. The red wolf is called Canis rufus, the timber wolf is called
Canis lupus, and the dog, Canis familiaris.
-
Know symbiosis (an association between members of different species). Commensalism: one organism
benefits, the other does not. Mutualism: both organisms benefit. Parasitism: one organism benefits, and the
other is harmed. Know a few examples of each.
-
You must be able to identify how dependencies among species link to species survival.
-
What happens in interspecies competition? Two or more species compete for the same food. There is less to
eat and some members of a species die.
-
Recognize variation of characteristics within a species (pages 20 – 21, 27). How does diversity contribute to
species survival?
-
What is natural selection? What is artificial selection? Distinguish between the two.
-
Give examples of heritable characteristics and non-heritable characteristics as well as discrete variation and
continuous variation.
-
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. Some examples are binary fission, budding, spores and
vegetative reproduction. Know these.
-
Sexual reproduction usually involves two individuals. Sexual reproduction in plants or animals relies on the
union of two specialized cells known as gametes. Know all the bold words on pages 32 – 33.
-
Know how sexual reproduction happens in plants.
-
What are the advantages of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction and vice versa.
-
DNA: Deoxyribonucleicacid. Organisms arrange their DNA into packages called chromosomes.
-
Alleles: possible forms of a gene: brown hair, blonde hair, red hair, etc.
-
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces cells with only half the DNA of a normal cell. This occurs
only during sexual reproduction. Because each gamete has only half the DNA of a normal cell, when the
male and female gametes unit, the zygote has a complete set of DNA. Meiosis involves two cell divisions, not
just one. This is how we get variation.
-
Mitosis produces two new cells with the same number of chromosomes. Mitosis occurs in the body cells of
multicellular organisms and is responsible for the growth and cellular repair of a multicellular organism.
-
Know the difference between dominant and recessive traits and how they work: pages 50 – 51.
-
What is incomplete dominance?
-
Know the difference between extinction and extirpation, threatened and special concern.
-
What are some natural can human causes of extinctions and extirpations.
-
What are biotechnology, cloning, artificial insemination, invitro fertilization, and genetic engineering?
-
What are some problems with biotechnology?
-
What are some strategies to conserve biological diversity? In-situ, ex-situ?
-
Key Concepts:
Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information System (WHMIS) and safety
Substances and properties
Endothermic and exothermic reactions
-
Factors affecting reaction rates
Periodic Table
Elements, compounds and atomic theory
Chemical nomenclature (introductory)
Conservation of mass
-
Reactants and Products
- Know all the bold words.
- Know the common hazard warnings on p. 94 as well as the WHMIS symbols on p. 95.
- Know the chart and the definitions of those words on p. 97.
- Some physical properties of matter are colour, luster, melting point, boiling point, hardness malleability,
ductility, crystal shape, solubility, density, and conductivity.
- Some chemical properties of matter are: reaction with acids, ability to burn, reaction with water, behavior in air,
and reaction to heat.
- An element is a material that cannot be broken down into any simpler substance. Examples are gold (Au),
carbon (C), and Zinc (Zn).
- Compounds occur when two or more elements combine chemically. Some examples are water (H 20), carbon
dioxide (C02) and glucose (C6H12O6 which means 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms).
- Know the chart at the bottom of p. 103, the meaning of each word, and a couple of examples of pure
substances, solutions and mechanical mixtures.
- Physical change is one in which a material changes from one state to another.
- Chemical change occurs when two or more materials react and create new materials. Evidence of a chemical
change are change in colour, change in odour, formation of a solid or gas, and release of absorption of heat energy.
- Read pages 113 – 115 (Evolving theories of matter).
- Robert Boyle reinforced the position that all matter was made up of tiny particles.
- Antoine Laurent Lavoisier is the “Father of modern chemistry”. He developed a system of naming chemicals.
- John Dalton suggest that matter was made up of elements and was the first to put forward the modern theory of
atomic structure. He stated that each element is composed of a particle called an atom. All atoms in a particular
element, are identical in mass and no two elements have atoms of the same mass.
