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BEST PRACTICE RESEARCH:
SOCIAL SCIENCE
SEOW TA WEE, Ph.D
RESEARCH?
the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions.
a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information
or reach a (new) understanding
research is the systematic process of collecting and analysing information
(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we
are concerned or interested.
BEST PRACTICE ?
Encyclopaedia of Small Business. (Gale, 2017)
“The phrase "best practices" or, in the singular, "best practice" is business
jargon arising from the management tool known as "benchmarking." The
assumption underlying this term is that production and management processes
are uniform enough so that a "best practice" can be identified and then
adopted more or less "as is" by another entity.
BEST PRACTICE ?
Bretscheider et al. (2005)
“The term ‘best practice; implies that it is best when compared to any
alternative course of action and that it is a practice designed to achieve
some deliberative’
BEST PRACTICE ?
Encyclopaedia of management (2009)
“in a general, sense, the term best practice refers to the most efficient way of
doing something. The fastest method that uses the least resource (including
labour and parts) to create the highest quality of output is the – best
practice.
BEST PRACTICE RESEARCH MEANS?
Practitioners require skill in accessing systematic reviews and weighing the
empirical evidence according to the rigor of the research design.
Choosing an effective and appropriate intervention for a specific and
appropriate intervention for a specific client or situation, requires a review of
the evidence that support one theory-based intervention over another.
Research is the core of evidence-based practice.
WHAT IS SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH?
It is research involving social scientific methods, theories and concepts, which
can enhance our understanding of the social processes and problems
encountered by individuals and groups in society.
It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists, economists, political scientists and
anthropologists.
It is not just common sense, based on facts without theory, using personal life
experience.
THE LIMITATIONS OF EMPIRICISM
Though necessary, empiricism is not sufficient to build knowledge.
No array of statistical techniques can produce cumulative knowledge.
Empirical data become knowledge when refereed to theory for
understanding.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
A process of rigorous reasoning based on interaction among theories, methods
and findings;
Builds on understanding derived from the objective testing of models or
theories?
Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious, plodding, circuitous and
indirect.
Scientific knowledge is developed and honed through critique contested
findings, replication and convergence;
Scientific knowledge is developed through sustained efforts,
Scientific inquiry must be guided by fundamental principles.
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH IS A SCIENTIFIC
PROCESS
It involves the systematic collection of methods to produce knowledge.
It is objective.
It can tell you things you do not expect.
It consists of theory and observation.
Sometimes called ‘soft sciences’ because their subject matter (humans) are
fluid and hard to measure precisely.
It is an empirical research – i.e. facts are assumed to exist prior to the
theories that explain them
FORMULATION OF PROBLEM
Review the Environment or Context of the Research Problem
Explore the Nature of the Problem
Define the Variable Relationships
The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action
The formulation of the problem is often more essential then it’s solution, which
may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To raise new
questions, new possibilities, to regard old question from a new a angle,
requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science’ (Einstein &
Infeld, 1938)
The research question must be asked in a way that allows for empirical
investigation.
OBJECTIVES
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which
provides direction to investigate the variables
Generally research objective focus on the ways to measure the variables,
such as to identify or describe them.
Sometime objective are directed towards identifying the relationship or
difference between two variable.
Research objective are the result sought by the researcher at the end of the
research process. (what are the researcher will be able to achieve at the end
of the research study.
Objective should be closely related to the statement of the problem.
Research objectives is a concrete statement describing what the research is
trying to achieve. A well-worded objective will be SMART – Specific,
Measureable, Attainable, Realistic & Time-bound
Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected
timeframe & with the available resources.
THEORY
Theories are explanations of a natural or social behaviour, event or
phenomenon. More formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs
(concepts) and proposition (relationship between those constructs) that
collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a
phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary condition
(Bacharach 1989)
Scientific research can be guided by a conceptual framework model, or theory
that generates question to be asked or answers to the questions posed.
THREE WAYS OF THINKING ABOUT THEORY
That which underpins research design
 Theory as paradigm
That which may inform our understanding of the phenomenon under
investigation
 Theory as a ‘lens’
That which may emerge from our study
 Theory as new knowledge
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A written or visual presentation that:
–“explains either graphically, or in narrative form, the main things
to be studied – the key factors, concepts or variables - and the
presumed relationship among them”
(Miles and Huberman, 1994, P18)
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Quantitative research
 Typically developed after literature review
 Provides the structure/content for the whole study based on literature and
personal experience
 Revisited at the conclusion of the study
Qualitative research
 Initial framework after literature review
 Further developed as participants’ views and issues are gathered and
analysed.
