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11th Grade U.S. History End of Course Study Guide Part 1
Road to the American Revolutionary War (1754-1789)
For control in the Americas, the British and her colonies fought against the French and several Native American tribes in the French
and Indian War (1754-1763). Although the British won the war, Britain had to find ways to pay for the huge debt that it had incurred
as a result of the war. Without consulting the colonists, the British Parliament (legislature), with the approval of King George III,
passed a series of taxes (Stamp Act, Townshend duties, tea duty) designed to get the American colonies to contribute to the repayment
of the war debt. Colonial opposition to these acts was strong because many colonists believed this form of taxation was illegal since
they had no representation in Parliament and no voice in the decision to be taxed (“No taxation without representation”). The colonists
believed their rights as Englishmen were being violated. Even though they lived in America, the colonists were British and deserved
the same rights as the British who lived in England. To protest the Tea Act, the Sons of Liberty, disguised as Indians, threw tea off
British ships in Boston’s harbor (Boston Tea Party). In response to the Boston Tea Party, the British closed the harbor and banned
public meetings until the tea was paid for by the colonists.
Lexington and Concord
While marching to Concord, British troops were met at Lexington by Minutemen (civilian militia of colonists) and shots were fired.
This was the beginning of the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Other colonies entered the war to support Massachusetts.
The Second Continental Congress appointed George Washington, a Virginian, to command the new Continental Army.
Two Important Supporters of the American Revolution
Jonathan Trumbull
Jonathan Trumbull, Sr., the colonial Governor of Connecticut, was asked by British General Thomas Gage to assist British troops in
support of the King. Trumbull was the only colonial governor who refused to help the British. Instead, Trumbull spoke in favor of
colonial rights and against the abuses of English rule. During the war, Trumbull supplied the Continental Army with food, clothing,
and munitions. Trumbull was the only colonial governor to remain in office throughout the war and became Connecticut’s first state
governor after the war.
John Peter Mulenberg
Born in Pennsylvania, John Mulenberg grew up to be a Protestant minister and a member of the “Black Regiment.” The “Black
Regiment” was made up of a group of ministers who preached in their clerical black robes working to recruit large numbers of
volunteers for the Revolutionary cause. During the war, Mulenberg rose to the rank of general. Later, Mulenberg was a U.S. Senator
and a Congressman.
Declaration of Independence (1776)
After much debate in 1776, the Second Continental Congress decided to declare independence from Britain. Writing the Declaration
of Independence became the job of a “Committee of Five.” However, Thomas Jefferson became the primary author of the Declaration
of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was issued on July 4, 1776, to declare independence from Britain and to explain
the reasons why the colonists wanted independence. Many ideas belonging to John Locke, an Enlightenment philosopher, inspired
Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence.
Contents of the Declaration of Independence
1. People create governments to protect and secure their unalienable rights, which are God-given, permanent rights belonging to
every human being that cannot be denied by the government without due process of law (a judicial requirement that laws may
not treat individuals unfairly, arbitrarily, or unreasonably and that courts must follow proper procedures and rules when trying
cases).These unalienable rights are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This part of the Declaration of Independence
acknowledged the importance of individual rights.
2. Because the government’s power comes from the people (popular sovereignty), if an oppressive (domineering) government
fails to protect these unalienable rights, citizens have the right to overthrow the government.
3. Colonial grievances (complaints) of the colonies against King George III were listed. Most grievances were based on the belief
that the King was a tyrant (dictator or bully) who threatened the rights of the colonists. Some of the more important grievances
are listed below.
 Imposing taxes on colonists without their approval
 Forcing colonists to house British soldiers in their homes
 Denying colonists the right to trial by jury in many cases
 Preventing colonists from trading with nations other than Britain
 Denying colonists legislative representation in Parliament
Signers of the Declaration of Independence
At the beginning of July, the Second Continental Congress accepted the June resolution of Richard Henry Lee to end all connection
between themselves and Britain. Fifty-six delegates met to sign the Declaration of Independence. Signing was a courageous act
because the British viewed the Declaration of Independence as an act of treason (crime against your country), punishable by death.
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John Hancock
John Hancock, a Boston merchant, was the President of the Continental Congress. Hancock made his signature large so that King
George III could read it without his glasses. Hancock’s name became a symbol of freedom in the colonies.
Benjamin Rush
Pennsylvanian Benjamin Rush was a physician known as the “Father of American Medicine.” He was a pioneer in the fields of
physiology and psychiatry. As an educator, he established a national public university to train public servants (appointed or elected
government officials). Also, Rush supported the education of women. As a humanitarian, he established and financed the oldest
African American Church in America. Later, his son became the U.S. Ambassador to England.
Charles Carroll of Carollton
From Maryland, Charles Carroll was an early supporter of independence and armed resistance against the British. As one of the
wealthiest men in the colonies, Carroll used his own money to help finance the Revolution. As a member of the Catholic minority in
America, Carroll fought against the lack of political rights given to American Catholics and for acceptance of the Roman Catholic
religion in America.
John Witherspoon
A Presbyterian clergyman, John Witherspoon, was an active member of the Continental Congress serving on hundreds of its
committees. After hearing a fellow colonist say that America was not ready for independence, Witherspoon replied, that “it was not
only ripe for independence, but in danger of rotting for the want of it.” Witherspoon was the President of the College of New Jersey,
later known as Princeton University, a leading institution of learning.
The U.S. Constitution (adopted 1787)
The Declaration of Independence set up the goal to create a system of government, based on the will of the people that would promote
liberty, equality, and individual rights. The U.S. Constitution turned that goal into a concrete system of government with fundamental
laws. Our first constitution, the Articles of Confederation, was a failure because it created a weak national government. In 1786,
American leaders decided that a stronger national government was needed; the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia to
revise (change) the Articles of Confederation. They quickly decided to write an entirely new constitution. The U.S. Constitution
established the basic structure of our national (federal) government, making it strong enough to protect the nation’s interests and
promote its general welfare. To do this, the framers of the Constitution gave the national government many important powers and
made federal laws supreme over state laws. However, the real power rested with the people, who elect their own representatives.
The new Constitution created an elected President (Executive Branch), a two-house Congress (Legislative Branch), and a Supreme
Court (Judicial Branch).
Important Principles of the U.S. Constitution
To ensure that this new national government was not too strong, the Constitution adopted a number of important principles.
1. Republicanism- A republican form of government is a democratic government of representatives elected by the people.
2. Popular Sovereignty-The people hold supreme power, so the powers of the government come from the consent of the
people.
3. Federalism- We are a federal republic where the powers of government are divided between the national government and
state governments. States control local matters such as education and passing laws defining most crimes.
4. Limited Government- The President of the U.S. and other members of the government are limited by the supreme law of the
land, known as the U.S. Constitution. Although the Constitution grants powers to states and national government, the
Constitution also identifies powers denied to both the federal and state governments. The powers of government are limited
by the Constitution.
5. Separation of Powers- The power of the federal government is divided among three separate branches: Executive (the
President), Legislative (Congress), and Judicial (Supreme Court),
6. Checks and Balances- To prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful, the Constitution gave each branch ways to
stop (check) the actions of the other branches. One purpose of the Supreme Court is to make sure the other branches follow
and respect the Constitution.
7. Amendments- The Constitution can be amended (altered), allowing it to adjust to changing times and attitudes. The Bill of
Rights are the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution which guarantees individual rights.
John Jay and the Federalist Papers
As a member of the Continental Congress, John Jay supported independence but was absent and unable to sign the Declaration of
Independence. Jay had a big part in negotiating the peace treaty that ended the Revolutionary War and gave our country independence
from Britain. Before the U.S. Constitution could be put into effect, it had to be ratified (approved) by the states. To gain support for
the ratification of the Constitution, Jay authored a group of essays calling for a strong federal government though the ratification of the
Constitution. These essays were called the Federalist Papers. Washington appointed John Jay the first Justice of the Supreme Court.
As an envoy (American representative) to Britain, he resolved conflicts over territorial boundaries. As Governor of New York, John
Jay introduced changes in the prison system and the abolition of slavery in his state.
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The Bill of Rights
Because the original U.S. Constitution lacked specific guarantees of individual rights, ratification (approval) would be hard to achieve.
To gain support for the ratification of the Constitution, the Bill of Rights (first ten amendments to the Constitution) was added to the
Constitution to protect individual liberties.
1st Amendment
RAPPS= freedom of Religion, right to Assemble, right to Petition, freedom of the Press, and freedom of Speech
The First Amendment covers five separate rights.
1. Freedom of Religion is guaranteed, and Congress is prohibited from establishing an official or “state” religion. This is called the
separation of church and state.
2. Congress cannot deny people the right to “peacefully Assemble” (meet).
3. Freedom of the Press allows newspapers, radio, and television to write or announce what they want without fear of punishment.
This is essential to a democratic society because people need to be well-informed to vote.
4. Congress cannot deny individuals the right to write government officials to change the law. This is called the right to Petition.
5. Freedom of Speech allows Americans to say or write almost anything in public. Americans are free to criticize the government or
voice unpopular ideas. However, in some circumstances, freedom of speech can be limited. The Supreme Court ruled that
government can limit speech when the speech creates a “clear and present danger.”
2nd Amendment- The right to bear arms (carry weapons)
Because of the importance of the militia (citizen army) during the Revolutionary War, the Second Amendment states that a militia is
necessary to the security of our free nation. Therefore, Americans have the right to bear arms (carry weapons). Some Americans
wonder if this is necessary today or, does it encourage violence.
3rd Amendment- No troops are to be quartered (kept) in people’s homes.
Before the Revolutionary War, the British government forced colonists to quarter or keep British soldiers in their homes. The Third
Amendment prohibits the government from placing troops in people’s homes without their permission.
*The Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments prohibit the government from taking away a person’s life, liberty or property
without following certain fair and reasonable procedures called due process.
4th Amendment- Protects citizens from unreasonable searches and seizures by government officials.
During colonial times, British officials would enter the homes of colonists anytime. The Fourth Amendment protects individuals from
unreasonable searches and seizures by government officials. Before a search can be conducted, a judge must sign a search warrant to
be presented by the police before the search. There are some exceptional circumstances when the police can search without a warrant.
5th Amendment- Due process of law means certain procedures must be carried out according to established rules before a
person can be punished.
A person cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
1. In cases of a federal crime, a grand jury must meet to review the evidence to see if it is sufficient to hold a trial. If it is, the grand
jury will issue an indictment (a formal accusation before a person’s arrest).
2. Double jeopardy prohibits a person from being put on trial twice for the same crime.
3. An accused person cannot be forced to testify (say things) against himself in a court of law. Self-incrimination is giving testimony
in a trial or other legal proceeding that could subject oneself to criminal prosecution. In Miranda v. Arizona, the Supreme Court
ruled that a person must be informed of certain specific rights before being questioned.
4. Eminent domain is the power of the government over property in its territory. Under eminent domain, the government has the right
to take a person’s private property for public use like building a highway or school. However, before taking the property, the
government must provide the owner with “just compensation” (pay the owner a fair price).
6th Amendment- Guarantees a fair and impartial trial to those accused of a crime
According to the Sixth Amendment, people accused of crimes have the rights of being told the charges against them, being
represented by a lawyer, and having a trial by a jury.
7th Amendment- A right to a trial by jury in many civil cases
The Seventh Amendment guarantees the right to a trial by jury in many civil disputes (cases where one person sues another for injury
or for breaking a contract).
8th Amendment- Protection against excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment
Bail is money an accused person pays a court as security so that the accused may stay out of jail while waiting for trial. Under the
Eighth Amendment, the federal courts are prohibited from requiring unusually high bail. Also, the Eighth Amendment prohibits courts
from punishing people in cruel and unusual ways.
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9th Amendment- Citizens may hold rights not listed in the Constitution
Although the Constitution lists specific rights, citizens may hold other additional rights.
10th Amendment- All powers not given to the federal government belong to the states or people
In the Constitution, all federal powers are listed. If the Constitution did not specifically give certain powers to the federal government,
those powers are given to the states or the people.
Things That Make America Unique
At the time of the Revolutionary War, Europe was still divided into hereditary (born into it) social classes. Nobles had special
privileges, while serfs had no rights. A few wealthy families owned most of the land, leaving little free land available for settling or
buying. America was different!
Hector St. John de Crevecoeur
In 1755, Crevecoeur was a new French immigrant living in America. After years of observing his new country, Crevecoeur wrote
Letters From an American Farmer to describe this new American environment, society, and culture. He was greatly impressed by the
mixing of people of different nationalities, the rich resources of North America, the absence of kings and nobles demanding a share of
the workers’ labor, and the willingness of Americans to work hard out of their own self-interest.
Alexis de Tocqueville
The French government wanted to reform (change) their prison system. In 1831, Tocqueville was sent to America by the French
government to study American prisons. Noticing that Americans were unique from Europe, Tocqueville wrote Democracy in America.
The French had tried unsuccessfully to develop a politically stable government. So, Tocqueville looked to America for the answers in
American political institutions and America’s social and cultural roots. Tocqueville did find a problem in the American system of
government. It seemed that the system of democracy did not always place the best people in government leadership positions.
Tocqueville was impressed by the quality and talents of ordinary American citizens. But, he was unimpressed by the less talented
leaders of our government. Tocqueville came to the conclusion that by the American guarantee of general prosperity and well-being
for all, America did not promote the cultivation of excellence. Tocqueville indentified five values found crucial to America’s success
as a constitutional republic:
1. Egalitarianism (Equality)-Egalitarianism is a society of equals. Even though there are differences in wealth, power, and
intelligence, Americans are socially equal. The availability of free land and land ownership promoted equality. Because liberty
created economic prosperity in America, Tocqueville believed protecting liberty should be the primary concern of America.
Tocqueville found two exceptions to equality, the treatment of slaves and Native Americans.
2. Populism (Popular Sovereignty or People Rule)- In a democratic government, people participate in their government (political
liberty). Populism is the participation of the common people in political life. Tocqueville believed, since people in American society
are equal with the same rights, the goal of American society is peace and prosperity for all.
3. Liberty (Freedom from Oppressive Governments)- According to Tocqueville, America’s federal system of government prevents
the rise of an over-powerful government (three branches of government, checks and balances, Bill of Rights, listing of powers in the
Constitution). American customs and manners were devoted to the spirit of liberty (freedom). Religious faith helped strengthen our
belief in individual liberty.
4. Individualism- Being free to flourish without hereditary distinctions, Americans could rise up in society through their talents and
hard work. Individuals organized or joined different organizations to meet their individual interests.
5. Laissez-faire (No government involvement in the economy)- Laissez-faire is the government’s hands-off approach (not getting
involved) to the country’s economy. Because the role of the federal government was limited in America, people had to rely on
themselves. Each individual is the best judge of his own interests, needs, and desires. Tocqueville feared that if Americans relied
too heavily on the government, the burden on the government would become so heavy that the government would not be able to
function successfully.
Before and After the Civil War
America grew in population and area. The rise of industry affected the North, South, and West differently. These differences led to the
Civil War (1861-1865) when Southern states attempted to secede from the Union. The South believed secession was legal because it
was joined to the Union by a voluntary agreement. President Lincoln disagreed. After four years of war, the North with its bigger
population and vast resources won the war against the South. In the period after the Civil War, three amendments to the Constitution
were passed regarding African Americans. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed
citizenship, equal rights, and due process to all of its people (not Native Americans). The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited denying
individuals their voting rights on the basis of race (women still couldn’t vote).
(13th= FREE 14th= CITIZENS 15TH= VOTE)
American Expansion and Prosperity
The federal government was supreme over the states. The Great Plains opened to settlement. New railroads crossed the nation. The
Northeast experienced industrial growth.
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America’s Mottos
E Pluribus Unum is the motto on the Great Seal of the U.S.. It means “out of many comes one.” This motto illustrates Americans
standing together as several states joined together as one nation. It was adopted in 1782 and became official in 1956.
In God We Trust (official in 1956), found in the words of the Star Spangled Banner, is the motto printed on all U.S. money. Some
Americans challenged the religious motto. However, the Supreme Court ruled that its meaning is ceremonial, not religious.
11th Grade U.S. History End of Course Guide Part 2
Important Dates
1898: Spanish-American War
1914-1918: World War I
1929: The stock market crash was the official beginning of the Great Depression.
1941-1945: World War II
1957: The Soviet Union launched Sputnik (1st satellite) into space.
1968: Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated.
1969: Americans land on the moon.
1991: The Cold War ends.
2001: Terrorists attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.
2008: Barack Obama became the first African-American to be elected President of the U.S.
Historiography is the study of history.
Sources
Primary sources are documents or physical objects which were written or created during the time under study. These sources were
present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event. All knowledge of past events can be traced
back to primary sources. Some types of primary sources include:
*ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, newspapers,
film footage, autobiographies, official records, photographs, eye-witness reports
*CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art from the time period
*RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings
Secondary sources interpret and analyze primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary
sources may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in them. Some types of secondary sources include:
*Publications: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopedias
Domestic policies deal with issues here in the U.S.
Foreign policies are policies dealing with the relationship between the U.S. and foreign countries.
Manifest Destiny is the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Pacific Ocean
Transportation (Early 1800s)
In the early1800s, the steamship was a technological innovation that transported people and increased trade and commerce along
rivers. The building of roads and canals in the U.S. resulted in stronger economic ties between the East and the West. The opening of
the Erie Canal increased trade between the East Coast and the Midwest.
Settling the West (1865-1900)
Railroads to theWest
In the beginning of our country, most Americans lived on the East Coast. Because of Manifest Destiny and economic opportunities,
Americans began migrating to the West. Migration is the movement of people within the United States. Expansion of railroads was
the most significant improvement to transportation in the late 1800s. During this time, the federal government gave subsidies
(government assistance to businesses) of land grants and money to railroads to support the economic development of the West. With
government help of land and money, the Transcontinental Railroad (across the continent) was built by the Union Pacific and Central
Pacific Railroads to help populate the West. The Union Pacific started building from the middle of the country westward and the
Central Pacific started building from California eastward. The two railroads connected at Promontory Point, Utah. The
Transcontinental Railroad reduced the journey from coast to coast from several months to a few weeks. The Central Pacific hired
Chinese to help construct their part of this railroad. Other railroads, trunk lines, were connected to the main transcontinental line.
Railroads helped the economy by transporting people, raw materials, and manufactured goods across the nation. By selling land
around the tracks and employing a huge number of workers, railroads helped encourage the settlement of the West.
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Mining, Farming, Ranching
People moved west because of the transcontinental railroad, raw materials (gold, silver, timber, etc.), and the Homestead Act. Miners
found gold in the California Gold Rush and the Klondike Gold Rush (near Alaska). The Homestead Act and the sale of railroad land
grants stimulated the movement of farmers westward. A governmental measure taken by the U.S. to encourage settlement of new
areas in the West was to give away free land. Under the Homestead Act, people were given 160 acres of government land. To keep the
land, the settlers had to build a home, grow crops, and live there for at least five years. As a result of the Homestead Act, the Great
Plains (Midwestern region of America) developed into a major agricultural center and increased our country’s agricultural output.
Great Plains farmers were usually immigrants or children of farmers from the East and Midwest. Railroads were used to ship farm
crops to the East.
Great Plains farmers adapted to the lack of wood on the Great Plains with sod houses, barbed wire, and buffalo chips (used for fuel).
Steel plows, water wells, drilling equipment, harvesters, and threshers made it possible to farm more acres with fewer workers.
Farmers fenced in the land with barbed wire to keep livestock out of crops. The open range was government land that anyone could
use. Farmers and cattlemen fought over the open range. The farmers won because there were more of them and they enclosed the land
with barbed wire. Millions of longhorn cattle roamed free in the Great Plains of Texas. Mexican vaqueros taught the cowboys how to
handle cattle. Because beef was scarce in the East, ranchers could make more money selling their cattle in the East. On the long drive
through Indian territory, ranchers walked their cattle across the open range to railroad lines to take their beef to the East. By 1886,
overgrazing, fencing in the land, and bad weather ended the long drives. In the 1900s, the new migration trend was the movement of
people from rural (countryside) areas into the urban (city) areas and surrounding suburbs (nice areas right outside of cities).
The Indian Wars
Native Americans once occupied all of the present U.S. The factors eroding Native American control of the West were forced removal
of the Indians by the U.S. government, superior weapons used by U.S. troops in warfare, large number of white settlers, the
Transcontinental Railroad, and the destruction by settlers of the natural environment on which the Native Americans depended for
their livelihood. The frontier was the line between areas of settlement and those areas dominated by nature and Native Americans.
Many Native Americans living on the Great Plains lived in teepees because they were easy to move when following the buffalo, their
main source of food. Native Americans were an obstacle to westward expansion. Railroads went through Indian hunting grounds and
destroyed herds of buffalo on the Great Plains. U.S. troops were sent to force Native Americans onto reservations. Reservations were
specified land set up for Native Americans and supervised by the federal government. The U.S. Army encouraged killing buffalo to
force Native Americans onto reservations.
In a Native American victory at the Battle of Little Big Horn, Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull defeated General Custer and his troops.
The end of the Indian Wars came with the Native American defeat at the Battle of Wounded Knee (the last Indian battle) where U.S.
troops slaughtered unarmed Sioux men, women, and children. The Native Americans were forced onto reservations. This contributed
to poor health and an increase in the death rate of Native Americans because reservations were largely unproductive. One of the
purposes of the Dawes Act was to assimilate (absorb into the dominant culture) or Americanize Native Americans. The Dawes Act
gave tribal land to individual Indians, made Indians farmers, and promised the Indians U.S. citizenship and the vote. The American
Indian Citizenship Act (1924) granted U.S. citizenship to all Native American Indians born in the U.S. Many said this act was passed
in appreciation of Native Americans for their service in World War I.
Industrialization- Growth of Industry (1865-1901)
Power Sources
1. Steam came from burning coal to heat water. New pneumatic drills were used to create deeper mines. The center of the coal
industry was Western Pennsylvania.
2. Petroleum was used for lighting and machine lubrication.
3. The internal combustion engine used gasoline from oil to run cars and the 1 st airplanes.
4. Electricity was another significant development. The 1 st commercial use of electricity was the telegraph. Electricity ran motors and
machines (streetcars, subway trains, refrigerators).
New Technology-Technology is any knowledge that gives humans new capabilities.
1. Samuel Morse invented the telegraph, the 1st form of long distance communication. It used electrical pulses over wires to carry
messages in Morse Code at tremendous speeds. This connected the East and West Coasts.
2. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. Later, the telephone made the Internet and World Wide Web a reality. By 1962,
the first international communications satellite was launched.
*The development of both the telegraph and telephone contributed to the economic expansion of the U.S. by increasing the scale and
speed of nationwide communication. Railroads, canals, telegraphs and telephones linked together different parts of the country to
create a national market for U.S. goods.
3. Thomas Edison, the Wizard of Menlo Park, invented the electric light bulb, which contributed to industrial growth in the U.S. by
making it possible for production to continue at night. Also, Edison built the first electric power plant . The Edison Electric
Company grew into the General Electric Company. Electricity will power machines in factories and lead to many changes by
providing power, lights, transportation, and communication.
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4. Elias Howe invented the first successful sewing machine. Isaac Singer made improvements to the sewing machine. This increased
and sped up the production of clothing, causing lower clothing prices.
5. Elisha Otis invented the passenger elevator.
6. Christopher Sholes invented the typewriter.
7. Orville and Wilbur Wright invented the airplane.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was made possible by steam power, an available labor supply, and an abundance of raw materials. Using
factories and cheap labor, the U.S. began to mass produce products. Railroad expansion changed our standard of living by increasing
the availability of a variety of consumer goods.
Labor Unions
During the period of industrialization, the wealthy often took advantage of the poor workers. In the late 1800s, the labor movement
grew because of a significant growth of industry. Workers faced problems of unhealthy conditions in sweatshops (dim, poorly
ventilated factories), long hours, an unequal distribution of wealth, and wage cuts. There was no job security because workers could be
fired at any time for any reason. Large numbers of children were hired because their pay was very low. Industrialization contributed to
the development of organized labor (unions) because it created low-skilled jobs that made employees easy to replace. American
factory workers had little power against huge corporations. Workers formed unions for collective bargaining (negotiating with
employer as a group) and used strikes (work stoppage) to get corporations to listen to their need for better conditions, better hours, and
higher wages. Labor strikes were not effective in industries that depended on unskilled workers because they could easily be replaced.
Because strikes hurt trade, government leaders used U.S. troops to put down strikes. The first national labor union was the Knights of
Labor, led by Terrence Powderly. This union was made up of skilled and unskilled workers who wanted 8-hour work days, higher
wages, safety codes, equal pay for women, and an end to child labor. During the Haymarket Affair, labor leaders were blamed for
bombings during a protest demonstration by strikers. The Knights of Labor fell apart after losing a series of major strikes. The
American Federation of Labor, led by Samuel Gompers, consisted of skilled workers demanding economic improvement like higher
pay, 8 hour work days, better conditions, closed shops (only hire union workers), and the use of arbitration (settling of a dispute by an
impartial third party). The late 19th century unions gained improved wages and hours.
U.S. Economy
Capitalism, free enterprise, or free market is the basis for the U.S. economy. It is the private ownership of businesses by individuals
who invest in businesses to make profits. Individuals can produce and sell what they want, buy and use what they can afford, and
make their own economic decisions based upon competition and supply and demand (a high supply + low demand = low prices/ a low
supply + high demand = high prices). Private employers also decide what to pay employees (supply and demand) and what to charge.