- J.J. Thomson is credited with being the first person to discover a subatomic particle (smaller than an atom). He
proposed the “raisin bun” model.
- Rutherford suggested that atoms were mainly empty space.
- Niels Bohr suggested that electrons do not orbit randomly in an atom, but more in specific circular orbits or
electron shells.
- Atomic mass is the mass of one atom of an element.
- Mendeleev collected 63 elements known to exist and put them into a table.
- Period is a horizontal row in a periodic table. A group or family is a vertical column in a periodic table.
Atomic
number
Ion charge
8
2-
O
symbol
oxygen
16.0
name
Atomic mass
- The atomic number shows how many protons are in the nucleus of one atom of the element. Because atoms
are neutral, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Therefore, the atomic number also tells you
how many electrons are in an atom of a particular element.
- The atomic mass tells you the total mass of all the protons and neutrons in an atom.
- Atomic mass is measured by the atomic mass unit (amu).
- Mass number represents the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
- On the periodic table the largest amount of elements belong to the metals. They are shiny, malleable, and
ductile. They also conduct electricity.
- Non-metals can be a solid or gas. Solid non-metals are dull, brittle elements. They do not conduct electricity
except for carbon. They are insulators.
- Metalloids have both metallic and non-metallic properties.
- As you move across a periodic table from left to right, you notice that the elements gradually change from
metals to non-metals. As you move right, the metals generally become less reactive.
- Group 1 elements, not including hydrogen, are called the alkali metals. These are the most reactive of the
metals. Group 2 elements are called the alkaline-earth metals. Group 17 are called the halogens and are the
most reactive non-metals. Group 18 are the noble gases, the most stable and unreactive elements.
- Know how to interpret a chemical formula on p. 141 - 142. You must be able to draw a simple model of
molecular and ionic compounds.
- Ionic compounds are pure substances formed as a result of the attraction between particles of opposite charges,
called ions. Other properties include their high melting point, good electrical conductivity, and distinct crystal
shape. Molecular compounds are formed with non-metals combine. They can be solids, liquids, or gases at
room temperature. They tend to be insulators, or poor conductors of electricity. They also have relatively low
melting and boiling points because the forces between the molecules are weak.
- Polyatomic ions are a group of atoms acting as one: for example: S0 42- Know how to write the chemical formulas for ionic compounds: See p. 147
i)
write out the element’s symbol with its ion charge.
ii)
balance the ion charges.
iii)
write the formula by indicating how many atoms of each element are in it.
- Know how to name molecular compounds: see p. 152. Know how to name ionic compounds: see p. 146.
- Know the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. Usually the reactants are first and the arrow points to
the products. P. 158
- In an exothermic reaction heat is released. In an endothermic reaction heat energy is absorbed. Know
examples of each type of reaction. P. 160
- Three examples of reactions in which oxygen reacts with other substances are combustion, corrosion, and
cellular respiration. Read about them on p. 160.
- Conservation of Mass: Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction; therefore, the total mass of
the products is always the same as the total mass of the reactants. In a closed system the mass of the products
equals the mass of the reactants. In an open system, some of the product may disappear into the air and therefore
the mass of the products and reactants will not be equal.
- Factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction are: the presence of a catalyst, the concentration of the
reactants, the temperature of the reactants, the surface are of the reactants. See pages 166 – 169.
Key Concepts:
- chemicals essential to life
- substrates and nutrients
- air and water quality
- organic and inorganic materials
- acids and bases
- ingestion and absorption of materials
- concentration and dispersal
- evidence of toxicity
- stability and biodegradability
- hazards, probabilities and risk assessment
- uncertainties in environmental monitoring and in assessing
toxicity and risk
- Know all the bold words.
- As elements and compounds move through Earth, they are used and reused by living things. This forms a cycle.
