Download CHAPTER 1 - SCIENCE, SOCIETY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH

SUMMARIES – CHAPTERS 1 and 2 (Edition6)
CHAPTER 1 - SCIENCE, SOCIETY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
I. Example of Social Research – How do online connections affect the development of
community?
What other questions we might ask to answer this basic research question
1. How do you use the internet? Does the internet increase social relationships?
How many households are connected to the internet. Who uses the internet?
How do users vary on age, gender, income, ethnicity?
2. Common Errors –
selective observation- looking at the social world through own beliefs
inaccurate observation – based on faulty perceptions of empirical reality
over-generalizing – assume what we know about a few cases applies to all cases
illogical reasoning – jump to conclusions based on invalid assumptions (use some
ones opinions from a blog
resistance to change – too much ego invested in our own opinions. Won’t change in
spite of new information
II. How does Social Science research overcome these errors?
Science uses systematic procedures, explicit criteria for identifying causes, taking
samples and using scientific methods for measurement, evidence is based on fact
(empirical) but the units of analysis may differ from Social Science which uses the same
methods but different UofA’s- individuals, societies, & social processes.
Pseudoscience – claims are presented that appear to be scientifically based, even though
they lack empirical evidence.
III. Why do Social Research? – To affect policy, For academic research or class work,
Personal interest in a topic.
IV. Types of Research –
1. Descriptive – describes & defines a population – what are their characteristics? What
is their behavior? How often do they behave in a certain way, When do they do it?
Mostly uses quantitative measures. What are the characteristics of the homeless?
2. Exploratory – Used when we don’t have explicit expectations about a research
questions. What meanings do people attribute to their actions? How do they get
along in their setting and what issues concern them. Mostly uses qualitative methods.
How might access to the internet benefit the elderly?
3. Explanatory – what are the causes and effects of social phenomena?
How will an action or intervention affect something else.
What effect does the internet have on social relations?
Norman Nie large survey, sampled 4,113 adults from 2,689 households. Gave them all
a free webtv and asked closed ended questions about internet usage, their personal
characteristics, and the impact of internet usage on their lives. Answers indicated that the
impact on social relations was negative.
Other studies however have showed the opposite to be true.
4. Evaluation – Research that describes or identifies the impact of social policies,
interventions and programs. Measuring if the intervention was a success. What were
the effects of a social policy, an experiment, training. An experiment where a
community was given high speed internet for a year. Then conducted evaluation
research to see what impact having this access to the internet had on community
relations and the differences in relations for those that used the connection and those
that didn’t. The evaluation showed the impact was positive in bringing the community
closer together for those that used the internet connection.
V. When the data we collect is numerical it is Quantitative. The data can be ordered in
terms of magnitude. Methods that record variation in social life in terms of quantities
using surveys and experiments and are usually descriptive or explanatory in nature.
When the data is mostly written or spoken words that do not have a direct numerical
interpretation it is Qualitative. Get a handle on social life as the participants experience
it rather than from categories predetermined by the researcher. Methods used may be
observation, intensive interview, focus groups. The questions are usually open-ended
and exploratory in nature.
VI. Triangulation – We use more than one method to do our research. For example we
may use both quantitative and qualitative techniques to collect data.
CHAPTER 2 - THE PROCESS AND PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
A social research question is about people in groups, about general social issues and
processes that is answered through the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable
empirical facts
I. Research question – Will arresting accused spouse abusers on the spot deter repeat
incidents?
What is the process we follow to develop a research question? Identify a question for
study, refine the question and evaluate it.
We must determine if the proposed study is feasible, does it have social importance and
is it scientifically relevant.
Where do the questions come from? Often from our own experience or personal
interests. If you read literature about that topic then a research question may emerge.
Literature may reveal why arresting abuse offenders only deters some of them from
repeating the offense.
II. Research Foundations
How do we find prior research? Search published research using the library,
the Web, the Media (Read pgs. 31-40 carefully to see how finding prior research
should be done.
III. Research Strategies
Social Research is usually guided by some theory.
How does your research question fit into the already existing theories related to
understanding the social world?
How does the research question about arresting abusers fit into Deterrence theory,
Labeling theory?
Are their theoretical assumptions already out there that have implications for your
research or will your research lead to new or revised theories.