The U.S. is a market-oriented economy where consumer demand decides what is produced. Deflation and inflation also affect prices.
Deflation is a small money supply causing money to be worth more and prices to decrease. Inflation is a large money supply causing
money to be worth less and prices to increase.
Business Structures
Businesses require huge sums of money to buy raw materials, build factories, pay a large number of workers, transport finished
products, etc. Corporations made it possible to raise vast sums of money to build railroads, mines, mills, and large factories for massproduction. To start a corporation, a government license must be issued. To raise money, corporations sell stocks (shares of ownership
in the business) to stockholders. When a corporation makes profits, the stockholders get part of that profit called dividends. The
shareholders can sell their stocks and are only responsible for the shares they own. One advantage of a corporation is limited liability
where the stockholder can lose only the amount of money he invested.
Owners of big businesses dislike competition because it lowers prices and reduces profits. When several companies make the same
goods or offer the same services, consumers have choices. To attract consumers, companies will improve products and reduce prices.
A trust is a single, all-powerful corporation formed when different companies in the same industry organize themselves into one
corporation. Trusts are formed to do away with competition, create monopolies (one company controls an entire industry), and take
advantage of the consumer (buyer) by raising prices. By driving out competition, monopolies generate great wealth for their owners .
Monopolistic practices by big business are a threat to the United States. In a capitalist economy, monopolies are harmful because they
create high prices.
Big Business Pros and Cons
Big business can be good because it is more efficient, sometimes lowers prices, employs large numbers of workers, produces goods in
mass quantities, uses resources to support research, and creates invention of new items. Big business can be bad because it has unfair
advantages over small businesses, exploits workers, causes pollution, and uses unfair influence over government policies affecting
them.
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Business Regulation
At first, the federal government believed in laissez-faire (no government interference in the economy). However, the government did
provide laws to protect property, enforce contracts, patent inventions, and enact tariffs (taxes on imported goods) to help
manufacturers. To help stop abuses by big business, the Interstate Commerce Commission was the first step by the government to
control monopolies by regulating railroad rates. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act was passed to make monopolies (trusts) illegal. At first,
it failed because it didn’t define what a monopoly was, and the act was not enforced because of corrupt government officials. Later,
President Teddy Roosevelt became a trustbuster and used The Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break apart powerful monopolies. The
government is still using the Sherman Anti-Trust Act today.
Entrepreneurs are people who risk their own money in businesses in hopes of getting rich. They are called “Captains of Industry”
because they forged the modern industrial economy. They are also called “Robber Barons” because they used ruthless tactics to
destroy competition and to keep their workers’ wages low. Andrew Carnegie had a monopoly in steel and mass-produced steel using
the Bessemer Process. Carnegie paid low wages for 12-hour work days and crushed attempts to start unions. Later in life, Carnegie
engaged in philanthropy (using money to help people and improve society), giving away his money to build libraries and support
universities. Carnegie advocated (supported) the Gospel of Wealth stating that the wealthy have a duty to help the poor. Using ruthless
tactics, John Rockefeller owned a monopoly called the Standard Oil Trust. It was the first and largest American trust. Rockefeller was
a philanthropist too.
*Andrew Carnegie, immigration, corporate mergers, monopolies, and laissez-faire economics are all related to industrialism.
Population Growth
Demography is the study of population. The population of the U.S. grew rapidly.Population growth led to overcrowded cities, air
pollution, a limited water supply, increased slums, and dwindling resources.
1. Population growth required an increasing supply of natural resources like coal, land, fossil fuels (oil), and water. These natural
resources drove our economy up and improved our standard of living.
2. Rivers were altered by dams to control flooding and to provide hydroelectric power.
3. Grasslands were replaced by fields of corn or wheat.
4. Forests were cut down to provide fuel, lumber for construction, or to clear land for homes and farms.
5. Communities were connected by railroads, bridges, and highways.
6. Population growth caused traffic, air pollution, and housing and water shortages.
7. Population growth helped businesses by providing a demand for goods and a plentiful supply of cheap labor.
8. Trees and fields were replaced by buildings and paved roads.
Urbanization-Growth of Cities (1865-1896)
An important result of industrialization was the rapid expansion of cities. Cities grew as a result of immigration from other countries
and migration from rural areas. Because of drought, foreclosures, and overproduction, many people moved from rural (countryside)
farm areas into urban (city) areas in the Northeast for factory work. Cyrus McCormick invented the reaper to cut and bundle grain.
More farm machinery meant fewer workers were needed, while demand for labor in factories and cities expanded. During World Wars
I and II, African-Americans and women moved to northern cities to work in factories replacing men who were going overseas to fight.
Because of lack of available land for urban expansion, advances in structural engineering, and steel production, Americans built
skyscrapers. Electric elevators, invented by Elisha Otis, made taller buildings practical and led to the growth of cities. Because of the
population increase in urban areas, mass transportation grew, and slums increased.
Immigration
Immigration is the movement of people outside the United States to inside the United States. Push factors were reasons to leave their
home countries (oppression, poverty, war, religious and ethnic persecution). Pull factors were reasons to come into a country
(freedom, economic opportunities, cultural ties). Increased immigration in the 1800s and 1900s led to an increase in the population of
the United States. This led to a society that was more diverse (varied ideas and cultures). Old Immigrants (1865-1890) were
Protestants from Northern and Western Europe. Most of them spoke English. Most became farmers. New Immigrants (1890-1914)
were Catholics and Jews from Southern and Eastern Europe. They were usually poor and spoke no English. Because of competition
among steamship companies, fares for travel went down. Many European immigrants came to the U.S. in the bottom of the ship called
steerage because it was the cheapest fare. Upon arrival to America, most viewed the Statue of Liberty in New York’s harbor and went
through the U.S. immigration center at Ellis Island before official entry to the U.S. Sadly, some immigrants were sent back to their
homelands because they failed to pass the tests at Ellis Island. The new immigrants became factory workers in northern cities, lived in
harsh conditions, and had low paying jobs. They lived in ethnic ghettos because of inexpensive housing, and they felt comfortable
living with those who spoke the same language and had the same old-world customs. Some residential covenants (agreements among
neighbors) kept immigrants from living in other parts of the cities. The increase of immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe
caused more ethnic diversity which led to an increase in social tension caused by overcrowded housing and competition for jobs.
America was called a melting pot, which meant we tried to melt down and reshape the immigrant through assimilation or
Americanization by teaching them American dress, beliefs, culture, language, values, work ethic, and behavior. Most immigrants
improved their lives by coming to America.
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Problems of Urbanization
1. Sweatshops were dim, poorly ventilated factories.
2. Tenements were buildings used to house huge numbers of people. Tenements lacked daylight, fresh air, heat, and adequate
plumbing. Overcrowding resulted in poor sanitary conditions. Many immigrant families lived in tenements because there was a lack
of affordable housing in overcrowded cities.
3. Low pay, long hours, bad conditions
4. Poor sanitation- raw sewage, contaminated drinking water, inadequate garbage collection and street cleaning
5. Crime, fire, diseases
6. Corrupt politicians and government- Corrupt party bosses controlled the finances and politics (votes) of the cities. Political
machines were people that helped the boss run the city and keep power. These bosses and political machines helped immigrants
become naturalized citizens with voting rights. To get control of the immigrants’ votes, they also helped immigrants find jobs and
housing. The bosses and political machines made personal fortunes by taking bribes, selling government jobs, and overpricing city
contracts. Boss Tweed ran Tammany Hall, the political machine of New York City. Tweed stole millions of dollars from the
city through corrupt practices.
7. Child labor- Factory owners often valued money and profits more than people. They hired child workers as a cheap source of labor.
Children worked in dangerous, unhealthy jobs from textile (making cloth) factories to mining. Later, all children will be required to
attend school and receive public educations.
8. Narrow streets, overcrowding, social tension, poor mass transit (streetcars, subways, etc.), and inadequate public services (schools,
police, firemen, hospitals) were more problems cities faced.
*Municipal (city) governments were often unable to deal with urban problems.
Nativism
Nativism (hostility from native-born Americans towards immigrants) was another big problem in America. Many Americans resented
the arrival of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe primarily because the immigrants accepted less pay than most workers.
Nativists thought immigrants took jobs and were not trying to assimilate (fit into American society) because the immigrants were
living in ethnic neighborhoods, using their foreign languages, and still practicing their foreign customs. Nativists wanted strict
immigration laws. The Chinese on the West Coast were accused of taking jobs from white workers by working for lower pay. The
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) limited immigration from Asia and was the first major legislation to limit immigration. It banned
Chinese immigration and citizenship for 10 years. In U.S. v. Wong Kim Ark, the Supreme Court ruled that the children of Chinese
immigrants born in the U.S. are U.S. citizens under the 14th Amendment. Throughout the 20th century, countries of origin for
immigrants to the U.S. continued to change. Most immigrants in the 1970s-1990s were from Latin America and Asia.
Impact of Immigration
Nativism, political machines, sweatshops, ethnic neighborhoods, and tenements are all related to immigration. Immigration resulted in
housing shortages, ethnic neighborhoods, prejudice, and discrimination. Immigration introduced new foods, religions, and languages
to our nation. Also, immigration had an impact on U.S. education because instruction in English as a second language increased. The
children of immigrants were Americanized or assimilated (absorbed into the dominant culture) in public schools.
Imperialism (1872-1912)
Foreign policies are policies dealing with the relationship between the U.S. and foreign countries. George Washington warned
America to stay out of European affairs and we took his advice for a long time. Events and the times changed America’s foreign
policies. Establishing U.S. foreign policies is the job of the President and Congress. The Secretary of State handles the day-to-day
diplomacy. Congress has the power to fund or not to fund parts of our foreign policy and has the power to declare war. Our foreign
policy is based upon maintaining a balance of power in the world, protecting the U.S. from attack, protecting U.S. investments, and
promoting democracy and our way of life. In the beginning of our country, isolationism (staying out of foreign affairs) was the basis
of our foreign policy. The vast oceans that separated the U.S. from other parts of the world were the geographic features that
contributed to U.S. isolationism. In the late 19th century, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Teddy Roosevelt, Senator Sanford Dole, and
Alfred Mahan supported imperialism. Expansionism is seeking to increase the country’s territory and influence. Imperialism is one
country extending control over another country or territory.
Reasons for Imperialism
Because of nationalism, the belief that our country is superior to all other nations, the U.S. wanted to show the world that the U.S. was
a powerful nation. To do that, we needed to establish colonies. To increase international trade, colonies would provide ports for our
navy, raw materials, and markets for our goods. Imperialism would help the U.S. compete with major colonial powers and allow
America to spread Christianity and civilized behavior to the less fortunate people (White Man’s Burden). Alfred Thayer Mahan felt
that national greatness was based upon a country’s naval power. Mahan pushed the U.S. to have a large navy, a large merchant fleet,
and colonies for naval bases, coaling stations, and places for trade. Mahan believed we should control the Caribbean Sea and trade
routes across the Pacific to China and Japan.
Anti-Imperialist League (Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie)
The Anti-Imperialist League was against imperialism because it was too expensive, we had plenty to do in America, and it violated
our belief in self-rule and democracy.
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Causes of the Spanish-American War of 1898 (This war helped the U.S. emerge as a world power.)
Spain possessed the colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The Spanish owned Cuba’s sugar plantations and paid Cubans
low wages to work on these plantations. The Cubans had tried several times to get independence from Spain. Jose Marti led one try for
Cuban independence and failed. The U.S. was sympathetic to the Cuban’s desire for independence.
1. Conditions in Cuba- Because the U.S. put a tariff (tax on imported goods) on Cuban sugar, the Spanish plantation owners cut Cuban
wages. The Cubans revolted against Spain. In an effort to identify the Cuban rebels, Cubans who weren’t rebelling were put in
concentration camps (reconcentration policy) where many died from disease and starvation. The U.S. believed war might be
necessary to prevent further casualties in Cuba.
2. Yellow Journalism (sensationalized or exaggerated news stories) used by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer to boost
newspaper sales, pushed the U.S. into war on the side of the Cubans.
3. The Delome Letter was written by a Spanish minister (government official) saying that President McKinley was weak.
4. U.S.S. Maine-President McKinley sent the battleship U.S.S. Maine to Havana, Cuba, to protect U.S. citizens and property in Cuba.
The deaths of over 200 Americans due to the explosion of the U.S.S. Maine prompted the beginning of the Spanish-American War.
Because of newspapers and events, the U.S. believed Spain blew up the Maine causing Congress to declare war on Spain.
*Timeline Spanish-American War: Hearst and Pulitzer practice yellow journalism./ DeLome Letter angers many
Americans. The battleship USS Maine explodes in Havana Harbor./ U.S. declares war on Spain.
Events and Results of the Spanish-American War
This was a two front war (Philippines and Caribbean). The U.S. defeated the Spanish navy at Manila Bay (Philippines). During the
Spanish-American War, Teddy Roosevelt joined a cavalry unit called the Rough Riders. During the war in Cuba, Roosevelt became a
hero when he led a charge up San Juan Hill causing a victory for the U.S. American troops also took Guantanamo Bay in Cuba (still
ours today). After the U.S. won the Spanish-American War, our country became a world power and acquired the additional territories
of Puerto Rico, Guam, Wake Islands, and the Philippines. The U.S. also controlled Midway, Samoa, and Hawaii. The acquisition of
these colonies showed that the U.S. was following the policy of expansionism and imperialism.
Treaty of Paris-This treaty officially ended the Spanish-American War.
1. It expanded the U.S. influence in world affairs (especially in the Pacific because of the acquisition of territory there in the late
1800s).
2. Cuba was independent and free from foreign rule.
3. The U.S. received the Wake Islands, Guam, and Puerto Rico.
4. The U.S. bought the Philippines from Spain.
Cuba
Although Cuba was officially independent, America forced Cuba to add the Platt Amendment to the Cuban constitution giving the
U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs at any time. Basically, this made Cuba a protectorate of the U.S. American forces remained
in Cuba and American businesses invested heavily in Cuba. The Platt Amendment was repealed (cancelled) in the 1930s.
America in the Pacific
In Hawaii, American sugar plantation owners controlled the islands. Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani tried to take the power back from
the Americans. Sandford B. Dole worked to limit the rights of the Hawaiians and helped Americans overthrow the Queen. Dole served
as President of Hawaii until it was annexed (adding a territory to an existing nation) by the U.S. Then, Dole became governor of
Hawaii. After the Spanish-American War, a Philippines’ rebellion was put down by the U.S. (In 1946, the U.S. gave the Philippines
independence.) The Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, Wake Islands, Samoa, and Midway became valuable naval bases and refueling
stations in the Pacific.
East Asia
Open Door Policy (China)
European countries divided up China into spheres of influence (areas where certain countries enjoyed special privileges) in which only
their countries could trade with that part of China. The U.S. did not have a sphere of influence in China and wanted to ensure trade
with China. Secretary of State John Hay stated in the Open Door Policy that all nations should be able to trade with China. The Open
Door Policy was implemented as a result of attempts by foreign nations to restrict trade with China. The purpose of The Open Door
Policy was to protect U.S. interests by establishing equal trading rights with China. China started the Boxer Rebellion to get rid of
foreigners in their country. The U.S. participated in an international army to put down this rebellion.
Japan
In an effort to open trade between the U.S. and a reluctant Japan, the U.S. sent Commodore Matthew Perry and U.S. warships to the
isolationist country of Japan. Japan agreed to trade with the U.S. Japan adopted Western ways, became the first Asian industrial
power, became an imperial power, and won wars against China and Russia.
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President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909)
Roosevelt envisioned greatness for the United States. Roosevelt’s favorite saying was “speak softly and carry a big stick.” This meant
negotiating peacefully while at the same time threatening military use. As president, he enhanced our status as a major world power.
1. Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary to reinforce the claim that the U.S. would intervene in the affairs of Latin America. The
U.S. would oppose any attempts by European governments to extend their influence in the Western Hemisphere.
2. Acting as an arbitrator (an impartial third party settling a dispute), Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating an end to
the Russo-Japanese War with the Portsmouth Treaty.
3. Roosevelt demonstrated U.S. military power by sending the Great White Fleet on a global cruise.
4. Roosevelt supported the building of the Panama Canal, a water passage through Central America connecting the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans, for military and trading purposes. Teddy Roosevelt and the Big Stick Policy (threatening to use military force)
benefited shipping. The Panama Canal changed economic history because goods could get to consumers faster than before.
Panama Canal
Americans became interested in a canal through Central America during the California Gold Rush. During the Spanish-American
War, the battleship Oregon took 68 days to get from California to Cuba around the tip of South America. For speedy travel from ocean
to ocean for our military and trade ships, the U.S. decided to build a canal in Central America.
Building the Panama Canal
Panama was considered the best location for the canal because it was the narrowest part of Central America. Colombia owned Panama
and wanted too much money from the U.S. to build the canal. Roosevelt sent a U.S. warship to Panama to support a Panamanian
rebellion for independence from Colombia. Panama won and gave the U.S. control of a 10 mile strip of land in Panama called the
Panama Canal Zone. Teddy Roosevelt’s goal of building the Panama Canal became a reality when the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
authorized its construction. There were many challenges during the construction of the Panama Canal, such as varied elevations,
tropical climate, swampy land, rock slides, and yellow fever. Dr. Walter Reed discovered that yellow fever was caused by mosquitoes.
There was a big fear of deadly tropical diseases from the mosquito-infested swamps. To overcome geographic obstacles, Dr. William
Gorgas drained swamps, cut vegetation, sprayed oil on standing water, and fumigated the area to get rid of mosquitoes and the
diseases (yellow fever) they carried. Because landforms in Panama were at different elevations, locks were built to raise and lower
ships through the canal. The construction of the Panama Canal began in 1904; it opened in 1914.
Reasons for U.S. Interest in the Caribbean
The U.S. believed our power in the Caribbean would help our hemispheric security (keep out foreign powers threatening to the U.S.),
provide agricultural products, valuable markets, valuable places for American investments, and a canal for easier access by water
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
U.S. and the Western Hemisphere
One main concern of the U.S. was to protect the Panama Canal.
1. Monroe Doctrine- Europe should not interfere nor try to create new colonies in the Western Hemisphere. The U.S. would oppose
attempts by European governments to extend their influence in the Western Hemisphere.
2. Roosevelt Corollary or Big Stick Policy (addition to the Monroe Doctrine)- President Theodore Roosevelt increased American
involvement in world affairs by issuing a corollary (addition) to the Monroe Doctrine. The U.S. would use force to protect its
interests in Latin America. With the Roosevelt Corollary, the U.S. became the unofficial policeman of the Western Hemisphere.
3. Dollar Diplomacy (President Taft)- The U.S. government encouraged American investments in foreign economies to help keep
these societies orderly and to produce heavy American profits.
4. President Wilson authorized the purchase of the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean for the U.S..
5. Many times, U.S. presidents sent troops into Latin American countries. Latin America resented these interventions.
6. In the 1930s and 1940s, Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt tried to improve relations with Latin America through
the Good Neighbor Policy. Both men agreed not to intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries.
Mexico
Because of the violence of a revolution in Mexico, President Wilson refused to recognize Mexico’s new government. Wilson’s policy
of “watchful waiting” meant no immediate action would be taken as Wilson observed Mexico’s behavior. Thinking American
involvement would provoke (stir up) revolution, Mexican rebel leader, Pancho Villa, invaded the U.S. When Villa’s troops murdered
Americans in New Mexico and retreated back into Mexico, Wilson sent the American Expeditionary Force, led by General John
Pershing, into Mexico to capture Villa. Before this mission was accomplished, U.S. troops were quickly withdrawn when America
entered World War I.
Populists (1877-1896) and Progressives (1890-1919)
These two reform movements wanted reforms (changes) to improve American society and government.
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Farm Problems
1. Overproduction- The opening of the West increased the amount of land cultivated. New machinery and farming techniques
increased productivity. Farmers produced more crops causing crop prices to fall.
2. High Costs- Railroads took advantage of the lack of competition on local rural (country) routes and charged farmers higher rates to
ship their crops short distances.
3. Farmers’ indebtedness- Farmers borrowed money for improvements or new machinery by using their farms to secure loans.
Because they considered farmers as poor credit risks, banks charged farmers high interest rates.
4. Periodic natural disasters- Droughts, insect invasions, and floods could wipe out a farmer’s crops and savings.
Agrarian (Agriculture) Movement
The Grange Movement
The original purpose of the Grange Movement was to serve as a social club for farmers to ease their rural isolation and spread
information about new farming techniques. Later, the Grange members wanted economic and political reforms. The Grange formed
cooperatives (farmers working as a group) to buy machinery, fertilizers, and manufactured goods in larger numbers to get discounted
prices. Lack of business experience led to the failure of cooperatives. Grangers elected candidates to state legislatures who would
make reforms (changes) to help the farmers. In Munn v. Illinois, the Supreme Court ruled states could regulate businesses within the
state. Later, they said only the U.S. Congress could regulate railroad rates on interstate commerce (any business transaction or traffic
that crosses state boundaries or that involves more than one state). This ended state regulation of railroads. The Interstate Commerce
Act prohibited railroads from charging more for short hauls than for long hauls. The Interstate Commerce Commission investigated
complaints and enforced this act. This was the first federal government agency to regulate unfair business practices.
Populist or People’s Party
The Populist Party was a new political party for the common man (farmers, industrial workers, miners) in a battle against banking and
railroads. Women were included in this party as speakers and organizers. The populists wanted the government to use its power to end
oppression, injustice, and poverty.
Populist Platform (set of ideas they advocated or supported)
1. Unlimited Coinage of Silver- Under the gold standard, the U.S. could only produce an amount of money equal to what it possessed
in gold. Minting silver coins would increase the money supply causing inflation and higher prices for crops. This would make
repayment of loans easier.
2. Direct Election of Senators- In the U.S. Constitution, state legislatures were given the power to select U.S. Senators from their
states. With direct election of U.S. Senators, the people would elect U.S. Senators.
3. Secret Ballots (to protect voters from intimidation)
4. Term Limits for President (one term only)
5. Government Ownership of railroads, telegraphs, banks, and telephones (keep fares or rates low)
6. Immigration Restrictions with Quotas (to protect Americans’ jobs)
7. Graduated Income Tax (higher taxes for the rich and lower taxes for the poor)
9. 8 Hour Work Day (for industrial workers)
Election of 1896
The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan. In his “Cross of Gold” speech, he praised the farmers and denounced (criticized)
the bankers for “crucifying mankind on a cross of gold” (the gold standard). Bryan wanted unlimited minting of silver. Instead of
running a Populist candidate, the Populist Party members voted for Bryan. However, the Republican, McKinley won. The Populist
Party disappeared because of new gold discoveries, higher farm prices, and rural migration to the cities. Most populists joined the
Democratic Party believing that a major political party had more power to get things done.
Legacy of Populism
Third parties provide an outlet for minorities to voice grievances and generate new ideas. Many populist ideas will be picked up by
larger political parties. If a third party attracts a significant number of voters, one of the major parties will adopt its ideas. Although the
Populist Party couldn’t get bills passed, many populist proposals have become laws.
Progressive Era Reforms
Some critics of American society wanted socialism (government control of basic industries). Some wanted communism (workers seize
control by force and abolish all private property). In the early 20 th century, the Progressive Era rejected socialism and communism and
produced a variety of reforms (changes) to society and politics. Progressives were middle-class city dwellers who wanted to correct
the political and economic injustices that resulted from industrialization. They wanted to correct these problems so all people (poor)
could enjoy better lives. First, the progressives needed to reform government that had been corrupted by big business and political
machines. Progressives got many of their reform ideas from the Populist Party, a political party started by the farmers to raise crop
prices and to put more money into circulation through the use of silver. Also, progressives got their ideas from the Social Gospel
Movement which called for social reforms (end child labor, safer working conditions, etc.). According to the Social Gospel, it is the
duty of Christians to help those less fortunate. The Progressives started many charities, clubs, and associations (YMCA, YWCA) for
social reforms.
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Muckrakers
Muckrakers were investigative journalists who exposed corruption and problems in society.
1. Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives about the conditions of the urban poor.
2. Ida Tarbell wrote The History of the Standard Oil Company about Rockefeller’s ruthless business practices.
3. Lincoln Steffen wrote The Shame of Cities about corruption in state and city governments.
4. Frank Norris wrote The Octopus about the power railroads hold over farmers.
5. Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle about unsanitary conditions in the meat packing industry. Because of his book, the Pure Food and
Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act were passed.
Settlement House Movement
The Settlement House Movement, started by middle-class women, established houses in the slums to provide child care, nursing
services, English lessons, counseling, education, and recreation to poor city dwellers. Jane Addams, a social reformer and peace
activist, established the Hull House in Chicago. She was also an advocate (supporter) of the feminist movement and child labor laws.
African American Social Reformers
Ida Wells organized a national anti-lynching (murder by hanging) campaign. Wells and W.E.B. DuBois founded the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in hopes to bring an end to racial segregation and discrimination.
DuBois wanted racial equality and promised rights immediately. Booker T. Washington believed African Americans should seek
gradual equality, focus on job training, and not be too demanding.
Anti-Defamation League- This was a Jewish organization opposed to religious prejudice.