One important cycle is the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen fixation is the process free nitrogen is converted into fixed
nitrogen so it can be used by plants for growth. Bacteria found in the roots of plants do this.
- Pollution is any change in the environment that produces a condition that is harmful to living things.
- Human activities that release chemicals into the air, water and soil are agricultural activities, solid wastes,
wastewater, fuel combustion and industrial processes.
- Fertilizer is composed of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium. The numbers on fertilizer occur in this order.
- Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests. Herbicides kill weeds and fungicides kill fungi.
- Solid waste comes from landfill sites, p. 187.
- Wastewater comes from sewage, p. 188.
- Effluent is treated wastewater released into rivers or lakes.
- Fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. They are formed from dead plants and animals. They are called
hydrocarbons because they are mainly made up of the elements hydrogen and carbon.
- The general equation for fossil fuels burned in homes, vehicles and industrial plants is:
hydrocarbon + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water + energy
- An acid has a pH from 0 – 6; a base has a pH from 8 – 14; 7 is neutral.
- Blue litmus paper turns red in an acid; red litmus paper turns blue in a base.
- The neutralization reaction (between an acid and base) results in salt and water. The equation is:
HCL (acid) + NaOH (base)
NaCl (salt) + H20 (water)
- organic compounds are complex molecules that contain carbon. Examples are fossil fuels. Substances that do
not contain carbon are called inorganic compounds.
- Nutrients are elements and compounds that organisms need for living, growing, and reproducing.
- Macronutrients are needed in relatively large amounts while micronutrients are need in only minor or trace
amounts.
- Optimum amounts: is the amount that provides an organism with the best health.
- Types of organic molecules:
i) carbohydrates
ii) lipids
iii)proteins and amino acids
iv) nucleic acids
- diffusion moves particles from higher to lower concentrations. Osmosis is the movement of water across a
membrane from higher to lower concentrations. Active transport moves nutrients in plants from lower to higher
concentrations.
- the breakdown or digestion of large organic molecules occurs by a process called hydrolysis.
- Substrate is the material on which an organism moves or lives.
- Scientists monitor water quality through both biological and chemical indicators.
- Biological indicators are microbiological indicators (bacteria) or aquatic invertebrates (water bugs). More
leeches and worms in water indicates poor water quality. Water full of organisms indicates good water quality.
- Factors that affect organisms:
- dissolved oxygen
- plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous
- acidity
- pesticides
- heavy metals
- salts such as sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate
- Parts per million is the concentration of chemicals in the environment. The equation is expressed as a ratio:
If there is 0.001mL of food colouring in 1000 mL of water the ppm is calculated like a ratio:
0.001 = χ____
1000
1 000 000
1 000 000 x 0.001 = 1000 x χ
1000 = 1000 χ
1000 = 1000 χ
1000
1000
1=χ
- The level of dissolved oxygen in water depends on: temperature, turbulence due to wind or the speed of
moving water, the amount of photosynthesis by plants and algae in the water, the number of organisms using up
the oxygen.
- Know the way phosphorous and nitrogen content affects water on p. 219.
- LD 50: represents the amount of a substance that causes 50% of a group of test animals to die if they are given a
specified dose of the substance all at once.
Pollutants in the air
- Sulfur dioxide: a major pollutant that forms both smog and acid rain from industrial processes,
mainly.
- Nitrogen oxides: a major pollutant that forms both smog and acid rain from mainly combustion in
vehicles.
- Carbon Monide: a colourless gas (pollutant) that forms mainly from human activities like driving a
car or burning a fire.
- Ozone: at ground level, it forms from reactions between oxygen, nitrogen oxides and compounds
called volatile organic compounds in the presence of heat and sunlight. The major source of groundlevel ozone is fuel combustion in vehicle engines and industry.
Key Concepts:
- technologies for space exploration and observation
- reference frames for describing position and
motion in space
- satellites and orbits
- distribution of matter through space
- composition and characteristics of bodies in
space
- life-support technologies
- communication technologies
- Know all the bold words.