MODELS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
1. QUALITATIVE STUDY
An inquiry which seeks to understand social phenomena through the
exploration and interpretation of the meanings people attach to, and
make sense of, their experiences of the social world “
Associated with the Interpretive paradigm
Key principle: Subjectivity/interpretation
Theory developed: during and/or after (‘a posteriori’) the study (theory
generation)
Process: Inductive
MODELS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
2. QUANTITATIVE STUDY
An inquiry based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with
numbers and analysed with statistical procedures, in order to determine
whether the predictive generalisations of the theory hold true.
Associated with: Post/positivist paradigm
Key principle: Objectivity
Theory stated: before (‘a priori’) the study (theory verification)
Process: Deductive
MODELS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
3. MIXED-METHOD STUDY
Qualitative and quantitative strategies used in a single study
Concurrent:
Quantitative and qualitative strategies employed in parallel
Sequential:
Qualitative informs quantitative (or vice versa)
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?
A research design provides the framework for the collection and analysis of
data.
A choice of research design reflects decisions about the priority being given to
a range of dimensions of the research process.
Involves research method.
 Research method is simply a technique for collecting data. It can involve a
specific instrument such as a self-completion questionnaire or a structured
interview etc.
TOOLS OF RESEARCH
•
The library and its resources
•
The computer and its software
•
Techniques of measurement
•
Statistics
•
Facility with language
Tools help your research methods.
How familiar are you with these tools?
WHAT DO YOU NEED TO THINK ABOUT WHEN
DESIGNING RESEARCH?
What is the purpose of the research?
What are your units of analysis?
What are your points of focus?
What is the time dimension?
Designing a research project:
 conceptualisation
 operationalisation.
Reliability, replication and validity?
DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF RESEARCH (1)
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Exploratory
Goal is to generate many ideas.
Develop tentative theories and conjectures.
Become familiar with the basic facts, people and concerns involved.
Formulate questions and refine issues for future research.
Used when little is written on an issue.
It is the initial research.
Usually qualitative research.
DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF RESEARCH (2)
Descriptive research
 Presents a profile of a group or describes a process, mechanism or
relationship or presents basic background information or a context.
 Used very often in applied research.
 E.g.: General Household survey – describes demographic characteristics,
economic factors and social trends.
 Can be used to monitor changes in family structure and household
composition.
 Can also be used to gain an insight into the changing social and
economic circumstances of population groups.
 Often survey research.
DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF RESEARCH (3)
Analytical (or explanatory)
 goes beyond simple description to model empirically the social
phenomena under investigation.
 It involves theory testing or elaboration of a theory.
 Used mostly in basic research
DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF RESEARCH (4)
Evaluation
 characterised by the focus on collecting data to ascertain the effects of
some form of planned change.
 Used in applied research to evaluate a policy initiative or social
programme to determine if it is working.
 Can be small or large scale, e.g.: effectiveness of a crime prevention
programme in a local housing estate.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Content analysis
- analysis of the content of text.
Hermeneutic Analysis
- special type of content analysis where the researcher tries to ‘interpret’ the
subjective meaning of a given text within its socio-historic context.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
MY WAY IN BEST PRACTICE RESEARCH
Problem Statement
Objectives
Theoretical Framework
Methodology
Results
OTHER THINGS TO NOTE
Time dimension – cross-sectional or longitudinal
Conceptualisation – i.e. you must specify the meanings of the concepts and
variables to be studied.
Operationalisation – how will we actually measure the variables under study?
Reliability – are the results repeatable? – relevant to quantitative social
research.
Replication - can others replicate the results?
Validity – will examine later but are the results a true reflection of the world?
Internal (are they measuring the underlying phenomena/external (generalise to
the population)
ETHICAL ISSUES
Informed Consent.
Respect for privacy.
Confidentiality and anonymity of data.
What is permissible to ask?
No harm to researchers or subjects.
No deceit or lying in the course of research.
THANK YOU …WITH LOVE