Municipal (City or Local) Political Reforms
In municipal (city) governments, progressives wanted to replace corrupt bosses and political machines with honest experts
(commissioners or city managers) to city government and address the needs of all the people. Progressive municipal governments
expanded city services to deal with urban overcrowding, fire hazards, utilities, and lack of public safety.
State Political Reforms
Progressive governors, like Robert LaFollette (Wisconsin) and Teddy Roosevelt (New York), tried to get rid of corruption and the
influence of bosses, railroads, etc.
Other Progressive Reforms
1. 16th Amendment- The 16th Amendment gave Congress the power to tax individual incomes. This provided the government with a
reliable source of funds for new programs.
2. 17th Amendment- The U.S. constitution determined that U.S. Senators would be selected by their state legislatures. The 17 th
Amendment changed the selection process to allow for the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people from their states. This
amendment is significant because it expanded democracy by giving more political power to the people to control their governments,
making the government responsive to the people. The direct election of senators made the political process more democratic (the
people hold the power).
3. Initiative- People can propose legislation to Congress.
4. Referendum- People, instead of Congress, can vote on bills.
5. Recall- People can bring a government official up for election before his or her term has expired.
6. Primary elections- All party members (poor to rich) vote on their party’s choices for candidates in general elections.
7. Secret Ballot- This allows people to vote the way they choose without fear.
*The purposes of most of these political progressive reforms were to end political corruption, make state
governments accountable to the people, and raise the level of public participation in politics by giving people a
direct voice in state government.
Other Progressive State Reforms
The Progressives made other reforms like regulation of urban housing, abolishing child labor, safety and health conditions in factories,
limited work hours for women, workers’ compensation for injury or death, conservation of natural resources, and the establishment of
wildlife preserves.
Civil Service Reforms
Under the patronage or spoils system, people who contributed to or helped to campaign for the winning political party, were given
government jobs. This caused a large and inefficient government. When a mad office seeker assassinated President Garfield, the
Pendleton Act or Civil Service Act (merit system) was passed to give government jobs to those who passed exams administered by the
Civil Service Commission.
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Progressive Presidents
Teddy Roosevelt
Teddy Roosevelt believed the President should represent all Americans, be a man of action, and a manager of the people’s interests. In
the Coal Miners’ Strike of 1902, Roosevelt arbitrated (impartial third party settles disputes) and threatened to use federal troops to run
the mines when the owners refused to negotiate. Although Roosevelt thought trusts promoted prosperity, he was called a trustbuster
when he broke up trusts (using the Sherman Anti-trust Act) that were using unfair anti-competitive practices and did not do what the
government instructed them to do. Other trusts were left alone. Roosevelt launched new laws to protect consumer health (Pure Food
and Drug Act, Meat Inspection Act) and prevent false advertising. The Interstate Commerce Act was used to regulate railroad rates
and was expanded to regulate the telegraph and the telephone companies. Roosevelt made conservation (protection of natural
resources) a duty of the government. He stopped selling public lands for development and added millions of acres national forests,
bird reservations, game preserves, national parks, national monuments, and reclamation projects
William Howard Taft
Although Taft was a Progressive, many progressives believed he failed. Taft busted up more trusts than Roosevelt, failed to get a low
tariff passed, and retuned to public sale some of the land Roosevelt set aside for conservation.
Woodrow Wilson
Wilson’s New Freedom Policies tried to tame big business, encourage greater competition, and eliminate special privileges for certain
businesses. Wilson signed the low Underwood Tariff. During Wilson’s presidency, the 16th Amendment gave Congress the right to
levy income taxes (graduated income tax=more you make or earn, the more taxes you pay). The Federal Reserve Act set up twelve
regional Federal Reserve Banks (bankers’ banks) to set interest rates and regulate the amount of money in circulation. The National
Park Service Act was signed into law by President Wilson to conserve natural scenery, historic objects, and wildlife in America. To
increase the government’s power to prevent unfair business practices, Wilson signed the Clayton Anti-Trust Act. The Federal Trade
Commission was started to protect consumers against unfair business practices.
Progressive Labor Reforms
After the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, Congress passed legislation to help unions and develop building codes to lessen the
devastation of fires.
1. The Department of Labor was created to study labor problems, propose solutions, and enforce labor laws.
2. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act prevented courts from using anti-trust acts against unions and strikes.
3. The Child Labor Act prohibited the sale of goods produced by child labor in interstate commerce. It was ruled unconstitutional by
the Supreme Court.
Women
Women couldn’t vote, serve on juries, or hold public office. A married woman’s wages and property were controlled by her husband.
At the Seneca Falls Convention, women proclaimed they were equal to men and demanded the vote. At first, women tried to get the
vote in each state. Many western states gave women the vote. Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Carrie Chapman Catt
started organizations to get an amendment passed giving women the right to vote in the whole country. Women started working in the
factories while the men went to fight in World War I. The 19 th Amendment was passed giving women suffrage (right to vote). It
would be many years later when women would hold public office, have equal economic opportunities, and have equal pay to men.
Legacy of the Progressive Movement
Progressive reforms, such as direct election of senators, women’s suffrage, and direct primary elections, gave citizens a larger role in
selecting their representatives. The establishment of the NAACP, the Pure Food and Drug Act, and the Clayton Anti-Trust Act were
events in the Progressive Era. Also, reform groups worked to regulate and eventually eliminate child labor.
Late 19th Century Literature
Realism (detailed truthful treatment of material) best describes the art and literature of the late 19 th century.
Horatio Alger wrote about poor boys and young men becoming rich through hard work and help (rags to riches stories).
Mark Twain wrote about society during the pre-Civil War and afterwards. (Tom Sawyer, Huck Finn, The Gilded Age).
William Dean Howells wrote about the struggles of the newly rich to be accepted (The Rise of Silas Lapham).
Jack London wrote adventure stories about the conflict between civilization and nature (Call of the Wild).
Henry James wrote about the American and European upper classes (The Portrait of a Lady).
Katie Chopin wrote about the conflict between our inner and outer lives (The Awakening).
Late 19th Century Art
James Whistler painted a famous portrait of his mother.
Winslow Homer is known for paintings of the sea, boats, and coastlines.
Thomas Eakins painted portraits (The Gross Clinic).
Henry Tanner painted everyday scenes (A Banjo Lesson).
Frederick Remington and Charles Russell painted and sculpted scenes of the American West.
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World War I (1914-1918)
Causes of World War I in Europe (MAIN)
1. Militarism (build up of military and weapons)- Rivalries led to the build up of the military and weapons.
2. Alliances-There were two alliances set up with the promise that if one member was attacked, the others would help defend
it. (Triple Alliance- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) (Triple Entente- France, Russia, Britain) The problem was that if one country
went to war with a country in the rival alliance, all countries in the alliances would go to war.
3. Imperialism- Economic rivalries had major nations in competition for colonies, raw materials, markets, and naval bases.
4. Nationalism- This is the belief that one’s country is the best. Also, it is the belief that people of a common heritage should have
their own country. The Slavs were an ethnic group of people who wanted their own country.
*The Assassination of the Archduke of Austria-Hungary Franz Ferdinand by a Slavic nationalist (from Serbia) was the immediate
cause of World War I.
Beginning of World War I in Europe
1. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
2. Russia, a Slavic nation, prepared to defend its brother Slavs in Serbia.
3. Germany declared war on Russia and France. Then, Germany went through neutral Belgium.
4. The alliances brought the other countries into the war.
Choosing Sides
Central Powers-Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire
Allies-France, Britain, Russia, Italy, and others (eventually the U.S.)
Western Front
The Germans were stopped before they got to Paris. New and improved weapons like machine guns created a new type of warfare.
Each side dug trenches, set up machine guns, and put land mines between the trenches in no man’s land. This resulted in a large
number of casualties. Because of ineffective trench warfare, there was a stalemate or deadlock (Neither side was strong enough to
overtake the other.) Other weapons seen in the war were poison gas, tanks (ineffective), submarines, and airplanes (used for spying on
enemy trenches, dogfights, and bombing).
War at Sea
Britain set up a blockade to keep supplies from the Central Powers. Germany used U-boats (submarines) to break the blockade.
Germany didn’t follow the international rules of warning ships before sinking them and rescuing survivors.
Reasons the U.S. Entered the War on the Side of the Allies (1917)
Even though Americans leaned toward the side of Britain and France because of our common links, we were neutral at the beginning
of the war.
1. Americans were angered that Germany invaded neutral Belgium to get to France.
2. The U.S. had a common language and history with Britain. The U.S., Britain, and France had democracy in common.
3. Newspapers ran stories depicting the Germans as evil. This propaganda (ideas spread to influence public opinion) fueled antiGerman feelings.
4. German U-Boats (submarines) began sinking merchant ships delivering goods to Britain. Then, Germany sank the passenger ships,
Lusitania and Sussex, killing innocent Americans. In the Sussex Pledge, Germany promised not to sink ships without warning. The
sinking of the Lusitania influenced U.S. public opinion against Germany and intensified the movement calling for war. Germany
broke their promise by attacking a U.S. merchant ship without warning. The German’s use of unrestricted submarine warfare was
the main reason that led Wilson and Americans to end U.S. neutrality, join the Allies, and fight in World War I.
5. The Zimmerman Note was an intercepted telegram sent by Germany’s foreign secretary, Zimmerman, asking Mexico to start a war
with the U.S. If it did, Mexico would receive Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. This was another reason Wilson decided to enter
World War I.
6. President Wilson supported the U.S. involvement in WWI because he wanted to “make the world safe for democracy”. Wilson was
saying that we should enter the war for moral reasons.
*With the outbreak of World War I, immigration from Germany decreased.
Fighting in World War I
Eastern Front (Russia) - From the beginning, Russia was cut off from ammunition, supplies, and communication. Because it was a
huge country, Russia took a long time to mobilize its troops. Russia signed the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and gave Germany land to end
their war with Germany because they were in the middle of the Bolshevik (Communist) or Russian Revolution.
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Western Front (France)- The United States Expeditionary Forces, led by General John Pershing, fought in France against the
Germans. The largest U.S. offensive was in the Argonne Forest. Alvin York was the most decorated soldier in the war, killing 25
Germans and capturing 132 prisoners. Germany and the Allies agreed to an armistice to end the war on November 11, 1918.
Headlines from WWI- Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The U.S. entered a three-year-old war. The U.S. passed the
Selective Service Act (draft or forced military service). General Pershing commanded the American Expeditionary Forces.
World War I Technology-wireless radios, all-terrain vehicles, powerful airplanes
The Homefront
The federal government took control of factory production. Women and African Americans filled many factory jobs while men left to
fight in France. The Selective Service Act (draft or forced military service) used a lottery to select men for war. Taxes and war bonds
(Liberty Loans) paid for the war. The Espionage Act and Sedition Acts made it a crime to spy on the U.S. and to criticize the war. In
the court case of Schenck v. the U.S., the Supreme Court ruled that freedom of speech can be limited when there is a clear and present
danger to the security of the U.S. and its citizens.
14 Points- Wilson’s Peace Plan (The purpose of the 14 Points was to prevent future wars.)
1. Wilson wanted “peace without victory.” (Forgive Germany)
2. National self-determination would allow people of various nationalities and ethnic groups to decide their own type of political
system (form of government).
3. The removal of economic barriers would start free trade among nations.
4. A ban on secret alliances among nations would help prevent future wars.
5. Freedom of the open seas would allow all countries to travel the seas safely.
6. A reduction of armaments (weapons) would help prevent war and devastation.
7. The last item in Wilson’s 14 Points was the creation of a general association of nations that would provide a forum for addressing
international problems. This organization would be called the League of Nations. The League of Nations was to establish an
organization to maintain world peace through collective (group) action.
Treaty of Versailles (Palace outside Paris) - ended World War I
The other allied leaders didn’t want to be so nice to Germany. Some of Wilson’s 14 Points were incorporated (included) into the
Treaty of Versailles. But, Germany was severely punished.
1. Germany had to take full responsibility for the war (War Guilt Clause).
2. Germany had to pay reparations (payment for war damages).
3. Germany lost its colonies and Germany had to give some of its land to France and Poland.
4. Germany lost its navy and reduced its army.
5. Austria-Hungary and Turkey lost land.
6. New nations were created for ethnic groups and people of nationalities who had no country before World War I. Many of these new
nations were formed on land taken from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
7. The League of Nations was created. Wilson wanted it to maintain world peace. This organization of nations pledged to defend each
other against aggressors.
Post War Peace in America
The Treaty of Versailles was never ratified (approved) by the Senate because the senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, didn’t like the
idea that the League of Nations could send American soldiers into international conflicts without Congressional approval. The Senate
thought the treaty would damage their ability to make U.S. foreign policy. The League of Nations was created, but weakened without
the membership of the United States and other major nations. After World War I, Americans went back to isolationism (staying out of
foreign affairs) by raising tariffs, restricting European immigration, rejecting the Treaty of Versailles, refusing to join the League of
Nations, and insisting Britain and France pay back war debts to the U.S.
The Jazz Age 1920s
Republican Presidents
Republican Presidents Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover promoted a variety of pro-business policies with low taxes on the wealthy and
corporations, high tariffs (Smoot-Hawley Tariff), and very limited enforcement of business regulations and anti-trust laws. They all
followed laissez-faire (don’t interfere with the economy) policies. President Harding proposed a return to normalcy. Harding returned
to a foreign policy of isolationism (stay out of foreign entanglements). With the Washington Naval Conference, Harding and other
world leaders agreed to limit the size of their navies and stockpile of weapons. With the Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact, 62 countries
renounced (refused to use) war. Harding supported U.S. membership in the World Court. Harding’s big mistake was giving
government jobs to his corrupt friends called the Ohio Gang. They took bribes, sold jobs, sold pardons, and stole money. In the Teapot
Dome Scandal, Secretary of Interior, Albert Fall, leased government oil fields to private companies in exchange for bribes. After the
death of Harding, the new President, Calvin Coolidge stated his belief that the “business of America is business.” The next President,
Herbert Hoover believed in rugged individualism (individuals given equal opportunities, a free education, and a will to succeed).
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Economy of the 1920s (prosperous/ rich)
Right after World War I, the U.S. went into a temporary economic recession (downturn) as businesses adjusted from a wartime to a
peacetime economy. Factories closed to convert from production of military goods to production of consumer goods. The economic
boom was caused by mass production of the automobile, growth of corporations, growth of the stock market, and new mass
production techniques like the assembly line. Electricity and new electrical appliances stimulated the economy. High corporate profits
led to the rise of stock prices. The economic boom and advertising caused consumers to be overconfident which led to purchasing
goods on credit using the installment plan. Demand and production increased. This resulted in more jobs, higher wages, and more
money to buy more goods.
Henry Ford and the Automobile
Henry Ford said, “Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs.” This quote describes the innovative manufacturing
process of the assembly line. Ford’s revolutionary manufacturing method was the moving assembly line which was used to mass
produce his Model-T (automobile). Each worker was assigned a simple task in the making of the automobile as it moved along on a
conveyer belt. The assembly line was faster, required less skilled workers, and made the cost of the automobile cheaper. The
introduction of the assembly line affected the U.S. automobile industry by increasing the demand for cars as they became more
affordable to the average person. Ford workers made high wages which gave them the ability to buy cars and other products.
Americans had more freedom and mobility. The automobile caused the growth of suburbs because cars allowed people to commute to
work. This led to the modification of the environment by building highways. The need for petroleum led to more oil wells, refineries,
and pipelines. In the 1920s, the automobile industry helped stimulate the U.S. economy because it caused the expansion of the steel,
rubber, glass, paint, nickel, construction, and petroleum industries. The automobile stimulated new kinds of businesses like gas
stations. Also, the automobile had an impact on the environment by increasing air pollution. The wide-spread use of the assembly line
and interchangeable parts in manufacturing had an impact on industry by causing mass production, leading to lower costs, and
increased sales.
New Industries Stimulate the Economy
Other industries began using the assembly line to mass produce products and lower prices. Motors, trans-Atlantic telephone service,
vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, toasters, movies, radios, and oil were a few of the new industries which created new jobs and changed
the ways Americans lived. Skilled workers were not in high demand.
Mass Consumption
Workers had higher wages, more leisure time, and greater purchasing power. Advertising created demand for products. To buy all of
these new products, people started buying on credit using the installment plan. The buyer made a small down payment on the product
and paid the rest in monthly payments until the debt was paid in full.
Speculation in the Stock Market
Because of new industries, improved production techniques, and the expansion of mass markets, there was an increase in stock prices.
Many Americans began speculating in the stock market. Speculation is buying stocks with hopes of making a big profit by selling
them at higher prices in the future.
Not All Were Prosperous
Because of new farming technology, farmers overproduced causing low crop prices. Railroads suffered from competition with cars.
Textile workers faced low wages because of foreign competition. Minorities faced discrimination in employment.
Women
Prior to the Civil War, Susan B. Anthony protested against slavery (abolitionist), fought for equal pay for female teachers, and sought
equal property rights for women. Later, Susan B. Anthony worked for a constitutional amendment that would give women the right to
vote (suffrage). Anthony’s reform efforts contributed to the passage of a women’s suffrage amendment. The National Women’s Party
wanted to end gender discrimination in voting. Freedom of speech and freedom of the press helped women spread their message and
win support for their right to vote. The 19th Amendment was a victory in a long struggle for women’s equality. The passing of the 19th
Amendment, giving women the right to vote, made it possible for women to become full participants in American political life. The
United States could no longer determine voter eligibility based on gender (sex). The accomplishment of the women’s suffrage
movement had the greatest impact on the role of women in U.S. politics. In the 1920s, more women attended college and began
working outside the home. Young women called “flappers” began wearing shorter hair, new revealing styles of clothes, dating without
chaperones, dancing the Charleston, reading Sigmund Freud, and treating sexuality more openly. These behaviors symbolized
women’s rejection of their traditional roles and increased the sense of freedom that women felt in the 1920s.
Youth and the Lost Generation
During the 1920s, the morals of the youth were based upon personal freedom. They rebelled against tradition by drinking, smoking,
racing, dancing, cussing, and having sex before marriage. Young people participated in fads like marathon dancing and flagpole
sitting. Writers who wrote between World War I and World War II were called the Lost Generation. They rejected the desire for
material wealth and did not fit in the patterns of everyday life after the horrors of World War I. The Lost Generation believed America
was overly materialistic and lacking spirituality.
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*Ernest Hemingway wrote A Farewell to Arms about experiences in World War I.
*Sinclair Lewis wrote Main Street and Babbitt about the narrowness and hypocrisy of American life.
*F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote The Jazz Age and The Great Gatsby about the rich being unable to find happiness.
Jazz
The 1920s is often referred to as the Jazz Age. Jazz music was started in New Orleans by African Americans. Louis Armstrong and
Duke Ellington are considered the “Fathers of Jazz.” Tin Pan Alley was an area in New York City famous for publishing music.
Red Scare (After World War I)
This was the fear that our government would be taken over by communists (public/government ownership of everything for the
people), socialists (government ownership of basic industries), anarchists (want no government) or other radicals (people with ideas
different from American ideas). Immigrants, union members, and other people suspected of being communists were arrested and
harassed by authorities. The fear of a communist takeover led the federal government to restrict immigration in the 1920s.
Reasons for the Red Scare
1. Bolsheviks (communists) took over Russia.
2. Many immigrants came to America and brought some radical (different) ideas with them.
3. Bombs were sent to judges, politicians, and law enforcement officials.
Palmer Raids
Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer ordered his assistant, J. Edgar Hoover, to raid the homes and offices of suspected radicals
without search warrants. These were called the Palmer Raids. Some were sent to prison and others were deported (sent back to their
home country).
Sacco and Vanzetti
They were Italian immigrants and anarchists accused of murder and robbery to fund an anarchist revolution. Although there was
insufficient evidence to prove their guilt, they were found guilty because they were anarchists and immigrants.
Nativism (hatred toward immigrants) and Racism
Because of the Red Scare, bombings, and the Sacco-Vanzetti trial, nativism increased in the U.S. The Great Migration of African
Americans moving from the South to industrial cities in the North caused racial tension. Membership in the Ku Klux Klan increased
and so did their hatred for African-Americans, Jews, Catholics, immigrants, Asians, and Hispanics. The KKK believed white
Protestant Americans were superior. Race riots, lynching, and segregation continued.
Restrictions on Immigration
With the rise of nativism, more Americans were calling for strict immigration laws. Many Americans were anti-Catholic and didn’t
want to let radicals into our country. Many immigrants were unskilled, uneducated, and didn’t speak English. They lived in cities
which put added pressure upon the local governments and schools to provide them with services. The Immigration Acts of 1921,
1924, and 1929 were designed to keep out immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. Quotas (limits) were set for each separate
nationality. Asian immigration was barred.
Eugenics
Eugenics was a pseudo (false)-science that advocated (supported) the use of selective breeding to improve heredity traits. Charles
Davenport was a leader in eugenics. Eugenics is closely tied to Social Darwinism (the strongest survive).
African-Americans and the Great Migration
During reconstruction (after the Civil War), laws were created by new southern governments to protect African-American freedom
and suffrage (vote). When reconstruction ended as Union troops were pulled out of the South in 1877, the South passed Jim Crow
Laws to segregate (separate) the races and laws to deny African-American suffrage (vote). To vote, African-Americans had to pay a
poll tax and pass a literacy test. African-Americans left the South because of segregation enforced by Jim Crow Laws, denial of voting
privileges and discrimination. From 1910 to the 1930s, thousands of African-Americans started the Great Migration by leaving the
South to escape racism, the KKK, sharecropping, Jim Crow Laws (segregation), literacy tests, and poll taxes (push factors) to go to the
Northeast and Midwest for jobs opportunities, better housing, higher wages, more political rights (voting or suffrage), and better lives
(pull factors).
One social effect of the large migration of African-Americans to U.S. industrial centers was increased racial tension caused by
competition with whites over jobs and housing. After the migration, African-Americans still faced racism, housing shortages, and
crime. They were usually confined to black neighborhoods like Harlem in New York City. The Urban League and the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (started by W.E.B. DuBois and Ida Wells) tried to help African-Americans adjust
to their new lives. Marcus Garvey was an African-American leader who wanted total freedom for Africans around the world. Garvey
stressed racial unity through self-help. He told African-Americans to set up their own shops and businesses. Garvey started the Backto-Africa Movement calling for African-Americans to return to Africa (especially Liberia).
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Modern v. Traditional Values
Prohibition
Many Protestants and women believed alcohol caused poverty, crime, and problems at home. Some people believed that aggressive
measures were needed to address the evils of liquor. Frances Willard was a leading voice for the Temperance Movement in its effort
to rid the U.S. of alcohol. In an attempt to improve American society, the 18th Amendment outlawed “the manufacture, sale, or
transportation of intoxicating liquors” in the U.S. Prohibition contributed to the rise of organized crime and smuggling of liquor.
Prohibition was the reason for the existence of illegal bars called speakeasies. People who were anti-prohibition believed it caused the
loss of many jobs, and that the morals of one group should not be forced on others. Because most people were violating the 18th
Amendment, it couldn’t be enforced. Therefore, the 21st Amendment repealed (cancelled or nullified) the 18 th Amendment.
Scopes Monkey Trial
Christians believed in creationism, the Biblical account of the creation of man. Laws were passed to stop the teaching of evolution, the
belief that man came from a lower life form. John Scopes was arrested for teaching the theory of evolution in public schools. Lead
attorney, Clarence Darrow, defended Scopes, and William Jennings Bryan prosecuted Scopes. Scopes was found guilty, but his $1.00
fine was set aside.
Trans-Atlantic Flight
People’s interests grew to include entertainment and spectator sports. This led to a rise of new heroes like Babe Ruth (baseball) and
Jack Dempsey (boxing). The biggest national hero and worldwide celebrity was Charles Lindbergh. Charles Lindbergh won $25,000
for being the first to fly a non-stop transatlantic flight from New York to Paris in his plane, the Spirit of St. Louis. Lindbergh’s solo
flight across the Atlantic was important because it symbolized American ingenuity, courage, and ability. He was treated as a hero and
inspired hope. The airplane reduced geographic barriers to travel.
*Glenn Curtiss is the “Father” of naval aviation because he convinced the U.S. navy to purchase airplanes.
Harlem Renaissance
An outcome of the Great Migration was an outburst of African-American talent in music, dance, the arts, and literature known as the
Harlem Renaissance. These African-Americans sought to bring recognition to their community. They promoted optimism, a pride in
all things black and confidence in their own future. Langston Hughes was a famous African-American poet who expressed pride in
their heritage and attacked racism. Hughes expressed the new mood of rugged determination to overcome racial prejudice. Langston
Hughes, Alain Locke, Coutee Cullen, and Zora Hurston wrote about African-American culture, life, hopes and dreams.
Great Depression (1929-1941)
The economy goes through good and bad times. This is called the business cycle. The very bad times are called depressions,
characterized by business failures, high unemployment, and falling prices. The Great Depression was the worst in our nation’s history.
Causes of the Great Depression
1. Overproduction was the main cause of the Great Depression. Manufacturers produced more goods than they could sell. This
lowered consumer price and company profit. Also, it caused a surplus of goods which led to workers losing their jobs and
purchasing powers.
2. Overspeculation- In the 1920s, companies offered more shares of stock to generate more money to invest back into their companies.