- Solstice: either of two times in the year when the Sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky at noon: in
the northern hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs near June 21 and the winter solstice occurs near December
21.
- Equinox: either of the two times a year (once in spring and once in autumn) when the Sun crosses the equator
and day and night are of equal length.
- Geocentric Model: proposed by Aristotle that said the planets revolved around the Earth (Earth-centered
model).
- Heliocentric Model: proposed by Copernicus that explained that planetary motion revolved around the Sun.
The Sun was the center.
- Kepler discovered that the orbits of the planets were ellipses, and not circles.
- Read p. 378.
- Astronomical Unit (AU) is used for measuring “local” distances, those inside our solar system. One AU is
equal to the average distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Sun (149 599 000 km). They use 1AU to
describe the distance from the Sun to Earth. So anything less means it is closer to the Sun and anything more, like
2 AU, means further away, or twice the distance from the Sun.
- Light year is the distance that light travels in one year. Light travels at a speed of 300 000 km/s.
- Hertzsprung and Russell began comparing the surface temperature of stars with the stars’ brightness
(luminosity). Look at Figure 1.18 on p. 385.
- Nebulae: vast clouds of gas (mostly hydrogen) and dust in space, where stars form.
- Prostar: the first stage in a star’s formation. As the process of “star-building” continues, the interior of the
protostar gets hotter and hotter. When the core reaches 10 000 000°C, hydrogen starts to change to helium. This
process, known as fusion, releases great quantities of energy and radiation. A star is born.
- Know the diagram on the bottom of p. 386.
- Stars, depending on their mass are either Sun-like or massive. Both types of stars spend most of their lives in
this main sequence, converting hydrogen to helium in their cores. The star then turns into a red giant if it is Sunlike or a red supergiant if it is a massive star. The final stage in a star’s life occurs when the fusion reaction
stops. Sun-like stars shrink and become a white dwarf no larger than Earth. Eventually, the star will fade
completely until it evolves into a cold, dark black dwarf. In a massive star, the fusion reaction stops when the star
runs out of fuel. The gravity then causes the star’s core to collapse rapidly on itself. This in turn causes the outer
part of the start to explode in a catastrophic event known as a supernova. If the star is not destroyed entirely by
the explosion, the core is left as a neuron star or a black hole. A black hole is a highly dense remnant of a star in
which gravity is so strong that not even light from the radiation going on inside the remnant can escape.
- Three types of galaxies: spiral (our galaxy), elliptical and irregular.
- The “protoplanet hypothesis” is a model for explaining the birth of solar systems. The process can be described
in three steps
i)
a cloud of gas and dust in space begins swirling.
ii)
Most of the material (more than 90%) accumulates in the center, forming the Sun.
iii)
The remaining material accumulates in smaller clumps circling the center. These form the
planets.
- Read about the planets on pages 394 – 396.
- Asteroids: small, rocky bodies orbiting the Sun and lying mainly in a narrow belt between Mars and Jupiter.
- Comet: a celestial body composed of dust and ice that orbits the sun.
- Meteoroid: the remains of a meteor that do not burn up completely and so last long enough to hit Earth’s
surface.
- Meteor: a meteoroid that enters Earth’s atmosphere, where the heat of friction causes it to glow brightly.
- Describing the position of objects in space: Azimuth: Compass direction. With due north as 0° and going
clockwise, the azimuth will tell you which direction to point. For example 180° from 0° would have you pointing
due south. The altitude shows how high the object is in the sky. The altitude ranges from 0 at the horizon to 90°
straight up. With these two measurements, star gazers can pinpoint objects in space. Zenith refers to the highest
point directly overhead.
- The biggest challenges of exploring space have been finding ways: 1) to go fast enough to achieve orbit around
Earth or break free of Earth’s gravity and travel to other planets; 2) to keep equipment operating in the extreme
environment of space; and 3) to transport people out and back safely.