Deductive research – our research moves from theory to data and then back to
theory. We have a theory, we collect data and see if the data supports our theory, based
on the data we revise and deduce a new theory.
The components of deductive research are:
Hypothesis – a tentative statement about empirical reality – involves a relationship
between two or more variables. The more we arrest the less recidivism.
Variable – A characteristic or property that can vary – take on different values or
attributes. Gender – the values are 1. male 2. female
Independent variable – the variable that we hypothesize causes or leads to variation
in another variable. Religion leads to opinion on abortion. If Catholic then against
abortion. Religion is the Independent variable.
Dependent variable – The variable that is hypothesized to vary depending on the
influence of another variable (the IV) In the above hypothesis the Dependent
variable is opinion on abortion. It is influenced by the subject’s religion.
Direction of Association – Does your Dependent variable increase as your
Independent variable increases or as one decreases does the other decrease?
If either of these situations exists your direction of association is positive.
If one increases as the other decreases (i.e. as arrests increase recidivism decreases)
Then the direction of association is negative or inverse. There should be a pattern
in a relationship between two variables – the variables change consistently as the
change in one influences a change in the other.
Inductive research – A general explanation is developed from the data to account for
why the data looks as it does. Rather than starting the research cycle with a theory we
start with the data and then develop the theory or fit the data to an existing theory.
The research question is emerges from the situation serendipitously. It often happens
when we find unexpected patterns in data we have collected while testing a hypothesis.
This is not the same as not really having a research question and just fishing around in
data to try to come up with something to study.
Qualitative research is often exploratory and hence inductive. Descriptive research can
be inductive because no prior theory is involved but it is usually quantitative.
Measurement validity. When a measure actually measures what we think we are
measuring. More in Chapter 4.
Generalizability occurs when our conclusions based on a sample of a population hold
true for the larger population as well.
Authenticity – our understanding of a social process or social setting is one that reflects
fairly the various perspectives of participants in that setting.
What is the value of a research proposal when you are doing research?
It forces you to set out a problem statement and a research plan for yourself and for
those like funding agencies, a doctoral or thesis committee, your employer, an agency
seeking professional advice who can give you feedback about your proposed research.
Minimal parts to a research proposal should be: a statement of the research problem, a
thorough literature review, a methodological plan, an ethics statement and a statement
of limitations.
IV. Conclusions– As scientists we should not impose our values on our research.
Research on people requires that the research: causes no harm to subjects,
participation should be voluntary so subjects must give their informed consent,
researchers should fully disclose identity, Anonymity and confidentiality must be
maintained unless waived, the benefits of the research should outweigh any foreseeable
risks.
Addendum
METHODS USED FOR DATA COLLECTION IN RESEARCH
1. SURVEY – Most popular method
Includes – Interview, Questionnaire
2. EXPERIMENT - lab setting, researcher manipulates the causal variable
Includes – True (classic) experimental design
quasi-experimental design
3. QUALITATIVE – looking at behavior in social context, human subjectivity and
the meanings participants attach to events in their lives.
Includes – participant observation, intensive interview, focus groups
4. HISTORICAL/COMPARATIVE – improve our understanding of social
Processes by comparing to other times or other social settings
TYPES OF RESEARCH - Review
1. Descriptive Research – social phenomena are defined and described
Who uses the Internet? What kinds of things do they use it for?
Method of data collection – Survey
2.Exploratory Research – Try to determine how people function in a particular
setting, what meaning they attach to their actions, what issues concern them.
Method of data collection – May use Survey, but also usually involves qualitative
methods such as Observation
3. Explanatory Research– Identify causes and effects of social phenomena with
objective of prediction.
Want to know how one phenomenon (variable) will change or vary in response
to variation in some other phenomenon (variable)
Method of Data Collection – usually Experiment, sometimes Survey, usually
Quantitative
4. Evaluation Research – want to learn the effects of a social program or
intervention
Is type of explanatory research – deals with cause and effect
Is concerned with implementation and effect of social policies and programs
Method of Data Collection – Usually Experiment, can also be Survey
5. Historical/Comparative – improve our understanding of social processes by
comparing to other times (historical) or other social settings (cultural)
Method of Data Collection – documents, records, surviving participants
Comparative may also uses interview, survey and/or observation
Often relies on secondary data