This led to an increase in stock market investments. Confident that stock value would increase and allow them to make quick profits
to repay their debts, Americans borrowed money to buy stocks. This is called buying stock on margin (credit). Too many bought
stock on margin (credit) in hopes of getting rich. In 1929, Americans began selling their stocks to pay off their margins (loans)
because the Federal Reserve raised interest rates. Seeing stock prices go down, huge institutional investors (companies that buy lots
of stock) rushed to sell their stocks too, causing stock prices to decline even more. At this point, nobody wanted to buy stocks which
made them worthless. The economy collapsed, and millions of people became unemployed. The official beginning of the Great
Depression was the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday). This made 1929 significant in American History
because it marked the beginning of the Great Depression.
3. Frail banks made bad investments in the stock market and loans. Banks went bankrupt, leaving people without their deposits and
savings. Bank failures led to economic decline.
4. High tariffs (taxes on imported goods) slowed international trade and kept countries from paying their war debts. The U.S. passed
the high Smoot-Hawley Tariff which made it hard for other countries to sell products in the U.S. In response, other countries
passed high tariffs on U.S. goods which made it difficult for the U.S. to sell products in overseas markets.
5. Agriculture- There was a decline in agricultural prices because farmers overproduced. When prices fell, farmers couldn’t pay their
mortgages (loans using properties as collateral) causing foreclosures (taking properties for the non-payment of loans).
6. The Federal Reserve should have put more money into circulation. It didn’t.
Results of the Great Depression
The crash started a chain reaction.
1. Corporations could no longer raise funds to run their businesses.
2. People who lost their money in the stock market or bank failures couldn’t pay loans or rents. This caused more banks to fail.
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3. Businesses and banks failed. When a majority of stock investors and brokers who borrowed money from banks couldn’t pay back
their loans, bank accounts were wiped out and banks failed. Bank failures accelerated the economic decline of the 1930s.
4. High unemployment rate (25%)
5. Drop in production
6. Low prices- Even with low prices, most people couldn’t afford to make purchases.
7. America’s standard of living (the financial health of a population) went down.
8 Loss of homes and farms- A direct result of the Great Depression was the growth of Hoovervilles or communities of homeless
people living in makeshift shelters.
9. Private charities didn’t have enough resources to help all the people.
Dust Bowl
Overproduction, lack of soil conservation, drought (little rain), crop failures, foreclosures, and the migration of the Okies were all a
part of the Dust Bowl. The Midwest (Great Plains) became known as the Dust Bowl because drought and poor agricultural practices
resulted in winds blowing away the topsoil, causing dust storms, and making the land unproductive. Okies were farmers on the Great
Plains who left their farms and migrated to California in the 1930s because drought and dust storms destroyed their crops. John
Steinbeck wrote about these Okies (Midwest farmers) in his book, The Grapes of Wrath. Dorothea Lange’s photographs showing the
desperation of migrant workers during the Great Depression caused the government to increase aid to migrant workers.
Mexican Repatriation Act
The Immigration Acts of the 1920s didn’t set quotas for people living in the Americas. Therefore, Mexicans freely entered the U.S.
after passing a medical exam, taking a literacy test (in Spanish), and paying a small tax. Mexicans were willing to accept backbreaking work for low wages. Most of them were migrant farm workers. Many lived in Mexican neighborhoods called barrios in
California, Texas, and the Southwest where they faced discrimination. During the Great Depression, American farmers needed jobs.
The government made it difficult for Mexicans to come into the U.S. in the 1930s. The Mexican Repatriation Act was passed to send
over 500,000 Mexicans back to Mexico.
President Hoover’s Philosophy
Hoover believed that “prosperity was right around the corner.” He believed in laissez-faire and decided to let the economy recover on
its own. Hoover believed when prices fell low enough, people would resume purchasing. However, unemployed Americans didn’t
have the money to buy goods no matter how low prices dropped. Hoover didn’t believe in direct relief (money handouts) to the
unemployed or the needy because it would reduce their incentive (motivation) to work. According to Hoover, direct relief (money
handouts) was not the job of the federal government.
Hoover Finally Responds to the Great Depression
Hoover cut taxes to let people keep more of their money, increased federal spending to create programs and jobs for the public, and
bought surplus farm crops to help farmers. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was created to give emergency loans to banks and
businesses. Many were homeless. Shanty towns of shacks for the homeless and unemployed were called “Hoovervilles.”
Election of 1932
Hoover lost to the Democratic candidate, Franklin Roosevelt, who promised the people government action and programs to help end
the Great Depression. These programs were called The New Deal. New Deal programs would target relief (short term actions to help
people until the economy recovered) , recovery (increase incentives for production and rebuild purchasing power), and reforms
(solving the problems in the structure of our economy so this could not happen again).
Leadership Style of Franklin Roosevelt
Franklin Roosevelt was stricken and paralyzed by polio. Many believe that his battle against polio made him sympathetic to the
suffering of others and gave him the patience to overcome difficulties. These two traits were beneficial to Roosevelt as he fought the
Great Depression. Roosevelt was optimistic, and an excellent communicator (especially on his radio addresses called fireside chats).
Roosevelt assembled a group of advisors from leading universities, with differing opinions, to be his “Brain Trust.” His wife Eleanor
was his eyes and ears as she traveled around the country promoting New Deal programs. Eleanor was an advocate (supporter) of
women’s rights, minorities, peace, and the poor. Because of Eleanor and the New Deal, African Americans and women started voting
for candidates of the Democratic Party. Roosevelt appointed the first woman cabinet member, Frances Perkins, as his Secretary of
Labor. In his first inaugural address, Roosevelt said, “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” In his First Hundred Days,
Congress enacted all of the important bills he submitted.
New Deal
The economic hardships of the Great Depression led the American voters to look to the federal government for solutions to their
economic problems. In 1932, President Franklin Roosevelt was elected and his New Deal Programs began. FDR wanted to expand the
government’s role in dealing with the Great Depression. The New Deal was Roosevelt’s attempt to combat the effects of the Great
Depression, end the Great Depression, and restore a sound economy. The New Deal did not end the Great Depression, but it slowed it
down.
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Timeline for the Great Depression: The U.S. stock market crashed.---25% of Americans were unemployed.---President Hoover was
defeated in the election of 1932.---Congress responded to the economic crisis by passing New Deal legislation.
New Deal Programs
Relief (short term actions to help people until the economy recovered)
1. Roosevelt took the U.S. off of the gold standard so he could print more money.
2. The purpose of the Bank Holiday was to stop bank runs where a large number of depositors took their money out of banks causing
banks to collapse. The government closed all banks until it was decided which ones were strong enough to reopen.
3. The federal government gave low interest loans to homeowners and farmers who were about to lose their properties.
4. Public works programs, funded by the federal government, provided jobs to build things for the government.
*The Civilian Conservation Corps planted trees, fought forest fires, cleaned forests, and built reservoirs.
*The Public Works Administration built schools, roads, courthouses, post offices, and bridges.
*The Works Progress Administration created jobs hiring artists to paint murals, writers to produce plays,
actors to perform in plays, and musicians to participate in concerts.
5. The Federal Emergency Relief Act funded state and local relief programs and public works projects.
Recovery (increase incentives for production and rebuild purchasing power)
1.“Priming the Pump” was Roosevelt’s belief that pouring money into the economy would get it working again. By putting
government money into consumers’ hands, they would spend more, increasing the demand for products which would lead to the
creation of more jobs, more purchasing power, and an even higher demand for products.
2. The National Recovery Administration asked businesses to follow codes of fair competition, which set prices, wages, and
production limits. In Schechter Poultry v. U.S., the Supreme Court ruled this unconstitutional because the federal government had
no power under the U.S. Constitution to interfere with business activities within states.
3. The Agricultural Adjustment Act tried to help farmers by paying them to plant less to increase farm prices. After the Supreme Court
ruled this unconstitutional, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act was passed giving the government power to purchase farm
surpluses and store them until prices went up.
Reform (addressing the problems in the structure of our economy so depression could not happen in the future)
Many reforms were based upon the belief that government should protect individuals against risks they could not handle on their own.
1. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insures bank deposits to protect people’s savings and to stabilize financial
institutions in the United States. It is designed to protect people who put their money into financial institutions from losing their
savings in personal accounts. (still in effect today)
2. The Securities and Exchange Commission regulates the stock market by setting rules to prevent abuses and another stock market
crash. Companies must give accurate information about their businesses.(still in effect today)
3. The Social Security Act was the most important measure of the New Deal. It provided workers with unemployment insurance, old
age pensions, and insurance for early deaths. This act is funded by contributions from workers and employers. (still in effect today)
4. The Tennessee Valley Authority built government owned dams and government owned electrical power plants for flood control and
power in this rural area. Some believed the TVA was a form of socialism. (still in effect today)
5. The National Labor Relations Act (or Wagner Act) gave workers the right to form unions, to bargain collectively (as a group), and
to submit grievances (complaints) to the National Labor Relations Board. (still in effect today)
Franklin Roosevelt and His Battle Against the Supreme Court
Fearing that the Supreme Court might declare other New Deal legislation unconstitutional, Franklin Roosevelt proposed a plan to take
control of the Supreme Court by adding a new appointment to the Supreme Court for each Justice over 70 ½ years old. This attempt to
pack the Supreme Court with justices that approved of his programs was called court-packing. It was a violation of the constitutional
principle of separation of powers. It hurt his reputation. Because he had so much power over the years, the U.S. passed the 22nd
Amendment limiting a president to two four year terms in office.
Impact of the New Deal
Under Roosevelt’s New Deal, the power of the federal government increased dramatically. It became the federal government’s
responsibility to make sure the national economy ran smoothly and efficiently. Government agencies could now control its citizens’
private actions. Taxes rose dramatically to fund these new government programs. The state governments’ involvement in the lives of
their citizens also dramatically increased. The New Deal slowed the Great Depression. World War II ended the Great Depression
because a need was created for war production which created jobs and high wages.
World War II (1941-1945)
Europe
After World War I, many European monarchies were replaced by inexperienced democracies. Because many people blamed their
democratic governments for the Great Depression and the Treaty of Versailles, the door was opened for dictators to get rid of the
democracies and take over.
1. Adolf Hitler (called Der Furher= The Leader) was the German dictator and leader of the German National Socialists or Nazi Party
who took control of Germany away from the democratic Weimar Republic.
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2. Benito Mussolini (called Il Duce=The Leader) was the totalitarian dictator of Italy and leader of the Fascist Party. He ordered the
invasion of Ethiopia and formed the Axis Powers with Hitler.
3. Joseph Stalin was the communist dictator of the Soviet Union (the world’s 1st communist country started after the Russian
Revolution of 1917). Stalin seized power, eliminated adversaries (enemies), and established a brutal totalitarian dictatorship.
Germany
Using threats, intimidation, calls for revenge for the Treaty of Versailles, promises of jobs and food, and using Jews as the scapegoats
for German problems, the Nazis rose to power. Germany began taking over other countries. The League of Nations was too weak to
resist the aggressive polices of Germany, Italy, and Japan. The League’s power was based on collective security (nations banding
together to stop aggressors), and many major countries (U.S, Soviet Union, Germany and Japan) were not in the League. Britain and
France did not want to get into another war. When Hitler wanted to take the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia, leaders of
Germany, Italy, Britain, and France met at the Munich Conference. Britain and France, without consulting the Czechs, agreed to let
Hitler take the Sudetenland to avoid war. This policy, called appeasement, is to satisfy the demands of your enemy in hopes of
achieving peace through compromise. When Hitler invaded Poland, Britain and France finally declared war. In Poland, the Germans
unveiled a new type of warfare called Blitzkreig. Blitzkreig is rapid radio coordinated movements by airplanes, tanks, troop carriers,
and infantry. Later, Hitler took Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium, and France. Hitler invaded the Soviet
Union breaking the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact that said Germany and the Soviet Union wouldn’t fight each other for 10 years.
The German invasion of the Soviet Union is an example of geography playing an important role in the defeat of an invading army.
The harsh Russian winter was instrumental in halting the German advance into the Soviet Union.
Japan
Japanese industrialization was very successful. However, Japan lacked raw materials and markets for their goods. Japan wanted to
replace European imperialism in Asia with Asian imperialism. Japan began taking land in Asia because it needed more living space
and natural resources. Manchuria (part of China) was invaded by the Japanese for its natural resources. Britain used the Burma Road
to get supplies to the Chinese. When the Burma Road was cut off by the Japanese, the Flying Tigers, a group of American volunteer
pilots, were recruited to send supplies to China and engage in combat with Japanese pilots.
U.S. Neutrality Acts (1935-1937)
These Neutrality Acts prohibited Americans from traveling on the ships of nations at war and from selling arms to countries at war.
Americans could sell non-military goods to Britain and other nations opposed to aggression, but only on a cash-and-carry basis (pay
with cash and carry it back on your own ships). When Japan invaded China, Franklin Roosevelt delivered his “Quarantine” speech
saying peaceful nations had to act together to quarantine (isolate) aggressive nations and boycott (don’t buy their products or services)
the aggressors. At first, the U.S. supplied weapons to Britain and the Soviet Union. Although the U.S. wanted to stay out of World
War II, Congress prepared for war by increasing spending on the army and navy and enacting the first peacetime draft. Roosevelt won
his third term in office (1st and last President to do so).
Franklin Roosevelt argued that the U.S. needed to abandon its foreign policy of isolationism because our well-being was dependent on
the well-being of other nations. The Lend-Lease Act was passed to sell, lease, or lend war materials to nations whose defense was vital
to the defense of the U.S. The U.S. started protecting British ships crossing the Atlantic with supplies for Britain. Roosevelt wanted to
establish a world based on “Four Freedoms”; freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom
from fear. Roosevelt met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and both agreed to the Atlantic Charter, laying the foundation
for the United Nations (a post-war international organization to prevent future wars through collective action). Soon, armed American
merchant ships were carrying supplies to Britain. It seemed that the U.S. entry in World War II was inevitable (couldn’t be avoided).
U.S. and Japan
After occupying Manchuria, Japan attacked the rest of China and began occupying Indochina. Roosevelt froze Japanese assets (items
of ownership) in America and cut off trade with Japan. Roosevelt agreed to resume trade if Japan withdrew from China and Indochina.
Japan decided to attack Indonesia for its oil. Knowing this would bring the U.S. into war, Japan attacked America first at an American
naval base in Hawaii called Pearl Harbor. Japan hoped to eliminate U.S. naval power in the Pacific. On December 7, 1941, Japan (an
ally of Germany and Italy) bombed our naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and sank a large portion of our Pacific Fleet. This event
led the U.S. to abandon neutrality and declare war on Japan. Franklin Roosevelt called December 7, 1941, a “date which will live in
infamy (an extreme and publically known evil act).”
*Unchecked (not stopped) militarism of Nazi Germany, growth of the Axis threat, attack on the headquarters of the Pacific fleet, and
imperialism in Asia and Europe led to World War II.
Relocation of Japanese-Americans
Because Americans were fearful of Japanese-Americans committing acts of sabotage (destruction of property or obstruction of normal
operations by enemy agents during wartime), Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 which permitted military commanders to
relocate Japanese-Americans to interior internment camps away from the West Coast. These Japanese-Americans were mostly U.S.
citizens who did nothing wrong. They were put in relocation camps, or internment camps, in isolated areas during the war and
deprived of civil rights and liberties guaranteed to all U.S. citizens. Korematsu was a Japanese-American who continued to live in a
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restricted area because he believed it was his constitutional right. In Korematsu v. U.S., the Supreme Court supported the right to
relocate Japanese-Americans because constitutional rights may be limited in wartime. Many Japanese-American men joined the U.S.
armed forces to help fight in the war. Many people believe the relocation of Japanese-Americans was racially motivated because very
few German and Italian-Americans were interned in relocation camps. In 1988, the U.S. government officially apologized for the
detention camps and voted to pay compensation to the families involved.
The Homefront During World War II
To pay for the war, the government used taxes and issued war bonds for people to purchase. The successful sale of war bonds
illustrated the high level of volunteerism (willingness to help in the war effort) during the war. World War II ended the Great
Depression because it increased military production which created jobs. The draft (forced military service) and expansion of
production brought an end to high unemployment. The U.S. switched from peacetime to wartime production. The government
controlled manufacturing and the economy during both World Wars. The government encouraged women to play an active role in the
war effort by giving them new opportunities, new skills, and new jobs. Women, African-Americans, and other minorities worked in
industrial jobs taking the place of fighting soldiers. Women were now working in nontraditional occupations building ships and
planes. Rosie the Riveter was a song celebrating women’s contribution to the war. Some women joined the new Women’s Army
Corps doing clerical jobs in the military to free the men for battle.
World War II directly affected U.S. citizens with government rationing of essential goods. To make sure that scarce consumer goods
were available to all people, the government rationed (limited amounts) items like food, tires, gasoline, clothing, sugar, meat, coffee,
etc. Rationing coupons were issued to each family, based on its size. Americans planted Victory Gardens of vegetables to have an
adequate supply of food for troops and civilians. To control the content and imagery of war messages, Roosevelt created the Office of
War Information to produce pro-Allied and anti-Axis propaganda using posters, movies, radio shows, etc. The Voice of America sent
radio messages overseas to stir up distrust of German, Italian, and Japanese leaders, to lower the morale of the enemies, and to
encourage their surrender. During World War II, Big Band music was popular. Mandatory rationing, increased employment, and
economic mobilization (put in readiness) are domestic (at home) effects of World War II.
Minorities and the War
Over one million African-Americans served their country as soldiers in segregated units. They had a battle on two fronts: the enemy
overseas and prejudice at home. African-Americans were granted permission to form all-black combat units. The African-American
infantry division fought on the ground. The Tuskegee Airmen were African-American pilots in the Air Corps. They provided escorts
for bombing missions. Vernon Baker, an African-American soldier, was a symbol of the sacrifice and courage of African-American
soldiers. For his actions in battle, he won the Congressional Medal of Honor. Native Americans served in combat too. MexicanAmericans served in both the army and the navy fighting in all major campaigns. At home, Mexican-Americans faced segregated
housing, high unemployment and low wages.
World War II Fighting
Japan, Italy and Germany made up the Axis Powers. Countries fighting against the Axis (U.S., Britain, Soviet Union and others) were
called the Allies. The U.S. became an ally of Stalin, the dictator of the Soviet Union. There were two theaters of operations: Europe
and Asia (Pacific). The U.S. fought in Europe and Asia at the same time. Roosevelt decided to focus American energies on defeating
Hitler first. General George Marshall was the Chief of Staff who pushed for military preparation before Pearl Harbor, built up and
supplied the army, and helped to oversee the creation of the first atomic bomb.
Europe
Germany had taken over most of the continent of Europe. In Operation Torch, the Allies drove the Axis Powers out of North Africa so
the Allies could invade Sicily and Italy (soft underbelly of Europe). The Italian forces surrendered, but the German army in Italy
continued to fight the Allies. One of the U.S. commanders in the invasions of Africa and Sicily was General George Patton. He was
the harsh leader of the Third Army and very skillful in tank warfare. The Third Army moved quickly through Europe capturing large
numbers of enemy soldiers and freeing a vast territory. The Soviets pressured the Allies to open a second front in France in order to
force Germany to move some of its troops away from the Eastern Front. The Normandy Invasion or D-Day (June 6, 1944) was the
Allied invasion of France from across the English Channel.
General Dwight Eisenhower was the Supreme Overall Allied Commander in Europe. He chose Omar Bradley to lead the invasion by
U.S. troops into France. Because of strong currents, inadequate harbors, bad weather, and other conditions, the Germans did not
believe that the Allies would pick Normandy for their European invasion. The significance of the Allied invasion of Normandy was it
opened a second front in the war in Europe. D-Day led to the liberation of France and the invasion of Germany. Before the Allies
could push into Germany, the Germans tried an unsuccessful counterattack into Belgium in the Battle of the Bulge. Finally, Britain
and the U.S. entered Germany from the west and the Soviets entered from the east. The Soviets captured Berlin, the capital of
Germany. Hitler committed suicide. A few days later, Germany surrendered to the Allies (1945).
Holocaust (Mass murder or genocide of six million Jews)
Genocide is an effort to murder an entire people or nationality. Hitler blamed all of Germany’s problems on the Jews. The “Final
Solution” refers to Hitler’s plan to exterminate the European Jewish population. At first, Jews were machine gunned by open trenches
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or gassed in trucks. This was too slow. Nazi concentration camps were built across Europe. After arriving in the camps, most were
killed with poison gas and their bodies burned in large ovens. Some were kept alive to work. These workers were starved and
subjected to inhumane conditions. In concentration camps, like Auschwitz, 12 million people were murdered. Six million of those
killed were Jews. The other six million were gypsies, Slavs, political prisoners, elderly, mentally disabled, etc. Near the end of the
war, Allied units freed the people in the camps.
Pacific
Japan took Guam, most of Southeast Asia, and other Pacific Islands. Also, Japan took the Philippines away from the United States.
U.S. soldiers were taken captive at Bataan in the Philippines. On the Bataan Death March to a prisoner-of-war camp set up by the
Japanese, prisoners faced starvation, disease, exposure to the sun, and no water. Five thousand Americans died on this march from
starvation, exhaustion, and murder at the hands of the Japanese. Admiral Chester Nimitz was the commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet.
General Douglas MacArthur was commander of the U.S. Army in the Pacific. Island chains were the geographic feature that played a
major role in our strategy in Pacific. The U.S. strategy was called island-hopping. The U.S. would take important islands, cutting off
others from supplies and reinforcements. Then, the U.S. would work our way up to Iwo Jima and Okinawa, the islands closest to
Japan, to bomb Japan. Playing a key role in the Pacific, the Navajo code talkers used their Native American Navajo language as an
undecipherable (couldn’t be broken) code to transmit messages by telephone and radio. Japan was preparing to invade Australia when
the U.S. inflicted heavy losses on the Japanese navy at the Battle of the Coral Sea. After breaking the Japanese code, the U.S. Navy
knew that the Japanese were planning a surprise attack on Midway. Nimitiz commanded U.S. forces at Midway. Midway was a crucial
victory and turning point for the U.S. because it dealt a severe blow to the Japanese navy and ended Japan’s superiority in the Pacific.
The Japanese navy suffered major blows in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf. The Allies recaptured the Philippines and
Guam. After taking Okinawa and Iwo Jima, the U.S. launched bombing raids on Japan.
Manhattan Project- to build the atomic bomb
Albert Einstein’s letter to President Roosevelt warning him of Germany’s attempt to develop an atomic bomb led directly to a
government program to develop the atomic bomb. To beat the Germans to the atomic bomb, Roosevelt set up the Manhattan Project.
U.S. scientists began working on the atomic bomb at labs established at Los Alamos, New Mexico. Roosevelt died and President
Harry Truman finished the war. After a successful nuclear test in New Mexico, Truman had a decision to make. If he didn’t use the
atomic bomb and invade Japan, millions of Americans and Japanese would die as the war went on for another 18 months. Truman
decided to drop the atomic bomb ending the war quickly and saving American lives that would be lost in an invasion of Japan. The
two atomic bombs were dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki because they were military production centers. Together,
these two explosions killed 230,000 people. After the bombing of Nagasaki, Japan surrendered to the Allies (1945) when America
agreed to allow the Japanese Emperor to stay on the throne. After World War II, many nuclear test sites were created in low
population density areas. Many people believed that nuclear weapons could lead to the destruction of the world.
World War II Timeline- Japanese Attack Pearl Harbor/ U.S. Soldiers Taken Captive at Bataan/ Japanese Defeated at Midway/
Atomic Bomb Dropped on Hiroshima
World War II Headlines-Women Encouraged to Take Factory Jobs/ Congress Passes Mandatory Rationing/ Labor Board Sets
Wages to Avoid Strikes
World War II Technology- Radar (detects moving objects), Sonar (detects submarines), Cryptic Code breaking (allowed allies to
decipher code/ led to development of computers), Proximity Fuse (explosive device that goes off when near its target), antibiotics
(penicillin to treat battle wounds), Jet and Rocket Engines
Nuremberg Trials, Denazification, and Division of Germany
At the Nuremberg Trials, Nazis were put on trial for “crimes against humanity (Holocaust).” Most said they were only following
orders. Many were found guilty (executed or imprisoned) demonstrating that individuals are responsible for their own actions, even in
times of war. Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones. Britain, France, the U.S., and the Soviet Union each occupied one of
the zones. Each occupying power introduced programs explaining the evils of Nazi beliefs to the German people. Because of Hitler’s
actions, racism, anti-Semitism (hatred for Jews), Social Darwinism, eugenics, and similar ideas were discredited (shown to be wrong).
Occupation of Japan
General MacArthur was assigned to rebuild and reform Japan. To make Japan less aggressive, Japan’s overseas empire was taken
away, and Japanese leaders were put on trial and punished. Japan renounced (put aside) the use of nuclear weapons and war. Japan
was not allowed to have a large army or navy. A new Japanese constitution was written turning Japan into a democracy.
The Cold War
After World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union were considered the Superpowers of the world. Because of competition for world
power and differing ideologies, the U.S. and the Soviet Union became bitter rivals in the Cold War which lasted for 45 years. The
Cold War was a battle of diplomacy, propaganda, nerves, and ideas. Because of nuclear weapons, the two Superpowers never
confronted each other directly in open warfare. However, their global competition led to frequent conflicts on every continent.