- Oct. 4, 1957, the Soviet Union became the first country in the world to launch an artificial satellite. It was called
Sputnik. The first Canadian satellite was Allouette.
- There are three basic parts to a rocket: the structural and mechanical elements, the fuel and the payload. See
page 412 for more details.
- Ion drives are engines that use xenon gas instead of chemical fuels. The thrust generated by an ion drive is 10
000 times weaker than the thrust achieved by today’s chemically fuelled rocket engines. However the thrust from
an ion drive lasts an extremely long time.
- Solar sails propel using wind sails to harness the Sun’s light.
- The hazards of living in space: Environmental hazards (p. 419), Psychological challenges to confined living (p.
419), The body and microgravity (p. 420).
- Read up on the space suit on p. 420 – 421.
- On the international Space Station, the Environmental Control and Life Support Systems are designed to ensure
life support. The functions of the life-support system include: recycling wastewater (including urine) to produce
drinking water; using recycled water to produce oxygen; removing carbon dioxide form the air; filtering microorganisms and dust from the air; and keeping the air pressure, temperature, and humidity (air moisture) stable.
- Satellites are objects that are built and sent into Earth’s orbit by humans (artificial satellites).
- Function of satellites: communication, observation and research, remote sensing (make observations of Earth’s
surface and send the data back to Earth), satellites as personal tracking devices.
- Refracting telescopes use two lenses to gather and focus starlight. There is a limit as to how large a refracting
telescope can be. Any diameter over 1 m causes the glass in the lens to warp under its own weight.
- Reflecting telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses to gather and focus the light from stars.
- Interferometry: a technique of combining the observations of two or more telescopes to produce images that
have better resolution than what one telescope alone could produce.
- Hubble Space Telescope: uses a series of mirrors to focus light from extremely distant objects.
- Electromagnetic energy: forms of radiated energy that travel at the speed of light although they have different
wavelengths and frequencies than light.
- Electromagnetic spectrum: the complete range of wavelengths over which electromagnetic energy extends;
includes gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, and radio and
television signals. See p. 440.
- Radio telescopes: are not affected by weather and can be detected during the day and at night. They are also
not distorted by clouds and pollution or the atmosphere as are light waves.
- Space Probes: objects sent to distant areas of our planetary neighbourhood.
- Triangulation: I) measure a baseline. II) select an object to be your target at a distance. III) stand at one end
of the baseline with a protractor and determine the angle between you and the target. IV) stand at the other end of
the baseline with a protractor and determine the angle between you and the target. V) make a scale drawing of a
triangle with the baseline and 2 angles. VI) Draw a perpendicular line from the baseline to your target. Convert
the scale measurement to the actual length. See. P. 447.
- Parallax: is the apparent shift in position of a nearby object when the object is viewed from two different
places. P. 450
- To determine a star’s composition a spectroscope is used, see p. 452.
- The Doppler effect is used to see if a star is receding or approaching. If it is moving away, the dark lines shift to
the red end as the lines stretch. If the star is approaching the dark lines shift to the blue end of the spectrum as the
light becomes compressed. See. P. 453.
- Read the dangers of manned space travel on p. 458: take-off (highly explosive fuel), weather, malfunctioning
equipment, birds, floating debris, meteoroids and harmful doses of radiation.
- Space junk: refers to all the pieces of debris that have fallen off rockets, satellites, space shuttles and space
stations, and remain floating in space.
- Read the Hazards in Space on p. 458 and the Hazards on Earth on p. 459.
- The Canadian contribution to space exploration has been the Canadarm.
- Con’s of space travel: money could be spent here on Earth helping people. Pro’s of space travel: we could
learn something from space that could improve life on Earth.
- The potential value of space’s resources: I) with the resources space has to offer, our energy needs on earth
could be satisfied for a long time. II) the cost of space travel could be cut substantially if fuel is found elsewhere.
Read p. 465.
- Read the Political, Ethical and Environmental Issues on p. 467.