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Differing Ideologies (ideas)
American Democracy v. Soviet Communism
The U.S. had a multi-political party democracy where people hold the power. The Soviets had one political party (Communist Party).
The communist government held the power. In the U.S., labor unions and other organizations openly made their own decisions and
could negotiate with employers. In the Soviet Union, the Communist Party ran all labor groups and organizations. In the U.S.
economy, the free enterprise system or capitalism allowed for private ownership of property where supply and demand determined
prices with limited government involvement. In the Soviet Union economic system (command economy), industries and farms were
owned by the government. The government decided what goods and services would be produced and how the talents and skills of its
workers were to be used. In this command economy, the government sold goods and services. There was limited private ownership.
Education and healthcare were provided by the government. In the U.S., people had freedom of worship. In the Soviet Union, religion
was discouraged. In the U.S., people had freedom of speech, expression, and the press. In the Soviet Union, there was no freedom of
speech and expression. There was government censorship. Secret police arrested opponents sending many to gulags (forced labor
camps) or executions.
Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
At Yalta, Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt met to plan the reorganization of Europe after World War II. They agreed to form the
United Nations to keep peace through group action and to divide Germany and Berlin into four occupation zones. Stalin promised free
elections in Poland after the war but didn’t follow through. At the Potsdam Conference, the U.S. didn’t tell Stalin about the atomic
bomb. After World War II, the U.S. didn’t share its secrets of the atomic bomb.
Goals of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union wanted to ensure its safety by creating a wall of satellite countries on the western border of the Soviet Union to
prevent future invasions. This was why Stalin didn’t allow free elections in Poland. Russia had been invaded twice through Poland in
the previous 30 years. The Soviets wanted control of Eastern European countries who would become the satellite countries (Iron
Curtain) used to protect the Soviet Union. The Soviets wanted to spread communism around the world and stop the spread of
capitalism and democracy because capitalists were trying to destroy communism.
Declaration of Liberated Europe
The U.S. declared the right of people to choose their own system of government.
Eastern Europe and the Iron Curtain
After World War II, Soviet troops continued to occupy Eastern European countries. The Soviets placed local Communists in power in
all the governments of Eastern Europe. These countries became “satellites” of the Soviet Union. Trade and contact between Eastern
and Western Europe were cut off. For 40 years, travel and communication between the East and the West were limited. Churchill said
an “Iron Curtain” separated Eastern Europe from the West. The Iron Curtain was the imaginary line between Eastern and Western
Europe. This reinforced our belief that the Soviet Union wanted to spread communism around the world. The main purpose of U.S.
foreign policies in the next decades was to stop the spread of communism.
America’s Policy of Containment
Containment was the policy of not attempting to overthrow communism where it already existed, but to prevent communism from
spreading. President Truman issued the Truman Doctrine which said the U.S. would help any free people resisting takeover by the
Communists. This was our pledge to fight communism worldwide. The Truman Doctrine supported the idea of the domino theory
(one country’s fall to communism will cause other countries to fall). The U.S. financially helped Greece and Turkey oppose
communist takeovers. Because of the policy of containment, the U.S. never intervened behind the Iron Curtain. The U.S. did nothing
when the Soviets stopped an anti-Communist rebellion in Hungary, built the Berlin Wall to prevent East Germans from escaping to
the West, or invaded Czechoslovakia to overthrow the reform government.
Marshall Plan
The primary goal of the Marshall Plan was to prevent the spread of communism. After the war, Europe was devastated and the people
were desperate. Fearing this desperation would cause European nations to turn to communism, Secretary of State Marshall proposed
massive aid to war-torn Europe to rebuild their economies to prevent the spread of communism. This would also help create European
Allies and trading partners. The Marshall plan benefited America’s economy and sped up the recovery of Western Europe. This plan
successfully helped Western Europe recover economically from the war.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
In response to the Cold War and the Berlin Blockade, the U.S., Canada, and ten Western European nations formed the NATO alliance
for mutual defense. NATO was based on collective (group) security. Each member promised to defend other members if they were
attacked. Through NATO, the U.S. put nuclear weapons in Western Europe. This was meant to stop Soviet aggression.
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet response to NATO. This was the military alliance between the Soviet Union and its Eastern
European satellite countries.
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Division of Germany and Berlin
After World War II, Allied leaders divided Germany and Berlin into four zones. East Germany and East Berlin were controlled by the
Soviets. West Germany and West Berlin were controlled by the U.S., Britain, and France. Berlin was located in the Soviet Zone of
East Germany. To the West, Berlin symbolized a place of freedom surrounded by a totalitarian communist state. Germany’s
economic recovery was vital to Europe’s recovery and was needed to prevent the spread of communism. When Britain, France, and
the U.S. merged their zones into one country (West Germany), the Soviets set up the Berlin Blockade by closing all highways and
railroad links to the West. Stalin hoped this would drive western powers out of West Berlin. The Western Allies began the Berlin
Airlift, a massive airlift of supplies and food to the people of West Berlin. After one year, Stalin lifted (ended) the Berlin Blockade.
The Berlin Airlift showed the U.S. would not retreat when faced with aggressive behavior from the Soviet Union.
China
China was the most populous nation in the world. In 1949, the Communists in China led by Mao Zedong overthrew the Nationalist
Chinese government led by Chiang Kai-shek. The U.S. supported Chiang Kai-shek against Mao’s Communist revolution. The
Nationalist Chinese government fled to the island of Taiwan. The U.S. pledged to protect the Nationalist government in Taiwan from
Communist attacks. Mao Zedong started the Communist government of the People’s Republic of China (Red China), the largest
Communist country. President Truman refused to recognize the Communist government in China. Using the veto power in the United
Nations, the U.S. prevented the admission of the People’s Republic of China (Red China) into the United Nations. Nationalist China
(Taiwan) was a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.
Korea After World War II
At the end of World War II, Soviet troops were in the northern part of Korea and U.S. troops were in the southern part of Korea.
Korea was divided into two countries at the 38 th parallel. North Korea was a Communist country backed by the Soviet Union. South
Korea was a democracy backed by the U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson said South Korea was out of the U.S. defense zone. In an
effort to unite Korea into one country under Communism, North Korea invaded South Korea. In the United Nations Security Council,
the U.S. proposed the United Nations send in troops to help South Korea against North Korea. No Soviet representative were there to
veto this proposal. The U.N. agreed to help South Korea. Since the United Nations sent in troops and there was no declaration of war
by the U.S. Congress, the Korean War was officially a “Police Action” and not a war. This was the first time an international
organization successfully used military force to stop aggression.
Korean War
General MacArthur was in charge of U.N. troops. U.N. troops landed in Inchon and surprised North Korea. U.N. troops pushed North
Koreans back to the 38th parallel. U.N. troops pushed through North Korea to the border between North Korea and Red China. Then,
the Chinese helped push the U.N. troops back to the 38 th parallel. MacArthur wanted to invade China and end communism in that
country. He was willing to use nuclear weapons against China. Truman refused MacArthur’s plan. Truman wanted a limited war.
After MacArthur criticized Truman’s leadership in public, Truman fired MacArthur to reassert civilian control over the military.
Public opinion turned against Truman.
Eisenhower and Korea
In 1952, Eisenhower became President and ended the Korean War. Neither side could claim victory. Korea remained divided at the
38th parallel. Prisoners-of-war could accept or reject repatriation (going back to their home country).
Nuclear Arms Race
Both Superpowers, the U.S. and the Soviet Union, had the atomic bomb. In 1952, the U.S. developed the more powerful hydrogen
bomb. A year later, the Soviets had a hydrogen bomb. Both countries started building up their supplies of nuclear weapons. The Cold
War caused an increase in defense spending.
America’s Policy of Massive Retaliation
This was the policy to respond to Soviet aggression with nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapons were a deterrent (keep the Soviet from
using their nuclear weapons) to Soviet attacks on the U.S. because the U.S. would destroy the Soviet Union with nuclear weapons.
The U.S. decided to rely more on nuclear weapons for defense instead of a large military force. Nuclear weapons were cheaper to use,
but less flexible. So, Americans prepared for nuclear war by building bomb shelters. The Civil Defense Administration held drills,
stocked shelters, and kept people informed. American leaders soon realized nuclear weapons could not be used in most cases because
of the mass destruction.
Space Race and the Cold War
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first satellite into space. Fearing the Soviets would use missiles to send nuclear bombs
to the U.S., Americans felt we were falling behind the Soviets. In 1958, the U.S. sent our first satellite into space. The U.S. created the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration to research rocketry and space exploration. The National Defense Education Act was
passed to provide federal funds for education in math and science.
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1950s Red Scare
Because China turned communist, the Soviets had the atomic bomb, Eastern Europe turned communist, and Cold War tensions , the
U.S. experienced another Red Scare. The Red Scare was fear of subversion (effort to weaken our society secretly and to overthrow our
government). Americans feared Communists were inside the U.S. There was a greater emphasis on conformity (follow the norms of
the majority in a society). Unusual ideas were met with suspicion. Communism strengthened the dislike of non-conformist attitudes.
Loyalty Review Board
This board was set up to investigate individuals in and outside the U.S. government for “un-American” activities, such as participation
in the American Communist Party. If accused of “un-American” activities, the government violated your constitutional rights to know
your accuser and to defend yourself. The government usually had little evidence in these cases.
House Un-American Activities Committee
The House of Representatives conducted loyalty checks too. They questioned writers, directors, actors and others about their possible
Communist sympathies. Many in the Hollywood film industry were accused (Hollywood Ten). Some of the accused were blacklisted,
lost their jobs, lost their friends, and were asked to name others who might be involved in un-American activities.
Alger Hiss
Hiss was accused of giving State Department documents to the Soviet Union through Soviet spies in the U.S. He was later prosecuted
for perjury (lying under oath).
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
The Rosenbergs were charged with selling national secrets about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. They were found guilty and
executed. Some doubted their guilt. In 1997, the government released the Venona Papers (decoded messages sent by Soviet spies in
the 1940s) which revealed the identities of several Americans spying for the Soviet Union. Rosenberg was on the list. These papers
also showed Soviet agents were in the U.S. government, science research, and industries during the Cold War.
Senator Joseph McCarthy
McCarthy said he had a list of government officials who were Communists. He proclaimed a communist danger abroad and here at
home. His charges were vague (unclear) and unsubstantiated (unproven). This helped to create a vicious anticommunist atmosphere.
McCarthy attempted to limit freedom of speech. Although he never had evidence to back up his claims, his “witch hunt” (search for
disloyalty based on flimsy evidence) frightened many Americans, damaged reputations, cost people their jobs, and ruined the lives of
the accused. He finally lost popularity and was discredited when he accused the army of communism. Later, the Senate censured
(publically criticized) him. McCarthyism means making harsh accusations without any evidence.
*Red Scare Era- Loyalty Review Board/ House Un-American Activities Committee/ Alger Hiss Trial, The Hollywood Ten/ ArmyMcCarthy Hearings
Eisenhower’s Foreign Policy (1950s)
Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, followed the policy of containment (stop the spread of Communism). The
Eisenhower Doctrine was an extension of the containment policy, offering to send U.S. forces to Middle Eastern countries to help
defend them against Communism.
Eisenhower’s Domestic Policies (1950s)
The 1950s was a prosperous time in America. The war left the European economy in ruin. This helped keep foreign demand for U.S.
goods high. Products, such as automobiles, refrigerators, washing machines, and televisions, helped stimulate the economy.
Automated manufacturing (machines doing the work of people) was a technological innovation that greatly reduced the need for
assembly-line workers in U.S. factories. America was producing for the world and dominated world trade. Two results of increased
spending were prosperity and the growth of the middle class.
Automobiles
Automobiles boosted the petroleum industry and became a major U.S. employer. It stimulated tourism and outdoor recreation. It
increased mobility and the development of businesses such as restaurants, gas stations, and motels. In the 1950s, one of the main
reasons for the growth of the suburbs was the growing use of automobiles. People began to commute into the cities and other suburbs
for work. The government spent money on highways and roads. The Interstate Highway Act (largest public works program) created a
system of federal highways.
Computers
Computers were developed in the 1960s and mostly used in business and the military. These computers were enormous and expensive.
In the 1970s, smaller, more affordable personal computers were available. Through the years, computers have become smaller, less
expensive, and more powerful. The Internet began providing users with rapid communication and access to enormous amounts of
information in a very short time.
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GI Bill
Returning veterans were given low-interest loans to use for businesses, education, and buying homes. Because of the GI Bill and Baby
Boom (high birthrate between the 1950s and early 1960s), there was a housing boom (increase). The construction of tract-housing
suburbs (like Levittown) was a response to the growth of the U.S. population following World War II. The middle class moved to the
growing suburbs where developers were mass producing cheaper houses.
Impact of the Cold War on the U.S. Economy
In the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. increased military and defense spending because of the Cold War and the arms race with the Soviet
Union. This money could have been used to better our economy.
Medical Advances in the 1950s
Jonas Salk found a vaccine for polio, a disease that attacks the central nervous system causing possible paralysis or death. A vaccine
for measles was developed. The first heart transplant was accomplished. Streptomycin was an antibiotic to fight tuberculosis.
Post-War (after World War II) Literature, Art, and Music
After World War II, some literature dealt with the war experience, including Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead (about the
capturing of an island held by the Japanese) and James Jones’ From Here to Eternity (about army life in Hawaii before the bombing of
Pearl Harbor). Abstract-expressionists and “action painters” like Jackson Pollock expressed feelings through rapid movement of color
and texture across the canvas.
Changes in Rock Music and Youth of the 1950s and 1960s
Rock music affected the new youth culture. In the 1950s, African American gospel, jazz, blues, and country were brought together to
form rock and roll. Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Elvis Presley were early rock and roll singers. Rock and roll led to the invention
of electric guitars, amplifiers, microphones, smaller records (45s), and radio stations to play rock and roll to people across America.
The Motown Sound was created in Detroit with African American artists like the Temptations, the Four Tops, and the Supremes.
Beat Generation of the 1950s
In the 1950s, the Beat Generation was founded by Allan Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac to become an early form of counter-culture
(subculture whose values and norms of behavior are different from those of mainstream society). The Beat Generation rebelled against
conforming to the norms of a materialistic American society by developing a heightened sense of freedom and spirituality. Beatniks
experimented with sexuality and drugs. They wore beards, berets, sandals, and women wore leotards. Allen Ginsberg wrote Howl, a
poem. Because the poem contains drug use and sexual references, the publisher was put on trial for obscenity. Jack Kerouac wrote a
novel, On the Road, telling a story of the narrator’s adventures crossing the country in a car several times to experience life itself.
Kennedy’s Foreign Policies (Early 1960s)
Kennedy was committed to the policy of containment. Kennedy wanted to base his defense policies on flexible response giving the
U.S. more options for military responses. Kennedy built up conventional (traditional) forces for limited war, nuclear weapons, and
created special forces (Navy Seals, Green Berets). This led the Soviets to build up their weapons and military forces (arms race).
Latin America and Kennedy
The U.S. kept the existing powers in Latin America to prevent Communist takeovers. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress was a program
of grants and loans to Latin America to promote economic progress, health care, education, land reform, and trade.
Peace Corps
This Kennedy program sent young volunteers to developing countries to help fight poverty, build schools, provide medical care, teach
English, build roads, etc.
Space Race Between the U.S. and Soviet Union
The Space Race was a matter of pride, courage, and achievement in the Cold War. Soviet Yuri Gagarin was the first man in space.
American John Glenn was the first American to orbit the earth. Kennedy set a goal for the U.S. to go to the moon. In 1969, Apollo 11
went to the moon. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first men on the moon’s surface. Armstrong was the first to step on the
moon. Space exploration led to advances in technology. Satellites improved radio and television signals. They also helped us
communicate faster, predict the weather, and create GPS (global positioning systems). The space program led to the invention of solar
cells, lubricants, infrared ear thermometers, enriched baby food, cordless power tools, and tempur-pedic form for mattresses and
pillows.
Cuba
During Eisenhower’s Presidency, Fidel Castro took over Cuba and turned it into a Communist country with ties to the Soviet Union.
As dictator Castro nationalized (Cuban government took over) American businesses in Cuba and jailed or killed political opposition.
An embargo (no trading) was placed on Cuba by the U.S. Eisenhower left office before finishing the CIA’s plan to overthrow Castro.
Kennedy went ahead with the CIA’s plan to overthrow Castro.
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Bay of Pigs Invasion in Cuba
CIA trained Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and take it back from Castro and communism. It failed because there was no surprise, no air
support, and no Cuban uprising. JFK looked weak.
Berlin Wall (Kennedy v. Soviet Leader Khrushchev)
In the Brain Drain, thousands left Communist East Berlin for the freedom in West Berlin. East Germany, supported by the Soviet
Union, built a wall to keep people from going to West Berlin. Even though Kennedy visited West Berlin giving his “Ich bin ein
Berliner (I am a Berliner.)” speech to show America’s commitment to their safety and freedom, Kennedy did nothing about the Berlin
Wall.
Cuban Missile Crisis (Peak of Cold War Tension)
Castro (Cuba) and Khrushchev (Soviet Union) knew the U.S. was behind the Bay of Pigs invasion. Khrushchev’s Soviet Union took
steps to protect Cuba by putting nuclear weapons in Cuba.U2 (American spy plane) photos showed that the Soviets were putting
nuclear missiles in Cuba aimed at the U.S. A special committee was formed to examine all alternatives and to weigh the pros and cons
(advantages and disadvantages) of each option. Kennedy set up a naval quarantine (blockade) to try to keep nuclear missiles out of
Cuba. He also threatened to invade Cuba if the Soviet missiles were not withdrawn. We were close to nuclear war with the Soviets.
Finally, the U.S. and Soviet Union made a deal. The U.S. promised never to invade Cuba. The Soviets took their missiles out of Cuba.
The secret part of the deal was that the U.S. would take their missiles out of Turkey. After this crisis, to make communication faster
between the Soviet Union and the United States, a special “hot line” telephone was installed for the leaders of the Superpowers.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
During the Kennedy Administration, the U.S., Britain, and Soviet Union agreed to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere (air, water,
space). Testing could only be conducted underground.
Origins of the Civil Rights Movement
The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment gave African Americans U.S. citizenship with equal rights
and protection under the law. The 15th Amendment gave African American males suffrage (right to vote). Even with these
amendments, African Americans faced racism, prejudice, and discrimination. Many Americans felt the treatment of African
Americans was inconsistent with the ideas of the Declaration of Independence and our beliefs in freedom, equality, and democracy.
Truman and Civil Rights(Late 1940s)
Truman issued a report, To Secure These Rights, calling for civil rights legislation. However, Congress refused to pass any civil rights
legislation. Truman demanded his inauguration be integrated. Truman issued an Executive Order to desegregate the armed forces and
end discrimination in hiring for jobs in the federal government. Jackie Robinson was the first African-American to cross the “color
line” and join a major league baseball team.
Segregation in the South
Jim Crow Laws segregated the races in the South in public places, including public schools. The Supreme Court ruling in Plessy v.
Ferguson was that state segregation of facilities was constitutional as long as the facilities were equal (separate-but-equal). The
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was started in 1909 by W.E.B. DuBois and Ida Wells to work
on ending discrimination against African-Americans. This organization used litigation (resolve disputes in court) to win civil rights
and challenge the separate-but-equal doctrine.
Eisenhower and Civil Rights(1950s)
Sweatt v. Painter
African-American Herman Sweatt was not allowed to attend the Law School at the University of Texas because of segregation laws.
There was an African-American law school he could attend. The Supreme Court ruled the two law schools were not equal because
African-American students were isolated from other future lawyers being trained with whom they would later interact.
Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
Linda Brown and other African-American students were denied admission to all-white public schools near their homes. NAACP
lawyer and later the first African-American on the Supreme Court, Thurgood Marshall, argued segregated schools denied students the
equal protection promised them in the 14th Amendment. Education for African-Americans was inherently (by nature) inferior because
African-American students were receiving the message they were not good enough to be educated with others. Chief Justice Earl
Warren and the rest of the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Brown and overturned Plessy v. Ferguson marking the end of legal
segregation in public schools. The Brown decision was a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement. The Court did not specify the
timetable for integrating schools, so the South took its time integrating schools. Other Jim Crow Laws of the South remained in place
segregating the races at beaches, theaters, restaurants, water fountains, and public buses.
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Montgomery Bus Boycott (Alabama)
African-American seamstress and member of the NAACP, Rosa Parks, was arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white
passenger. To protest, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (pastor) began a boycott (stop using their services) of the city’s public buses.
African-Americans began walking and carpooling. Dr. King believed in nonviolent passive resistance and integration. He was
influenced by Gandhi from India. King was arrested and his home bombed. African-American churches became meeting places in the
fight for civil rights. This boycott brought national attention to civil rights. After 13 months, the court ruled segregation on
Montgomery city buses violated the “equal protection” clause in the 14 th Amendment. City buses were integrated.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
King believed non-violence and passive resistance to unjust laws would change the attitudes of the aggressors. King believed in nonviolent tactics such as peaceful marches, boycotts, picketing, sit-ins, and demonstrations.
Civil Rights Act of 1957
Senator Lyndon Johnson of Texas pushed it through Congress. This Act increased African-American voting rights in the South by
putting the federal government in charge of registering black voters, establishing the Civil Rights Commission, and creating the Civil
Rights Division in the U.S. Justice Department to investigate the denial of African-American voting rights in the South.
Little Rock Central High School
Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus favored segregation and was in no hurry to put the Brown decision into effect by integrating public
schools. Nine African-American students (Little Rock Nine) tried to enroll in an all-white high school. Faubus brought out the
Arkansas National Guard to prevent these students from entering the building and refused to provide these students with protection
from an angry white mob. Some believed he did this to win white segregationist votes. Eisenhower ordered federal troops to Little
Rock to ensure the Little Rock Nine could attend school.
Southern Segregationist Governors and Congressmen
Segregationist Governors believed the federal government was interfering in state matters and tried to resist desegregation to maintain
the status quo (the existing system).
Lester Maddox
Maddox, owner of a white-only restaurant, used an ax handle to threaten African-Americans who tried to enter his restaurant. Maddox
became the Governor of Georgia.
Alabama Governor George Wallace
Wallace stood at the door to the University of Alabama registrar’s office to prevent two African-Americans from enrolling. Wallace
believed in the constitutional rights of the states to operate their public schools. Wallace was forced to let the students enter.
*Southern Democrats in Congress held powerful positions in the U.S. Congress and used that power to stop the passage of federal
civil rights legislation.
Kennedy, Johnson and Civil Rights (1960s)
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
This committee was organized by student civil rights activists to push for desegregation and black voter registration. In the beginning,
whites and African-Americans were members of SNCC. Later, whites were barred from membership.
Sit-ins
Sit-ins started at Greensboro, North Carolina, to shame stores into integrating their white-only lunch counters. African-Americans
would sit at the lunch counters and refused to leave. As a result of sit-ins, stores finally agreed to desegregate lunch counters and
hired African-American workers.
Freedom Riders
The purpose of the Freedom Riders was to draw national attention to the South’s refusal to integrate bus terminals and public
transportation. African-Americans and whites rode buses together through the South using each other’s waiting rooms and bathrooms.
When the Freedom Riders were faced with violence and the risk of death, the federal government was forced to intervene to protect
them.
Birmingham, Alabama
To get the government’s attention, African-Americans launched non-violent demonstrations to end segregation in Birmingham.
The Birmingham police used fire hoses, dogs, and cattle prods on the demonstrators. Millions were horrified by the police violence
seen on the television. Dr. King was arrested and jailed. From the jail, King wrote a “Letter from the Birmingham Jail” which
explained why African-Americans could no longer wait patiently for their constitutional rights saying “everyone has a moral
responsibility to disobey unjust laws.” Because of Birmingham, Kennedy prepared a Civil Rights bill to submit to Congress.
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Reverend Billy Graham
Graham, a white preacher, rose to fame as an anti-communist. Graham paid King’s bail to get out of jail and toured with King.
Graham was a supporter of civil rights and integration. He was a spiritual advisor to several U.S. Presidents. Graham advised
Eisenhower to send troops to Little Rock. Billy Graham traveled the world preaching the Gospel to millions. He was one
of the first preachers to address large crowds behind the Iron Curtain, calling for world peace.
March on Washington
The purpose of the March on Washington was to pressure Congress to pass Kennedy’s Civil Rights bill. With 250,000 people of
different races, this was the largest demonstration for human rights in U.S. history. Dr. King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream”
speech about looking forward to a day when Americans of all colors would peacefully live together. After Kennedy’s assassination,
Congress had a new willingness to pass Kennedy’s Civil Rights bill.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
This act ended discrimination based on race, color, religion, or ethnic origins in hotels, restaurants, and all places of employment
doing business with the federal government or interstate commerce. Segregated schools would lose federal funding (money). The
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was set up to enforce this act.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
President Johnson pushed this act through Congress giving the federal government the power to register voters. This act also ended the
use of literacy tests.
24th Amendment- The 24th Amendment outlawed poll taxes.
Affirmative Action
President Johnson issued an Executive Order requiring employers with federal contracts to raise the number of their minority
employees to correct past imbalances. Companies were now required to actively recruit minority candidates. Later, women were
added to affirmative action programs. Affirmative action programs increased minority representation in colleges, professions, and
many businesses. Some people believed affirmative action programs created reverse discrimination (against white men). In Regents of
University of California v. Bakke, the Supreme Court upheld affirmative action, but not the use of racial quotas (number of people
required). As the U.S. became a more pluralistic society, affirmative action programs were phased out.
The Civil Rights Movement Before 1965
The Civil Rights Movement ended segregation and got protection for voters. After 1964, the focus of the movement switched to social
and economic equality.
African-American Militancy
African-Americans in the cities of the North and the West still faced prejudice, discrimination, poverty, slums, and unemployment.
Many of these African-Americans believed Dr. King’s method of non-violence was not powerful enough to overcome these obstacles.
Many turned to other groups and methods.
Black Power Movement
This movement stressed black pride in their African roots and their distinct styles of Afro haircuts and fashions based upon African
culture. People in the Black Power Movement rejected cultural assimilation (become like the dominant group) into the dominant white
culture. To free themselves from economic, cultural, and political domination of whites, the Black Power Movement wanted
separatism from whites by controlling their own communities and buying from black-owned businesses.
Malcolm X
Malcolm X believed in the Black Power Movement. Malcolm X was a Black Muslim leader who believed African-Americans should
meet violence with violence and not depend upon the goodness of white people to do the right thing. Malcolm X believed in black
superiority, black nationalism, and separatism. African-Americans should control their own communities and support their own
businesses.
Black Muslims
Black Muslims believed Islam should be the religion of African-Americans, and they should form their own black state.
Black Panthers
The Black Panthers were founded in Oakland, California. The Panthers started their own newspaper and carried weapons to protect
black neighborhoods from the police. They started free breakfast programs for African American children. The Black Panther TenPoint Program called for full employment, decent housing, education, and the freedom to determine their destiny. The Black Panthers
called for reparations to be given to the black community for centuries of oppression.
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Ghetto Riots
Homeowners in white communities refused to sell homes to African-Americans. Many African-Americans were forced to live in
ethnic communities in decaying inner cities. These areas were called ghettos. Landlords didn’t maintain the buildings and city
inspectors cut back on inspections. For three summers in a row, African-Americans rioted in Northern cities.
Kerner Commission
The Kerner Commission was set up to investigate the causes of these riots. The commission found lack of job opportunities, urban
poverty, and white racism were factors behind the riots. Riots showed work had to be done to eliminate racism and introduce equal
opportunities in America.
King’s Assassination
Dr. King was assassinated by white supremacist James Earl Ray, in Memphis, Tennessee. King’s murder caused race riots, deaths,
property damage, and destruction all over America by angry African-Americans.
Results of the Civil Rights Movement
There were more African-American politicians and voters who held political power. Segregation was ended. More job opportunities
were given to African-Americans. Slums, poverty, and unemployment still existed. The Civil Rights Movement led to later efforts by
women, other ethnic minorities, the disabled, the young, and the old to obtain equal opportunities.
Chicano Movement (Mexican-Americans)
Chicanos faced discrimination, racism, and exploitation in the U.S. The Chicano Movement started in the 1960s to address the issues
of farm workers, voting rights, and political rights.
Hector Perez Garcia (1940s)
An educated surgeon and World War II veteran Garcia noticed Mexican-Americans in Texas were barred from restaurants, swimming
pools, and hospitals. They also faced restrictions in voting, office holding, and employment. When Dr. Garcia learned a funeral home
refused to allow its chapel to be used by an American soldier’s Mexican-American family, Garcia arranged a highly publicized burial
at Arlington National Cemetery. Dr. Garcia became the first Mexican-American to serve on the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.
Cesar Chavez
When traveling from farm to farm looking for work, migrant farm workers performed seasonal jobs such as planting and harvesting
crops. Chavez started the United Farm Workers Association to demand higher wages and better conditions. Chavez advocated
(supported) non-violent methods to achieve his goals such as strikes and boycotts (asking consumers not to buy certain products from
certain companies to show support for the migrant farm workers). Chavez walked in a 340 mile pilgrimage (long journey for a
purpose) from Delano to Sacramento, California, to draw attention to the problems farm workers faced. Chavez used fasting or hunger
strikes (refusing to eat) to stop violence against strikers and to get legislation passed to improve the lives of the farm workers.
Dolores Huerta
Huerta was a Mexican-American labor leader who helped Chavez start the United Farm Workers Association. Huerta worked for aid
to farm families, women’s rights, environmental protection, and immigration policies.
Chicano Mural Movement
To express appreciation of their culture, Mexican-American artists copied the great Mexican muralists of the 1930s, like Diego
Rivera, and began painting murals in barrios (ethnic neighborhoods) throughout the Southwest. Murals provided a presence to people
who lacked representation in public life. Murals showed legends and heroes like Garcia, Chavez, and Huerta.
Mexican-American Rights and the Supreme Court
In a series of cases in which the courts ruled on Mexican-American rights, litigation (disputes settled by courts) played a key role in
the expansion of civil rights for minority groups.
Mendez v. Westminster School District- California had no state segregation law concerning Mexican-Americans. However, California
was segregating Mexican-American children in public schools. The ruling was that segregation of children of any group was illegal
without a special state law requiring it.
Delgado v. Bastrop ISD- This was exactly like Mendez v. Westminster except it was happening in Texas. The ruling was that
segregation of Mexican-American children was illegal in Texas.
Hernandez v. Texas- Hernandez was found guilty of murder by an all-white jury. No Mexican-Americans had ever served on a jury in
the county where this trial took place. This violated Hernandez’s right to “equal protection under the law” guaranteed by the 14 th
Amendment. The Supreme Court ruled that Mexican-Americans, though not a separate race, were still entitled as a class to protections
under the 14th Amendment.
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White v. Regester- Voting district boundaries were changed in Texas. The way the districts were set up in these counties made it
impossible for African-Americans and Mexican-Americans to be elected into public offices. The Supreme Court ruled that Texas
could not discriminate by setting up multi-member districts. The Texas legislature had to make smaller districts, giving MexicanAmerican barrios the chance to elect their own candidates for office.
Edgewood ISD v. Kirby- Edgewood was a poor school district with a large Mexican-American population. Schools with upper and
middle class students were getting more state funding (money) than the poorer schools. The Texas Constitution promised a “fair and
efficient” public school system. The ruling required changes in school finance to increase funding for students in poorer school
districts.
Women’s Liberation Movement (Feminist Movement)
In the early 1950s and 1960s, working class women worked outside the home, but middle class and upper class women were stay-athome wives and mothers. Although they could vote, women had not achieved equality at work or in the home. The Women’s
Liberation Movement tried to achieve economic and social equality.
Reasons for the Women’s Liberation Movement
1. Women were dissatisfied being housewives and wanted to be free to use their talents in careers and work.
2. Many women worked in the Civil Rights Movement and were inspired to use lobbying (working to influence members of the
government), sit-ins, demonstrations, boycotts, and strikes to promote women’s rights.
3. Margaret Mead and other social scientists believed women had low status in Western societies that were dominated by males.
Women wanted to attack the myth of female passivity and submission to males.
4. Women objected to being treated as “sex objects” instead of human beings.
5. In the Sexual Revolution, sex education was taught in public schools and birth control pills protected women from pregnancy.
6. Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem were educated, talented leaders of the Feminist Movement. Steinem founded Ms. Magazine
devoted to modern women’s issues and viewpoints.
Betty Friedan
Ms. Friedan wrote The Feminine Mystique challenging the belief that women were happy to be stay-at-home wives and mothers.
Friedan believed women were as capable as men and should be able to compete for the same jobs. Friedan helped form the National
Organization of Women (NOW), a voice for the women’s movement.
Achievements of the Women’s Liberation Movement
Affirmative action programs caused universities, military colleges, law schools, and medical schools to no longer discriminate on the
basis of sex in their admissions process. Most colleges became co-educational and hired women professors. Feminists wanted to end
discrimination in hiring with equal job opportunities. The Equal Pay Act required companies to pay women the same wages as men
for the same work. Feminists objected to beauty contests, opposed sexist language (policeman instead of policeperson), opposed
women being used as sex objects in advertising, objected to women’s contributions being ignored in textbooks, and lobbied (group
campaign to influence members of Congress) for more funds to research women’s diseases (breast cancer). Also, feminists believed
men could do housework too.
Equal Rights Amendment
In 1923, suffragette Alice Paul, founder of the National Women’s Party, proposed the Equal Rights Amendment to Congress to give
women equal rights. In 1972, the Equal Rights Amendment was passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. The Equal
Rights Amendment fell three states short of the support needed for ratification (approval).
Phyllis Schlafly
Conservative Schlafly was an outspoken critic of the Women’s Liberation Movement and the Equal Rights Amendment. She felt these
would reduce the rights of wives, harm the family, and deprive women the right to be supported and protected by men. Schlafly
believed the Equal Rights Amendment would lead to unisex restrooms and women in combat.
Roe v. Wade
Many states had laws prohibiting abortion. Feminists believed a woman should have the right to decide for herself whether or not
to end her pregnancy (pro-choice). The Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade gave a woman the right to end her
pregnancy in the first three months.
Title IX
Title IX is a part of the Educational Amendments Act. Title IX banned sex discrimination in educational institutions by guaranteeing
girls in school the same opportunity as boys. If schools didn’t promote gender equality, they would lose federal funding (money).
Title IX helped women pursue higher degrees, compete in sports, enter jobs and schools previously dominated by men. Today, more
women attend college than men.
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American Indian Movement (AIM)
In the 1950s, the federal government gave state governments authority over Native Americans still living on reservations. This failed
because state governments lacked the funds (money) to provide the same level of services that had been provided by the federal
government. In 1963, the federal government took back their responsibilities and encouraged tribal reservation life. The Civil Rights
Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination against Native Americans. In 1970, President Nixon said the federal government would honor
its obligations.
American Indian Movement (Red Power Movement)
Feeling mistreated, American Indians wanted respect for their culture. The term Native American was introduced. The American
Indian Movement protested against textbooks, television shows, and movies that showed anti-American Indian bias (prejudice).
To dramatize the problems of the American Indians, they occupied government monuments on Alcatraz Island and in Wounded Knee,
South Dakota.
Religious Freedom
In Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Supreme Court struck down a Wisconsin state law that required Amish children to attend school beyond
Grade 8. The court found this state law violated the parents’ freedom of religion since the state’s secondary education conflicted with
Amish values and beliefs and was contrary (different) to their way of life.
Election of 1960
This was one of the closest elections in history. Television became an important political tool (ads and debates). The 1st televised
presidential debates influenced people to vote for Kennedy. Republican Richard Nixon (Eisenhower’s Vice President) and Democrat
Senator John Kennedy were the two candidates running for the office of the President. Kennedy stressed separation of church and
state, civil service, and the missile gap (U.S. falling behind the Soviets in missile power).Kennedy was the youngest elected President
and the 1st Irish Catholic President.
Kennedy Inspired the Youth
In his Inaugural Address, Kennedy said, “Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country.”
Kennedy’s New Frontier symbolized the vigor of youth. Kennedy inspired the youth of America to get involved by serving their
country and making the world a better place. Kennedy and his wife, Jackie, brought an elegant style to the White House.
Kennedy’s Domestic Programs (New Frontier)
Kennedy wanted to use the power of the federal government to solve the nation’s problems. Kennedy proposed tax cuts to stimulate
the economy, the creation of Medicare (health care for the elderly), civil rights legislation, and aid to education. However, he couldn’t
get these programs passed through Congress because the Republicans and Dixiecrats didn’t like him or his programs.
President Johnson’s Great Society (Domestic Policies)
When John Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963, Vice President and Texan Lyndon Johnson became the
President. Johnson’s goal was to turn the nation into a Great Society by opening up opportunities and improving the quality of life for
all Americans. Johnson also declared a war on poverty. Johnson’s Great Society programs included equality of opportunity,
enrichment of urban life, restoration of natural beauty, expansion of education, ending poverty, health care for the elderly, and greater
racial equality. Not since Roosevelt’s New Deal had so many programs been proposed by a President.
Great Society Programs
1. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 barred discrimination based on race or gender.
2. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ensured the African American vote.
3. The Economic Opportunity Act helped create jobs and fight poverty.
4. The Job Corps helped train underprivileged youths.
5. Johnson introduced affirmative action programs.
6. The Medicare Act of 1965 expanded Social Security by providing medical care, hospital insurance, and post-hospital nursing for
people over the age of 65.
7. The Department for Housing and Urban Development was headed by Robert Weaver (first African American cabinet member).
Changes in Immigration
1. The McCarren-Walter Act of 1952 kept immigration quotas (required numbers) at 1920 levels, favoring Western Europe and
allowing very few Asians into America.
2. The Immigration Act of 1965 was less biased giving each country an identical quota (required number) for its number of legal
immigrants. Preference was given to people with relatives already living in the U.S. or with valuable skills. For the first time,
immigration from Latin America was limited.
Election of 1964
Barry Goldwater
Goldwater was the Republican candidate running against Johnson. Goldwater helped revive conservatism (going back to traditional
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ways and avoiding change). Goldwater wanted to stand tough against the Soviets and opposed arms-control talks. Goldwater criticized
the Great Society Programs because the government was getting too involved in our lives. Many Americans felt Goldwater was an
extremist (goes too far and not willing to compromise) who would lead us into nuclear war. Johnson won the election.
The Great Society Fails
The cost of the Vietnam War forced Johnson to withdraw funding from many Great Society programs because the money was used for
the war. Many Americans remained in poverty. Because of the divisions in the nation over the Vietnam War, Johnson did not
seek another term as President in 1968.
Vietnam War
History of Vietnam
In the1800s, the French took Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (French Indochina) as their colonies. In World War II, Japan took
Vietnam from the French. To fight the Japanese in hopes of gaining independence in the future, nationalist leader Ho
Chi Minh joined the Allies and started the League for Independence of Vietnam (Vietminh). After World War II, Ho Chi Minh
declared Vietnamese independence and turned Vietnam into a communist country. After World War II ended, the French wanted to
take back French Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam). However, they lacked the money to finance a military effort to take it.
To contain communism, the U.S. sent money, supplies, and advisors to help the French take back Indochina. At the French fort of
Dienbienphu, the Vietnamese nationalists, led by Ho Chi Minh, defeated their French rulers and the French withdrew from Indochina.
Geneva Accords 1954
After the French withdrew, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam were independent. Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel.
North Vietnam was a communist country led by Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam was far from a democracy. South Vietnam was an anticommunist pro-Western (relating to the Americas and parts of Europe not under communist rule) dictatorship led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
After the French left, the U.S. protected the pro-Western government in South Vietnam. An election for reunification (creation of one
Vietnam) was scheduled for 1956. Fearing the elections in North Vietnam wouldn’t be free, Diem and the U.S. wouldn’t allow the
reunification elections.
Eisenhower, Kennedy and Vietnam
Eisenhower and Kennedy believed in the domino theory, if South Vietnam fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall
to communism. Also, Kennedy believed a successful democracy in South Vietnam might serve as a model for other developing
countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Eisenhower and Kennedy continued to provide South Vietnam with money, supplies,
and advisors.
South Vietnam v. the Vietcong
To reunite the whole country under communism, the Vietcong (South Vietnamese Communists), supported by North Vietnam, began
fighting against the government of South Vietnam by assassinating South Vietnamese officials and seizing control of rural South
Vietnamese villages. North Vietnam and the Vietcong used guerrilla warfare where a small group of combatants used ambushes,
sabotage, raids, surprise, assassinations, and mobility to dominate a larger and less-mobile traditional army. After striking a target,
they withdrew immediately.
Diem and His People
Diem was an unpopular pro-Western leader in South Vietnam. Diem was a Catholic and the majority of his people were Buddhists.
When Diem banned the flying of Buddhist flags on Buddha’s birthday, monks set themselves on fire in protest. Given approval from
Kennedy and the CIA, the South Vietnamese generals led a coup (surprise overthrow of a government usually by the military) to
overthrow Diem’s government. Diem was assassinated.
Johnson and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Johnson announced U.S. ships were attacked in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin. As a result of this attack, Congress passed
the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving President Johnson its war powers to send troops without a declaration of war. Johnson used the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution to escalate (increase) the war by the massive bombing of North Vietnam and sending combat troops into
South Vietnam. Years later, it was revealed that the U.S. ships had been in North Vietnamese waters with South Vietnamese warships
that were bombing North Vietnam.
Operation Rolling Thunder
Johnson was afraid to invade North Vietnam because it was being supplied by China and the Soviet Union. Johnson was afraid an
invasion would bring China into the war. He placed limits on the war which made it hard to win. The Ho Chi Minh Trail was a
network of jungle paths through Laos and Cambodia used by North Vietnam to send supplies, troops, and advisers to help the
Vietcong in South Vietnam. During Operation Rolling Thunder, the U.S. military made sustained bombing raids on North Vietnam,
South Vietnam, and the Ho Chi Minh Trail to stop supplies from getting to the Vietcong. The U.S dropped more bombs on Vietnam
than it had dropped in all of World War II. The dropping of napalm (jellied gasoline that burned everything) and agent orange
(chemical that strips away leaves destroying the ability of the enemy to hide) damaged the environment by turning farmlands and
forests into wastelands.
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Difficulties of Guerilla Warfare
American soldiers were unfamiliar with the Vietnamese language, people, and physical environment. They were unable to tell who
was friendly and who was an enemy. The jungle was an ideal cover for guerilla warfare and secret enemy movement. The communists
could easily send supplies through neighboring countries.
Tet Offensive
The U.S. government had been telling the American public that the power of the enemy was weakening. During a New Year’s truce,
the North Vietnamese Army and the Vietcong broke the truce and launched a massive offensive in South Vietnam. They took over
more than 100 cities in South Vietnam. Roy Benavidez was a Mexican American who won the Medal of Honor for carrying his
comrades to safety despite his own wounds. The Tet Offensive was a turning point in the war. Although this was a military victory for
the U.S. because we took back all the cities, it was a political victory for the communists because Americans began to distrust their
government’s information concerning the Vietnam War. Americans didn’t believe the government rhetoric (exaggerated information
used to influence or persuade) that victory was close and the Vietcong were weak, under-supplied, disorganized, and low in morale.
Popularity of the Nationalist Cause in Vietnam
The U.S was unable to win the war for a number of reasons. The North Vietnamese and many South Vietnamese saw Ho Chi Minh as
the “father of their country.” They were willing to suffer large losses in their fight for independence and reunification. The
government of South Vietnam was weakened by the war. As corruption spread, successive South Vietnamese governments failed to
win the popular support of the people. In 1967, South Vietnam was ruled by a military dictator.
The Anti-War Movement
The media (newspapers, radio, television) influenced public opinion about the war. This was the first war to come into our living
rooms on televisions. The American media criticized the war. The U.S. government told us that we were winning. Nightly news
coverage of the Vietnam War showed a different story. This led to a credibility gap which made it hard to believe what the
government was saying about the Vietnam War after seeing the reality of the situation on television. Vietnam divided the country.
Hawks supported the war to defend the free South Vietnamese from communist repression. Doves opposed this undeclared immoral
war in which innocent civilians were being bombed and killed. Doves wanted our troops withdrawn from Vietnam because it was a
civil war and none of our business. Doves believed the U.S. government was giving false information to the public about the war.
To protest against U.S. involvement in Vietnam, some young people burned their draft cards, marched on the Pentagon, held rallies,
staged demonstrations (marches, sit-ins), organized teach-ins (abandon class to discuss opposition to the war), and ran peace
candidates. In Tinker v. Des Moines, the Supreme Court ruled students had a right to protest the Vietnam War by wearing armbands.
Election of 1968
Johnson did not seek re-election.. Division among Democrats over the war, the assassination of Robert Kennedy, and violence at the
Democratic National Convention in Chicago led to the election of Republican Richard Nixon. Nixon promised to restore law and
order at home and to end the Vietnam War with “peace and honor.” The Vietnam War continued for another five years.
Henry Kissinger
Kissinger was Special Assistant for National Security Affairs and later, Secretary of State. Kissinger wanted increased bombing and
diplomacy. Under the new U.S. policy of Vietnamization, the army of South Vietnam would gradually take over the brunt of the
fighting, allowing the withdrawal of U.S. forces. At the same time, Nixon increased bombing of North Vietnam and provided military
aid to South Vietnam.
Nixon’s Foreign Policies
Nixon believed a President’s most important role was dealing with foreign policy. Henry Kissinger was his foreign policy expert.
Nixon’s two greatest foreign policy successes were the opening of diplomatic relations with Communist China and the beginning of
détente (relaxation of tensions) with the Soviet Union.
Relations with China (1972)
Since the Communist Revolution in China (1949), U.S. leaders would not establish diplomatic relations with Communist China
because they recognized Nationalist China in Taiwan as the official government of China. The U.S. also vetoed attempts of
Communist China to enter the United Nations. Nixon wanted Communist China to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the war.
Nixon restored diplomatic relations with Communist China and was the first U.S. President to visit mainland China.
Détente with the Soviet Union
President Nixon wanted the Soviet Union to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the war and to halt the build-up of nuclear
weapons. Nixon became the first President to visit Moscow (capital of the Soviet Union), where he signed the Strategic Arms
Limitation Treaty (SALT) limiting development of defensive missile systems. Nixon also agreed to sell American grain to the Soviet
Union. In 1973, when war broke out in the Middle East, the U.S. and the Soviet Union pressured Israel and Arab states to conclude a
cease-fire.
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U.S. Invasion of Cambodia
Nixon believed the war would be shortened if supply routes through Cambodia from North to South Vietnam could be cut. In 1970,
American troops invaded Cambodia. As a result of Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia, Congress repealed (reversal of law/ cancel) the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Anti-War Protests Increase
Because of the Cambodian invasion and escalation of the war, the number of anti-war protests increased. Many anti-war protests were
conducted on college campuses and in major U.S. cities. At Kent State University (Ohio), four student demonstrators were killed by
the National Guard. President Nixon insisted that most Americans still supported the war. He called them the “silent majority.”
Sometimes the exchanges between the anti-war protesters and pro-war supporters became violent.
Pentagon Papers
The Department of Defense researched Vietnam and events that led up to the war and wrote their findings in the Pentagon Papers.
Defense Department employee, Daniel Ellsberg, leaked the Pentagon Papers to the press. The Pentagon Papers showed several
Presidents before Nixon had lied to the American people about Vietnam; although these Presidents felt they could not
win in Vietnam, none of them wanted the disgrace of defeat associated with their Presidency. These papers proved the government
had not been honest with the public about the Vietnam War. The Supreme Court ruled that newspapers could publish the Pentagon
Papers because of their 1st Amendment right of freedom of the press.
26th Amendment
Many soldiers were old enough to be drafted to fight in Vietnam at the age of 18, but not old enough to vote. The 26 th Amendment
lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
The End of the War
Nixon negotiated with Vietnam’s Communist allies, China and the Soviet Union, to put pressure on North Vietnam to end the war.
After Nixon introduced Vietnamization, American forces were gradually reduced. In 1973, Kissinger went to Paris to negotiate with
the North Vietnamese. In 1973, an agreement was made to pull out all U.S. troops from Vietnam. North Vietnam agreed to release
American prisoners of war. After the U.S. withdrawal in 1973, fighting still continued between North and South Vietnam. In 1975, the
Vietnam War ended when North Vietnam took over South Vietnam and reunited the country under communism. The Fall of Saigon
(today called Ho Chi Minh City) marked the end of the Vietnam War. South Vietnamese government officials, military officers, and
soldiers who had supported the American presence in Vietnam were sent to communist “re-education camps,” where they faced
torture, disease, and malnutrition.
Legacy of the Vietnam War
Over 58,000 Americans died and many others suffered physical and psychological injuries. Over a million Vietnamese were killed and
millions more were left homeless. Because of the war, the U.S. had a huge national debt (cost $150 billion). The U.S. had to end some
Great Society programs and experienced inflation. The war demonstrated that government actions can be affected by public opinion.
The American people lost respect for their government and politicians. Vietnam was the most divisive (divided the people) war in
U.S. history and led to a crisis in American self-confidence. Americans were more aware of the limits of U.S. power and cautious
about where America should become involved in world affairs.
War Powers Resolution
In both Korea and Vietnam, presidents sent U.S. troops into battle without a declaration of war from Congress. Congress attempted to
re-claim its constitutional power by passing (over the veto of President Nixon) the War Powers Resolution. The War Powers
Resolution limited the President’s power to send troops to major military operations in foreign nations. The War Powers Resolution
allowed the President to deploy (send in) troops quickly. However, Congress had to be told two days before the deployment of U.S.
troops. Within 60 days, Congress would decide whether to leave the troops in or withdraw them.
1960s Literature
The counter-culture was in full swing. Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five and Joseph Heller’s Catch 22 were written to expose the
absurdity (ridiculous unreasonableness) of armed conflicts. Norman Mailer wrote his novel, Why Are We in Vietnam?, to criticize the
war. Mailer also wrote books on anti-protests, such as Armies of the Night. In the 1960s, some books were written about human
consciousness and sexuality such as Philip Roth’s Goodbye Columbus and Portnoy’s Complaint. Roth also wrote American Pastoral
dealing with middle class radicalism of the 1960s.
Visual Arts
Visual arts were very diverse, ranging from abstract impressionism to pop art. Mark Rothko was another abstract-expressionist. Andy
Warhol created pop art using symbols from our mass-produced, mass-marketed consumer culture, like a Campbell’s soup can or a
portrait of Marilyn Monroe, which he repeated multiple times on one canvas. Warhol also produced music groups and films. Other
pop artists were Jasper Johns and Roy Lichtenstein.
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Youth Culture of the 1960s
Some “baby boomers” reached their twenties in the 1960s and 1970s. This generation was influenced by the 1950s prosperity, new
permissive methods of child care, and exposure to television. In the mid-1960s, some youth adopted a spirit of rebellion, objecting to
the impersonal life-style of corporate America and challenging the materialism of those in charge of society, the “Establishment”.
They were shocked at the Establishment’s indifference to poverty and other problems in society. New fashions and long hair for males
became symbols of the new youth culture of the 1960s. Artist and song writer Bob Dylan brought the influence of folk music to rock
and roll. The Beatles, an English rock band, started the “British Invasion” and introduced new fashions and long hair for males. They
were followed by other English bands such as The Rolling Stones and the Who. In the 1960s, artists like Jimi Hendrix, Country Joe
and the Fish, and Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young became icons of the counter-culture and anti-war movement. Many of their songs
protested the Vietnam War or celebrated the psychedelic experience (an altered state of awareness induced by the consumption of
hallucinogenic drugs). Many youth experimented openly with drugs and sex. Some “hippies” left mainstream society to live together
on self-sufficient communes.
The Nixon Presidency (1969-1974)
The Imperial Presidency
The Constitution tried to keep a balance of power between the separate branches of government. Since the 1930s with Roosevelt’s
New Deal, the President’s role expanded the power of the President in managing the nation’s economy. The President’s power in
foreign affairs expanded because of the two World Wars and the Cold War. Unlike Congress, the President could act quickly and
decisively. Television and radio increased the President’s ability to appeal directly to the voters. The President began relying on his
own advisors instead of the Cabinet. Nixon was an “Imperial President” when he bombed Cambodia and Laos, mined North
Vietnam’s harbor, used public funds to remodel his private homes, used the CIA and FBI to collect information about his political
enemies, and refused to spend funds approved by Congress on programs he did not like.
Nixon’s Domestic Policies
Nixon was a conservative who believed federal social programs were inefficient and should be dealt with at a local level. Through
revenue sharing (giving federal money to state and local governments), he eliminated several Great Society programs and gave money
to state and local governments to set up social programs. He sought to end the draft, to create anticrime laws, and to advance
environmental programs. Nixon unsuccessfully tried to fight inflation, unemployment, and the trade deficit (importing more products
than we export) by cutting spending for social programs, taking us off the gold standard, and imposing wage and price controls.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency to protect the environment. The EPA set air and water pollution standards for
cities. The EPA also monitored and enforced those standards. New construction projects had to pass environmental impact review
before being approved. Private citizens could file lawsuits under the EPA. The Endangered Species Act required the Fish and Wildlife
Service to list plants and animals threatened with extinction and to protect them.
Nixon and Agnew
Nixon’s Vice-President, Spiro Agnew, resigned when it was discovered he took bribes while serving as the Governor of Maryland.
Under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the President was given the power to select a new Vice-President if a vacancy exists. Nixon
appointed Gerald Ford as his new Vice-President.
Watergate Scandal
In 1972, a group of former CIA agents, working for Nixon’s Committee to Re-elect the President, were caught breaking into the
Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D. C.
The Cover-Up
President Nixon tried to cover up White House participation in the Watergate break-in. The Senate appointed a committee to
investigate the incident. The Attorney General also appointed a Special Prosecutor to examine wrongdoings. Nixon said an
investigation of the Watergate break-in could not be conducted because it would be a risk to our national security.
The Watergate Tapes
A Nixon aide stated that Nixon participated in the cover-up and that Nixon secretly recorded his White House conversations. The
Senate Committee asked to listen to these tapes, and Nixon refused, claiming executive privilege. He said Congress had no authority
to question members of the executive branch without Presidential approval. In the United States v. Nixon, the district court ordered
Nixon to turn over the tapes. Nixon said turning over the tapes would lead to judicial control of the Presidency, violating the
separation of powers. The Supreme Court preserved its independence when it ruled Nixon must turn over the tapes because no one is
above the law.
Nixon Resigns
The tapes proved Nixon did lie when he said he was not involved in the cover-up. The House of Representatives moved to impeach
(bring up a public official for trial before the Senate to decide whether the official will be removed from office) Nixon. Fearing
removal from office, Nixon became the first President to resign.
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The Impact of Watergate
Because of the Watergate scandal, public confidence in public officials decreased. Watergate showed that the growth of the
Presidential power created opportunities for abuse, and, that our system of checks and balances works. It also showed that the twoparty system works because the party out of power becomes the watchdog over the other party. The press had an important role in
uncovering misconduct in government and informing the public. Congress passed new laws to curb (limit) Presidential power,
restoring the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches.
The Ford Presidency (1974-1977)
President Ford was the only President not elected as Vice-President or President. He was appointed by Nixon. One of Ford’s first acts
as President was to pardon (forgive/ no trial for wrongdoing) Nixon for any crimes he had committed. This act was very unpopular
with the public.
Stagflation
America suffered from stagflation. Stagflation was high unemployment combined with inflation (rising prices).
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
OPEC was formed by oil-producing countries (mostly Arab countries). OPEC used oil as a political weapon by imposing an oil
embargo (refusing to sell oil) on the U.S. and Western Europe for siding with Israel in the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. The price of oil
went up. Even after the war was over, OPEC pushed oil prices up to enrich their own economies. The high cost of energy in America
impacted the costs of heating fuel, food, electricity, and gasoline.
The Helsinki Accords
Ford continued détente (relaxation of tension) with the Soviet Union. The U.S., Canada, the Soviet Union, and most European
countries signed an international agreement, known as the Helsinki Accords, recognizing World War II borders and promising respect
for human rights.
The Carter Presidency (1977-1981)
Because America blamed the Republicans for the Watergate scandal, Democrat Jimmy Carter, the Governor of Georgia, was elected
President. Carter was an outsider to Washington, D.C.who promised to end corruption and clean up Washington.
Carter’s Domestic Policies
Carter faced an economy of inflation (rising prices), high oil prices, high interest rates, and high unemployment. Carter created the
Department of Energy and increased the production of oil in the nation’s petroleum reserve. To fight inflation caused by the oil crisis,
Carter cut federal spending. To help the environment, Carter provided funds to clean up toxic dumpsites. Following an accident at the
Three Miles Island nuclear reactor, Carter created the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to develop stricter standards for the peaceful
use of nuclear energy. Carter also appointed women and minorities to government positions. Carter sponsored a bill requiring public
schools to provide instruction to students in their native languages while they were trying to learn English. Because banks were
“redlining” (excluding people in low-income neighborhoods from receiving financial services), Carter pushed the Community
Reinvestment Act through Congress. This act required banks to make credit available in poor communities to prevent the decay of
low-income neighborhoods in inner cities.
Carter’s Foreign Policies
Carter believed the U.S. should set a moral example for other nations. Human rights became a top priority for Carter. He condemned
apartheid (racial segregation and discrimination of non-whites) in South Africa, pressured the Soviet Union to allow its Jews to
emigrate (move from one country to another), and cut aid to dictatorships that violated human rights.
Panama Canal Treaty of 1977
Carter signed this treaty returning control of all the Panama Canal Zone, except for the canal, to Panama. The U.S. also agreed to turn
over the canal to Panama by the end of the century.
Camp David Accords
After the Holocaust, the United Nations created Israel, a homeland for the Jews. The U.S. was supportive of Israel, a pro-Western
democracy in the Middle East. Influenced by American Jews, the U.S. helped Israel with economic and military aid. Egypt and Israel
had fought many times with Israel taking land from Egypt. Carter invited Anwar Sadat, the President of Egypt, and Menachem Begin,
the Prime Minister of Israel, to the Presidential retreat at Camp David in Maryland. In the Camp David Accords, Israel returned the
Sinai Peninsula to Egypt and Egypt accepted a peace treaty and normal diplomatic relations with Israel-ending thirty years of warfare.
For this, Sadat and Begin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Other Arab countries were angry because this agreement didn’t
provide a homeland for the Palestinians. Several Arab nations broke off relations with Egypt. Later, Sadat was assassinated by Muslim
Fundamentalists, who opposed peace with Israel.
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U.S.-Soviet Relations
Carter continued détente with the Soviet Union until the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. Carter halted grain sales to the Soviet Union,
boycotted the 1980 Olympics being held in Moscow (capital of the Soviet Union), and postponed ratification (approval) of a new arms
control agreement (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty II/ SALT II).
The Iranian Revolution and Hostage Crisis
The Shah (ruler) of Iran was an ally of the U.S. Shah Pahlavi was a brutal dictator. The Shah didn’t follow up with his promises of
more personal freedom and social programs for the Iranian people. After Iranians began demonstrating against the Shah, he left his
country. Ayatollah Khomeini and other Muslim leaders took control of Iran. These Fundamentalist Shiite Muslims hated Western
(U.S.) influence, resented the U.S. for helping the Shah and backing Israel. Because the Shah entered the U.S. for cancer treatment,
angry Iranian students seized the U.S. Embassy and staff in Tehran, Iran. These U.S. hostages were blindfolded, tied up, and accused
of working with the CIA. The U.S. imposed economic sanctions on Iran and tried an unsuccessful attempt to free the hostages with a
surprise helicopter raid. For over a year, America was unable to secure the release of the hostages and our world image was suffered.
Finally, the hostages were released on the day Carter left office and Ronald Reagan became President.
Reagan’s Presidency
President Reagan believed in conservatism (promoted traditional ideas and institutions). Since the New Deal, the responsibilities and
role of the federal government had increased. Presidents Reagan and Bush tried to cut down the size of federal government, reduced
taxes, and decreased federal regulations of business, while increasing private competition. Both Presidents favored a strong military.
Reagan was a Hollywood actor who became the Governor of California. As Governor, Reagan took a tough stand against anti-war
protesters in the 1960s. He projected confidence and optimism (positive attitude). He picked Texas Congressman George H. Bush to
be his Vice-President.
Roots of the New Conservatism
Britain had a new conservative Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, who held beliefs similar to Reagan. She combated unions, cut
taxes, cut government spending, and reduced government regulations. The National Rifle Association became more political and for
the first time in its history supported a Presidential candidate (Reagan). The Moral Majority, led by Rev. Jerry Falwell, was a group of
fundamentalist conservative Christians who favored strict interpretation of the Bible, opposed communism, opposed abortion, and
opposed the Equal Rights Amendment for women. The Heritage Foundation was a “think-tank” (a research institute or organization
employed to solve complex problems or predict or plan future developments) in Washington, D.C., that promoted conservative
policies based on free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, and strong national defense. They were a non-profit
lobbying group that attempted to influence legislators on various bills. With the support of each of these groups, Reagan was elected
President.
Reagan’s Domestic Policies
Reaganomics
America and Reagan faced stagflation (increased prices and unemployment). Because Reagan believed individuals and businesses
were better able to solve economic problems than the government, he decreased federal control over businesses. Through supply-side
economics, Reagan reduced taxes and business regulations making it easier to produce more products. With a higher supply of
products, prices would decrease, stopping inflation. This was called Reaganomics. By cutting taxes on businesses and the wealthy,
these groups would invest their tax savings to raise productivity and increase employment, resulting in benefits that would “trickle
down” to other groups. To finance the tax cut, Reagan reduced spending on welfare programs. Reagan allowed businesses more
freedom from government regulations by relaxing enforcement of anti-trust laws and allowing business mergers. He took steps against
unions to allow flexible work practices. Reagan even fired striking air traffic controllers. Through borrowing money to increase the
military, Reagan stimulated the economy by creating a demand for goods and services. New jobs were created in the fields of
computer programming and health care. World oil prices stabilized as the U.S. had new supplies of oil from Alaska and the North Sea.
By 1983, the U.S. economy was coming out of a recession. The federal deficit is the amount of money the federal government spends
beyond what it collects in taxes. Reagan wanted a budget that would limit government spending to the amount of taxes taken in
(balanced budget). Because Reagan spent so much money on the military, the federal deficit increased and the national debt doubled.
America bought more goods from foreign countries than the U.S. sold overseas. This led to the loss of millions of jobs, closing of steel
mills and auto plants, and a drop in disposable incomes (money left for spending and saving after taxes had been paid).
Immigration Policy
The Mazzoli-Simpson Act (1986) legalized illegal aliens who had lived continuously in the U.S. since 1981.
Sandra Day O’Connor
Reagan appointed Sandra Day O’Connor as the first female Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court.
Migration to the Sun Belt
Until the 1970s, most Americans lived in the Northeast and Midwest, with hot summers and cold winters. The Southeast was
considered too hot and humid in the summer. The West was considered too dry and remote. The government built dams making water
more available in the West. Air conditioning and hydro-electric power kept homes, offices, and factories cool. With rising oil prices,
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Americans preferred mild winters over snowy ones. Because of these factors, the West and South, known as the “Sun Belt” had a rise
in population growth. California and Texas became the nation’s largest states in population. Atlanta and Las Vegas became the fastest
growing urban centers. The population growth in the “Sun Belt” caused environmental changes. Factories and malls replaced
grasslands, mountains, and deserts. Cities demanded greater supplies of water and energy, which sometimes had to be brought from
great distances, placing a greater burden on the environment.
Reagan’s Foreign Policies
Because of the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the Iran Hostage Crisis, America lost its confidence. Reagan wanted to rebuild America
as the world’s defender of freedom and democracy.
The Reagan Doctrine
When communists took control of a Caribbean island called Grenada, Reagan sent in U.S. Marines to protect Americans on the island
and to prevent Cuba from exporting communism elsewhere. The Reagan Doctrine said the U.S. would contain communism and try to
roll back communism by aiding anti-communists in Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua, and Cambodia. Reagan believed in peace
through strength, which was preventing war by making the enemy think the U.S. had the means and the will to stop aggression.
Reagan increased military spending. To prevent nuclear attacks, Reagan proposed a laser system to shoot down missiles. This antiballistic Strategic Defense Initiative was called Star Wars. Soviet leaders feared the expense of developing their own system.
Terrorism
Terrorism is the use of bombing, assassination, kidnapping, or other acts of terror to draw attention to a group and to force
governments to give in to their demands. Israel invaded Lebanon setting off a civil war between Christians and Palestinians. U.S.
Marines and French troops went in to restore order. A suicide bomber killed 241 U.S. Marines and 58 French troops. Reagan
withdrew American troops from Lebanon. Reagan refused to negotiate with terrorists. After Reagan became aware that Libya, led by
Muammar Gaddafi, supported terrorists who blew up an explosive device in Berlin, he bombed two cities in Libya. Libya was also
responsible for blowing up a Pan Am flight over Scotland.
Iran-Contra Affair
Officials in the Reagan Administration negotiated with terrorists by secretly selling arms to Iran in exchange for hostages in Lebanon.
The money from the sales of these arms were used to support the anti-communists (Contras) fighting the Communist government of
Nicaragua. Congress had prohibited U.S. aid to the Contras. An investigation cleared Reagan of wrong-doing. Reagan failed to
monitor the actions of some of his top officials. Several of these men were convicted of lying to Congress and sent to prison. Although
Reagan still had strong support from the American public, many Americans distrusted their government officials.
Triumph of Democracy
In the Philippines and Latin America, many dictatorships and military governments were replaced with elected democracies. Reagan
called the Soviet Union the “Evil Empire.” Mikhail Gorbachev, head of the Soviet Union, introduced reforms (changes) to help the
failing Soviet economic and political systems. Gorbachev withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan and allowed peaceful changes in
Eastern Europe. Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to dismantle thousands of their nuclear missiles. Some believed Reagan’s defense of
freedom and democracy, policy of rolling back communism, and the Star Wars program placed military and economic pressure on the
Soviet Union which led to the end of the Cold War.
George H. Bush 1989-1993
Bush was Reagan’s Vice President. He promised to continue Reagan’s policies with greater compassion for the homeless and the
poor. Bush wanted to improve education and fight drug use.
Bush’s Domestic Policy
Bush wanted to reduce the budget deficit. He cut military spending and increased income taxes on the wealthy. This was unsuccessful.
Impact of Defense (Military) Spending on the Economy
An increase in defense spending could provide a short-term stimulus to the economy leading to prosperity or it could divert (take
away) money from more productive uses slowing down long-term economic growth. Heavy military spending could mean less
investment in peacetime projects, higher budget deficits, more borrowing, and higher taxes.
Supreme Court Appointments
Bush made several appointments to the Supreme Court, leading to a conservative (belief in traditional values and institutions)
majority. The new Supreme Court toughened the rules for criminal defendants and reduced abortion rights.
Recession
The U.S. went into a recession (economic downturn) in 1990 because of reduced spending by consumers, corporations, federal
government, and state governments. Foreign competition led to less demand for American products causing many people to be laid-off
of their jobs. The “Rust Belt” (areas in the Northeast and Midwest with coal and iron) had been the center of American industry. The
steel industry collapsed, and cities in the “Rust Belt” lost manufacturing jobs to Mexico and overseas.
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Civil Rights
African Americans were especially hurt by the recession. The Los Angeles police were videotaped beating an African American. A
jury found the policemen not guilty of excessive force. Because of this verdict, riots erupted and highlighted the problems of
minorities and racial tension.
Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990
Bush signed this Act to prohibit discrimination in employment and public accommodations against people with disabilities. People
with disabilities were guaranteed equal treatment. Public places had to install accessible areas for those in wheelchairs and make
special accommodations (arrangements) to permit disabled Americans to have jobs.
Bush’s Foreign Policies
The Invasion of Panama
Bush sent U.S. troops into Panama to capture the Panamanian dictator and drug-dealer Manuel Noriega. Noriega was brought to the
U.S., put on trial, and convicted on drug charges.
The End of the Cold War 1989-1991
The most important event of Bush’s Presidency was the end of the Cold War. Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the Soviet Union, made
reforms (changes) in the Soviet Union. From 1989 to 1991, Eastern Europe moved from communism to democracy, the Berlin Wall
was torn down, and Germany was reunited. In 1991, the Soviet Union became the Commonwealth of Independent States. Bush
recognized Russia and other newly independent republics and offered them economic assistance.
The Gulf War 1990
The Gulf War was the greatest success of Bush’s foreign policies. Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, capturing vast oil
wealth and extending Iraq’s borders. Hussein refused requests of the United Nations to withdraw from Kuwait. Many feared he would
invade Saudi Arabia. United Nations forces, led by the U.S., attacked Iraq. Hussein removed his troops from Kuwait and paid for
damages. Hussein remained in power in Iraq.
Somalia
Bush began a humanitarian (to help the less fortunate) airlift of food and supplies to war-torn Somalia in Africa. When warlords and
bandits stole and threatened the food shipments, Bush sent in U.S. troops.
The Clinton Presidency
Many Americans believed President Bush was not doing enough to fight the economic recession. Third-party candidate Ross Perot
took votes from Bush which weakened Bush’s re-election attempt. Perot became one of the most successful third-party candidates in
history. Bill Clinton, the Governor of Arkansas, was elected President.
Clinton’s Domestic Policies
Clinton had a difficult time getting Congress to pass his proposals. His first budget limited federal spending, increased income taxes,
cut taxes for low-income Americans, and introduced a federal gasoline tax.
Heath Care Reform
Clinton proposed to give every American guaranteed health insurance. Hillary, Clinton’s wife, became the leader of health reform for
better care for uninsured and underinsured Americans. Congress would not pass Clinton’s health care plan. Many Americans feared
Clinton’s plan would lead to long waits for health care and health care rationing. This was a major defeat for Clinton.
Other Policies
Clinton supported welfare reform, free trade, lower taxes on the middle class, and tough measures on crime. His successes were
increased funds for police departments, five-day waiting periods for buying handguns, increased federal money for prisons, and
banned sales of assault weapons.
Economic Recovery
By eliminating Cold War trading restrictions, Clinton made it easier to export computers and high-tech goods. Clinton reduced
military spending and closed some military bases at the end of the Cold War. These measures helped restore the American economy.
Unemployment went down, consumer spending was up, and business profits were high. The U.S. had its best economy in U.S. history.
Clinton balanced the budget and had a surplus of revenue (extra tax money to spend).
Contract with America
In an effort to win Republican control of the House of Representatives, Newt Gingrich, the Republican Speaker of the House,
proposed a program of conservative principles in the Contract with America. Gingrich argued the federal government was too large
and no longer listened to the American people. The Contract with America stated what the Republican Party planned to do to restore
the balance between the government and American citizens.
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Clinton’s Impeachment and Scandal
An independent prosecutor uncovered a sexual affair between Clinton and a White House intern. After finding out Clinton lied about
the affair under oath, the prosecutor recommended impeachment. Removing a President from office requires a formal accusation, or
impeachment by the House of Representatives, and a trial and conviction by the Senate. Impeachment requires a majority vote in the
House of Representatives. A conviction requires a 2/3s majority vote in the Senate. The House voted to impeach Clinton. The Senate
lacked the 2/3’s majority vote to convict Clinton. Clinton remained in office, and many Americans felt they could not trust their
elected officials.
Clinton’s Foreign Policies
Yugoslavia, Bosnia, and Kosovo
Yugoslavia was formed by joining several ethnic groups after World War I. The end of the Cold War renewed ethnic tension in
Yugoslavia causing it to become divided into several states. Fighting started between the Muslim Bosnians and the Christian Serbs.
Some Serbs attempted “ethnic cleansing” by murdering Muslims in Bosnia and Kosovo. This genocide on the Muslims reminded
people of the Holocaust. Clinton negotiated a peace in Bosnia and used NATO air strikes against Serbia to stop attacks in Kosovo.
Clinton’s intervention led to peace and an end to the killing.
Participation in International Organizations
During President Clinton’s Presidency, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was passed, phasing out tariffs between
the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to help stimulate their economies. Critics said free trade led to the loss of manufacturing jobs to
countries where labor was cheaper. Countries with cheap labor had unfair advantages since they didn’t worry about environmental
laws, social services, or paying workers minimum wage. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade became known as the World
Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO established rules for global trade, settled trade disputes, and increased globalization (increasing
trade relations all over the world). Other international organizations the U.S. participated in were the United Nations, North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO), Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and the
Organization of American States (OAS).
Benefits of Participation in International Organizations
Participation in international organizations led to improvements in economies and security, provided a place to state our point of view,
strengthened our relationships with other countries, helped tackle global problems, and helped spread democracy. Participation in
international organizations also limited our nation’s own sovereignty (freedom to do what we want), involved the U.S. in world
problems, and cost the U.S. billions of dollars.
China
Clinton pressed China to do a better job protecting human rights in China. A U.S. missile accidentally hit the Chinese embassy in
Yugoslavia. Chinese Nationalists protested by marching on the U.S. embassy in Beijing, China. U.S.-China relations suffered a
setback, but there was no attempt to stop U.S.-Chinese trade. The U.S. helped China join the World Trade Organization.
More of Clinton’s Foreign Policy Initiatives
Clinton maintained friendly relations with President Boris Yeltsin of the Russia. He worked for peace between Israel, Jordan, and the
Palestinians in the Middle East. America and the United Nations ended fighting between warlords in Somalia, and U.S. troops were
withdrawn. Clinton sent U.S. troops into Haiti to return Jean Aristide, an official elected by the people, to power after he was
overthrown by Haitian military leaders. In Iraq, U.S. troops were sent to the Middle East to pressure Saddam Hussein to withdraw
Iraqi troops from the border along Kuwait and to force Hussein to allow United Nations inspectors to enter Iraq to search for
biological and nuclear weapons.
People Who Achieved the American Dream
The “American Dream” refers to the idea that any American can be successful through ambition, talent, and hard work. The U.S. is
seen as a place where achieving success and wealth is possible. Here are some of the entrepreneurs who have achieved the “American
Dream”.
Bill Gates
After recognizing the potential of a personal computer, Gates obtained a contract with IBM to produce the software operating system
for their computers. Microsoft’s software was the operation system of nearly every personal computer in the world.
Sam Walton
Walton started a chain of stores to offer a large variety of products at low prices. Walmart and Sam’s Club became the world’s largest
retailer.
Estee Lauder
Lauder, a Jewish New Yorker, founded a cosmetic company and pioneered the “giveaway promotions.”
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Robert Johnson
Johnson was the first African-American billionaire. He started Black Entertainment Television. BET was the first African American
company listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
Lionel Sosa
Sosa recognized the importance of the Hispanic market. He used his Hispanic advertising agency to influence Hispanics to buy certain
products and to support Hispanic politicians. Johnson was a political consultant to several Republican Presidents.
George W. Bush Presidency 2001-2009
In the 2000 election, George W. Bush, the son of former President George H.W. Bush, ran against Clinton’s Vice President, Al Gore.
Democrats were weakened by Clinton’s impeachment scandal, a downturn in the economy, Gore’s poor performance in the
Presidential debates, and third-party candidate Ralph Nader. Gore won the popular vote (people’s votes) by a half million votes. If
either candidate won Florida, where Bush’s brother was Governor, it would give him enough electoral votes to win the Presidency.
There were questions concerning voting accuracy because thousands of voters had not fully punched in the holes of their ballots to
indicate who they were voting for. The Florida state officials refused to extend a deadline for a recount and Bush was the certified
winner of Florida’s electoral votes. Gore demanded a statewide recount. The Supreme Court ruled to end the recount because there
was no consistent standard for evaluating the voter’s intent. Some Americans believed the Justices were acting against the will of the
people, as expressed in the popular vote, to put a minority candidate who they favored into office.
Bush’s Domestic Policies
The Federal Reserve Board dropped interest rates. Bush pushed through a tax cut which mainly favored the wealthy. This tax cut
helped revive the economy, but led to a high federal budget deficit (government spent more than it received in taxes). Bush introduced
the No Child Left Behind Act requiring states to test all students in English and mathematics each year from third to eighth grades.
September 11, 2001
On this day, Islamic Fundamentalist terrorists hijacked four U.S. airliners. The terrorists flew two planes into New York’s World
Trade Center and Washington, D.C.’s Pentagon Building. The fourth plane crashed into Shanksville, Pennsylvania, when passengers
resisted the terrorists. Three thousand people were killed. Osama bin Laden and his organization al-Qaeda took credit for these attacks.
In 1979, bin Laden recruited Islamic soldiers to resist the Soviet invaders in Afghanistan. Later, this group became al-Qaeda. After the
attacks, bin Laden was sheltered by Islamic Fundamentalists, called the Taliban, who controlled the government of Afghanistan.
Global War on Terror
Bush launched a “War on Terror” against those nations who harbored terrorists. U.S. air and ground assaults destroyed the Taliban
and al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan. Although many members of al-Qaeda were captured, bin Laden was not captured. The
Transportation Security Agency was created to secure U.S. airports. All passengers and luggage went through checkpoints to be
screened. Some Americans wondered if these searches of private individuals were constitutional. The Department of Homeland
Security was created to keep the U.S. secure from all threats, protect high-level government officials, coordinate intelligence
gathering, and detect nuclear threats. The USA Patriot Act expanded the government’s law enforcement powers to conduct searches
and surveillance, to monitor bank accounts and personal information, and to detain immigrants. The National Security Agency was
authorized to wiretap suspected terrorist callers’ private communications without first obtaining a warrants. Later, the Supreme Court
ruled these warrantless wiretaps unconstitutional. Suspected terrorists captured in Afghanistan were imprisoned at Guantanamo, Cuba,
where the rights required by the U.S. Constitution did not have to be given to the accused. The Department of Justice believed limited
torture techniques, such as “water-boarding” (pouring water on the face of a prisoner to create the sensation of drowning) were
justified to obtain information on future attacks. Some Americans felt prisoners were treated inhumanely and wanted Guantanamo Bay
closed. Military tribunals (trials) on American soil would put legal residents who were not U.S. citizens on trial for terrorism. Many of
these activities raised constitutional questions.
The War in Iraq
President Bush feared that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein would provide biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons to terrorists.
Hussein denied he possessed Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) and refused to allow United Nations inspectors to search Iraq.
Later, he allowed the inspections, but many felt the inspections were not thorough enough. The U.S., Britain, and Spain warned Iraq to
surrender his WMDs or face invasion. France, Germany, and Russia wanted further inspections. Afraid that Hussein would use delays
to hide his weapons, Bush gave him 48 hours to leave Iraq or face invasion. When Hussein refused to leave, coalition forces (troops
from several nations) took military action. After a series of airstrikes and ground battles, U.S. troops entered Baghdad (capital of Iraq)
and Hussein’s government collapsed. Hussein was later captured, tried for crimes against Iraqi citizens, and executed. In 2005, Iraqi
voters elected representatives, making Iraq the first Arab democracy in the Middle East.
The War Effort in Iraq
Former supporters of Hussein, radical Shiite Muslims, and Iraqis were angry at foreign intervention in their country. The major ethnic
groups were fighting each other. At Abu Ghraib prison, U.S. forces were caught in the act of torturing and humiliating Iraqi prisoners.
Because of these things, the U.S. war in Iraq continued causing the deaths of as many as 1,000 people each month. Bush announced a
new “surge” strategy sending 20,000 additional troops to Iraq to secure local neighborhoods, protect the Iraqi population, guard Iraqi’s
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borders, and strike at al-Qaeda forces. This surge reduced the violence in Iraq. In another close election, President Bush defeated John
Kerry and remained our President.
Hurricane Katrina
Hurricane Katrina led to the evacuation and flooding of 80% of New Orleans, Louisiana, and other parts of the Gulf Coast. Katrina
was the costliest hurricane on record and one of the deadliest (1,800 people died) natural disasters in American history. Most of the
damage occurred when the levees (constructed ridges or walls to prevent flooding) in New Orleans failed to hold back the storm
water. Because of delayed rescue efforts, many were stranded for days on rooftops and in attics. Almost 20,000 people were trapped in
New Orleans’ Superdome facing heat and unsanitary conditions.
Financial Crisis of 2008-2009
At the end of Bush’s second term, the U.S. faced the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. Because of Federal Reserve
policies and growth of globalization (increasing worldwide social, economic, and political connections among the different countries)
our economy collapsed. When the stock market dropped, the Federal Reserve lowered interest rates to stimulate the economy. Many
people began borrowing money to purchase homes. Banks loaned money to borrowers who could not afford their homes.
Increasing homeownership caused house prices to rise. Mortgages were sold to other banks or investors. Overproduction of houses led
to falling house prices. Some people had special mortgages that adjusted to higher interest rates. So, homeowners found their
mortgages going up and couldn’t pay them. This led to a high number of foreclosures (homeowners losing their homes to the banks
because they can’t afford to pay their mortgages). The federal government gave rebates (giving money back) to taxpayers and
businesses to stimulate the economy and took over the nation’s largest mortgage lenders. Some mortgage businesses (Lehman
Brothers) began to fail and others were on the edge of collapse. Banks stopped lending money and credit dried up. The Emergency
Economic Stabilization Act authorized the Department of Treasury to spend $700 billion to buy distressed investments and to provide
funds to banks to prevent them from failing. The Treasury and the Federal Reserve provided emergency funds to the insurance giant
AIG, several brokerage houses, and the nation’s largest banks.
Obama’s Presidency
The Democrats attacked the Republicans for the financial crisis and the war in Iraq. It looked as if former First-Lady Hillary Clinton
would become the Democratic nominee, until a young Senator from Illinois took the Democratic nomination in one of the closest
primary elections in history. The Republicans chose John McCain, a veteran and former prisoner-of-war in Vietnam. Oprah Winfrey,
one of the world’s wealthiest women and highest paid entertainer, had the most-watched daytime television show at the time. Winfrey
endorsed (supported) Obama for President which helped Obama win the women’s vote. Obama criticized the war in Iraq, promised
health care reform, wanted the closing of Guantanamo Bay, called for citizenship of undocumented aliens, spoke out against tax cuts
for the wealthiest Americans, and promised no tax increases on the middle class. To help pull in the women’s vote, John McCain
chose Alaskan Governor Sarah Palin, as his Vice-Presidential running mate. The son of a Kenyan father and white American mother,
Obama became the first African-American to be elected President.
Obama Responds to the Financial Crisis
Obama planned to stimulate the economy by creating jobs to rebuild roads, schools, bridges, and tunnels. He also wanted changes to
our nation’s health care and educational systems. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act spent $700 billion to create new
jobs, save existing jobs, spur economic activity, and invest in long-term infrastructure (basic physical structures, organizations,
services, and facilities needed for the operation of a society such as roads, transportation, sewage systems, water plants, electrical
plants, telecommunication, etc.) development. Part of the money would be spent by the federal government and some of this money
would go to state governments for spending. Laws were passed to regulate credit cards, lending, and other bank practices. Steps were
taken to save the U.S. auto industry from failing. A health care reform act was passed making heath care available to more Americans.
Supreme Court Appointments
Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor to become the first Hispanic Justice and third woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. Later,
he nominated another woman, Elena Kagan, to the U.S. Supreme Court.
Obama’s Foreign Policies
Obama encouraged Pakistan to be more aggressive in fighting terrorism. U.S. forces found and killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan.
Even after increased economic and political sanctions (penalties or other means of enforcement used to force obedience to a request),
Iran continued to develop nuclear weapons. Iran sponsored terrorist groups and had openly threatened to destroy Israel. During the
“Arab Spring” (revolutionary wave of pro-democracy demonstrations, protests, and civil wars sweeping through the Middle East and
North Africa), Obama discouraged dictators from using force against democracy movements in Tunisia, Yemen, Syria, and Egypt.
Obama authorized airstrikes against Libya to defend anti-Gaddafi rebels, which led to Gaddafi’s death. In Iraq, U.S. troops were
gradually replaced by Iraqi security forces. Terrorism continued against the new Iraqi government. Obama wanted to work on
achieving a Jewish state and a Palestinian state living side-by-side in peace. To stabilize the country of Afghanistan, more U.S. troops
were sent to that country. President Obama maintained close ties with Europe as they went through a financial crisis similar to our
financial troubles. China exported a large number of goods to America and bought a great deal of U.S. Treasury notes which
supported our huge American debt.
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The U.S. in a Global Era
Technology is the use of tools and techniques to meet human needs. Many times technology applies scientific discoveries to solve
practical problems.
Innovations in the Workplace
Innovation is using creativity to invent a product or process and using resources and organization to produce it or put it into effect.
Innovations include the transistor, integrated circuit, computer, Internet, light emitted diode (LED), Global Positioning System (GPS),
and the UNIX computer operating system. Innovations, like robotics, can lead to increased workplace productivity. Manufacturers
spend huge amounts of money storing large inventory for parts they will use in the future. To save on storage costs, Hewlett Packard’s
J-I-T (just-in-time) production is a system where parts arrive at the precise time they are needed by workers. The ability of computers
to track inventory makes this possible. Time-study analysis is when a trained observer records how long it takes a worker to perform a
certain task. This helps managers improve production methods and become more efficient.
Free Enterprise and Technological Innovation
Copyright and patent laws give writers and inventors exclusive rights to their creations. In a free enterprise system which allows
people to produce goods and services for others, scientists, inventors, and entrepreneurs need to pay attention to the needs of the
consumers so they can profit by meeting the needs of the consumers. Running shoes, personal computers, gel toothpaste, cellular
phones, BlackBerrys, iPhones, and global positioning systems are products created as a result of innovation by our free enterprise
system.
Innovations Addressing Specific Needs
AIDS causes people’s immune systems to shut down. AIDS is caused by the HIV virus and can be transmitted during sexual contact
or blood transfusions. Scientists have new drugs to slow down the reproduction of the HIV virus and help restore the immune system.
Scientists are attempting to find a vaccine to prevent AIDS. Scientists are also working to develop drugs to reduce cholesterol (to
lower risks of heart attacks) and to cure Alzheimer’s (disease that attacks an older person’s memory and mental abilities). Scientists
are developing insect-resistant foods with greater nutritional value. The U.S. military and space program have designed jet engines
(now used by commercial airlines) and the Internet (now used by everyone to communicate).
The Computer Revolution
Information technology (IT) has increased the productivity of the American economy. Computers use binary systems to store and
manipulate information. Computers can do logical or mathematical operations and store data or information. The computer has
evolved from using vacuum tubes, to transistors, to integrated circuits, to silicon chips. Computers have become smaller and faster.
Jobs are being created in computer manufacturing, programming, and servicing. Microsoft, Intel, Apple, Cisco, and Google are
household names. The Internet, a world-wide linking of computers, makes it easier to communicate and find information. E-commerce
(doing business on the Internet) is replacing traditional businesses. Supercomputers help the U.S. achieve a competitive advantage in
defense, medicine, energy, environment, finance, manufacturing, and product development. Scientist and engineers from all over the
world are coming to America. Other countries are beginning to catch up. China has 24 of the world’s 500 most powerful
supercomputers.
Medicine and Health
Antibiotics, vaccines, and other medicines are curing many diseases. Americans are becoming more health-conscious by limiting fat,
sugar, and salt from their diets; drinking less alcohol; and exercising more. Tobacco advertising has been limited by the government.
Through identifying human genes in our chromosomes and genetic engineering, someday we may cure cancer, cystic fibrosis, and
sickle-cell anemia.
The Global Economy
Today, the U.S. is integrated (becoming a part of) into the global economy selling our products all over the world. A multinational
corporation (like McDonalds, Starbucks, Nike, Exxon-Mobil, and Chevron) sets up local companies, or subsidiaries, in several
countries. Multinational corporations make and sell their products throughout the world. These corporations control half of the
industrial assets of the U.S. and employ millions of workers in the U.S. and overseas. Multinational corporations impact governmental
policies. If they don’t like the business regulations set up by the U.S., a multinational corporation can move its production to another
country with cheap labor, less environmental regulations, and with lower or no taxes. Competition among multinational corporations
is intensifying (U.S. and foreign automobile corporations).
Energy
Population growth and rising living standards are leading to a greater demand for energy around the world. Because of accidents at
Three Miles Island, earthquakes, and the tsunami in Japan, nuclear power is seen as dangerous. New oil sources in Alaska and the
world’s seas have helped meet our energy needs. But, a damaged BP oil derrick in the Gulf Coast poured oil into Gulf waters
revealing additional dangers of fossil fuels (oil). Energy plays an important part of our economic future. Rising oil prices causes
slowdowns in the U.S. economy and a rise in unemployment. Americans are emphasizing energy conservation and the need to develop
new energy sources such as solar and wind power.
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Managing the Environment
As countries develop and the world’s population grows, pollution of air, water, and other resources increases.
Global Warming
Some pollutants prevent heat from escaping into space. This greenhouse effect raises temperatures to dangerous levels. The U.S.
produces 25% of the gases that cause the greenhouse effect.
Acid Rain
Many pollutants turn into highly toxic acids that are washed out of the air when it rains, destroying fish, forests, and soil.
Erosion of the Ozone Layer
The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation passing through the Earth’s atmosphere. Too much of this radiation can cause skin
cancer. The ozone layer is being destroyed by certain types of fluorocarbons found in aerosol spray cans. These are now prohibited.
Water Pollution
Population growth means increased sewage. This causes a strain on our waste management systems that can lead to dumping of raw
sewage into surrounding waters, killing wildlife and threatening the health of our society.
The Role of Government
Protection of the environment is a governmental responsibility. We need clean air to breathe and clean water to drink, which only the
government has the power to provide by punishing violators of pollution laws. The Environmental Protection Agency and the
Endangered Species Act gave the government special powers to protect the environment. Our federal and state governments directly
own many forest, desert, and mountain areas. Governments are responsible for the costs of floods, droughts, and other environmental
disasters. Governments construct dams, roads, and bridges. Governments make laws for environmental protection, awareness, and
pollution control. Private groups and voluntary organizations (like John Muir’s Sierra Club founded in 1892) help promote
environmental awareness and protection of the environment.
The Global Reach of American Popular Culture
American popular culture has influenced people around the world. U.S. music is played on radio, television, and the Internet. Visual
arts are commercially reproduced in magazines, newspapers, advertising, on television and on the Internet. Our music and art is heard
and seen all over the world. Many American movies have stunning visual effects. Most of our films and television programs depict
American culture and life. Cable and satellite television are expanding the number of programs and channels available. Today, people
throughout the world watch American movies and TV programs, dance to American music, wear American fashions, eat and drink
American foods, and teach English as an international second language. Google, Facebook, and Wikipedia spread American culture.
American Entrepreneurs, television, movies, computers, and the Internet influence other cultures and their views of the U.S.
Changes in American Demography
Demography is the study of population. After China and India, the U.S. is the third largest nation in terms of population. Our
population is shifting from the Northeast and Midwest to the Sunbelt. Because of this shift, California, Texas, and Florida are growing
in population. The most recent population growth is due to immigration. The U.S. has legal immigrants (those who apply for and
receive visas for permanent residence, known as green cards) and millions of illegal immigrants (approximately 15 million people)
who cross the borders of Mexico and Canada without officially entering the country. Most illegal immigrants work for low wages
usually in agriculture, construction, landscaping, or domestic (maids) services. They do not pay taxes, but use our social services such
as public schools and emergency medical attention. Many illegal aliens have lived in America for decades as law-abiding citizens
paying taxes. Many illegal aliens have children who were born in America and who are considered U.S. citizens. How to handle
illegal aliens is an important social issue. People of every racial, ethnic, religious, and gender group have made important
contributions to help shape American culture and American ways of life.
Terms
Standard of living- overall quality of life among a country’s citizens
Gross National Product- yearly value of a country’s total output of goods and services
Per capita income- average yearly income of a country’s inhabitants
Population growth- ratio of births to deaths in a country per year
Literacy rates- percent of a country’s population that can read and write
Percentage of workers in agriculture and mining- developing countries have more of these types of workers than developed
countries
Life expectancy- average life span of a country’s inhabitants
Characteristics of Developed Countries- industrialized, high gross national product, high per capita income, lower population
growth, high literacy rates, less agricultural and mining jobs, higher life expectancy
Characteristics of Developing Countries- reliance on subsistence agriculture, few services or manufacturing enterprises, widespread
poverty, low standard of living, low gross national product, low per capita income, higher population growth, low literacy rates, more
agriculture and mining jobs, low life expectancy
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Subsistence agriculture- farming for home use only, no extra to sell at market/ has a higher percentage of agricultural output that is
produced for personal use rather than for sale
Market-oriented agriculture-production of farm produce for sale on the commercial market/ Market-oriented agriculture is
motivated by farming for profit.
Cottage industry- goods are produced in people’s homes and sold
Commercial industry- mass production in factories to sell in commercial markets
Spatial or Cultural Diffusion- process of people, things and ideas spreading through geographic spaces (Ex: diseases, new
inventions, piñatas, pagodas, etc.)
The Columbian Exchange is the movement of plants and animals between the Old World (Europe and Africa) and the New World
(North and South America). Food from the New World (beans, potatoes) improved nutrition for people in the Old World and helped
support larger populations. Europe brought new animals (horses, cattle) to the New World which improved hunting and mobility. The
Columbian Exchange created patterns of cultural diffusion that still affect the way people live.
Fact- something that can be proven true
Opinion- someone's feelings about a particular topic (An opinion cannot be proven.)
Bias -All sources can be biased. Sources can contain prejudices, stereotyping, exaggeration, and distortion of
historical facts. (Example: “In the interest of civilization, we must take their land. These savage heathens are illequipped to rule their own.”)
U.S. HISTORY TIMELINE
1877-1900 THE GILDED AGE
1865-1900 SETTLING THE WEST
Frontier, Migration, Mining, Klondike Gold Rush, Transcontinental Railroad, Homestead Act, Farming, Great
Plains, Sod Houses, Barbed Wire, Ranching, Open Range, Long Drives, Native Americans, Indian Wars, Battle
of Little Big Horn, General Custer, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Battle of Wounded Knee, Reservations, Dawes
Act, Assimilation
1865- 1900 INDUSTRIALIZATION
Factories, Steam, Petroleum, Internal Combustion Engine, Electricity, Inventions, Samuel Morse, Telegraph,
Alexander Graham Bell, Telephone, Thomas Edison, Light Bulb, Elias Howe, Sewing Machine, Christopher
Sholes, Typewriter, Factories, Unskilled Workers, Sweatshops, Child Labor, Labor Unions, Knights of Labor,
Terrence Powderly, Haymarket Affair, American Federation of Labor, Samuel Gompers, Strikes, Collective
Bargaining, Arbitration, , Capitalism, Free Enterprise, Free Market, Supply and Demand, National Market,
Market-Oriented Economy, Corporations, Big business, Stocks, Limited Liability, Dividends, Trusts,
Monopolies, Laissez-faire, Interstate Commerce Act, Sherman Anti-Trust Act, Robber Barons, Captains of
Industry, Entrepreneurs, Andrew Carnegie, Bessemer Process, John Rockefeller, Standard Oil Trust,
Philanthropy
1865-1900 URBANIZATION
Demography, Northeast, Cities, Skyscrapers, Elisha Otis, Elevators, Mass Transportation, Factories, Push
Factors, Pull Factors, Migration, Immigration, Ellis Island, Angel Island, Melting Pot, New Immigrants,
Tenements, Sweatshops, Ethic Ghettos, Slums, Assimilation, Americanization, Political Bosses, Political
Machines, Corruption, Nativism, Prejudice, Discrimination, Chinese Exclusion Act
1872-1912 IMPERIALISM
Imperialism, Alfred Thayer Mahan, Henry Cabot Lodge, Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani, Sandford B. Dole, John
Hay, Open Door Policy, Boxer Rebellion, Spanish American War, Cuba, Reconcentration, Joseph Pulitzer,
William Randolph Hearst, Yellow Journalism, DeLome Letter, U.S.S. Maine, Theodore Roosevelt, Rough
Riders, San Juan Hill, Puerto Rico, Wake, Guam, Philippines, Platt Amendment, , U.S.S. Oregon, Panama
Canal, Big Stick Policy, Roosevelt Corollary, Dollar Diplomacy, Watchful Waiting, Pancho Villa
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1890-1919 PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
Progressive Movement, Third Parties, William Jennings Bryan, Cross of Gold Speech, Social Gospel
Movement, Muckrakers, Jacob Riis, Ida Tarbell, Lincoln Steffen, Frank Norris, Upton Sinclair, The Jungle,
Settlement House Movement, Jane Addams, W.E.B. DuBois, Ida Wells, NAACP, Booker T. Washington, 16th
Amendment, 17th Amendment, Initiative, Referendum, Recall, Secret Ballot, Primary Elections, Civil Service
Act, Theodore Roosevelt, Square Deal, Trustbusting, William Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson, Federal Reserve
Act, National Park Service, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Alice Paul, Carrie Chapman Catt, Susan B. Anthony, 19th
Amendment, Department of Labor, Clayton-Anti-Trust Act, Child Labor Act
1914-1918 WORLD WAR I
World War I, Triple Entente, Triple Alliance, Assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Central Powers, Allies,
Western Front, Trench Warfare, Eastern Front, Freedom of the Seas, Unrestricted Submarine Warfare, U-Boats,
Lusitania, Sussex Pledge, Zimmerman Telegram, Selective Service Act, Schenck v. U.S., American
Expeditionary Force, John J. Pershing, Battle of the Argonne Forest, Alvin York, , Woodrow Wilson, Fourteen
Points, Versailles Treaty, Reparations, League of Nations, Henry Cabot Lodge, Isolationism
1920s ROARING 20s/JAZZ AGE
Roaring 20s, Return to Normalcy, Red Scare, Palmer Raids, Sacco and Vanzetti, Nativism, Ohio Gang, Teapot
Dome Scandal, Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, Rugged Individualism, Prosperity,
Installment Plan, Henry Ford, Assembly Line, Model T, Frances Willard, Prohibition, Bootleg, Speakeasies,
Organized Crime, 18th Amendment, 19th Amendment, 21st Amendment, Lost Generation, Jazz, Scopes Monkey
Trial, Clarence Darrow, William Jennings Bryan, Immigration Acts, Eugenics, Flapper, Tin Pan Alley, Great
Migration, Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes, Marcus Garvey, Charles Lindbergh, 1929 Stock Market
Crash
1929-1941 GREAT DEPRESSION
Great Depression, Overproduction, Overspeculation, High Tariffs, Businesses Failed, High Unemployment,
Banks Failed, Foreclosures, Homeless, Hoovervilles, Hoboes, Dust Bowl, Okies, John Steinbeck, Dorthea
Lange, Mexican Repatriation Act, President Hoover, Laissez-faire, Reconstruction Finance Corporation
1932-1941 NEW DEAL
New Deal, Franklin Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, Fireside Chats, Relief, Recovery, Reform, National
Recovery Administration, Banking Crisis, Bank Holiday, Agricultural Adjustment Acts, Public Works
Programs, Civilian Conservation Corps, Public Works Administration, Works Progress Administration, Priming
the Pump, Federal Reserve, Gold Standard, Fiat Money, Schechter Poultry v. U.S., Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation, Securities and Exchange Commission, Social Security Act, Tennessee Valley Authority, National
Labor Relations Board, Court-packing
1941-1945 WORLD WAR II
Adolf Hitler, Nazi Party, Benito Mussolini, Francisco Franco, Joseph Stalin, Tojo, Axis Powers, Munich
Conference, Appeasement, Poland, Blitzkreig, Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, Flying Tigers, Allies,
Neutrality Acts, Franklin Roosevelt, Four Freedoms, Winston Churchill, Pearl Harbor, Executive Order 9066,
Korematsu v. U.S., War Bonds, Rosie the Riveter, Office of War Information, Rationing, Victory Gardens,
Tuskegee Airmen, Vernon Baker, George Marshall, Dwight Eisenhower, George Patton, Omar Bradley,
Douglas MacArthur, Chester Nimitz, D-Day, Normandy Invasion, Battle of the Bulge, Holocaust,
Concentration Camps, Auschwitz, Yalta, Bataan Death March, Island-hopping, Navajo Code Talkers, Battle of
the Coral Sea, Battle of Midway, Okinawa, Iwo Jima, Harry Truman, Potsdam, Atomic Bomb, Hiroshima,
Nagasaki, Nuremberg Trials (1945-46)
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1946-1949
Harry Truman, Estee Lauder
Cold War
Cold War, Iron Curtain, Containment Policy, Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, Divided Germany and Berlin,
Berlin Blockade, Berlin Airlift, Communist China, Mao Zedong, NATO, Red Scare, Loyalty Review Board,
House Un-American Activities Committee, Blacklisting
Civil Rights Movements
Harry Truman, Integration of the Armed Forces, Jackie Robinson, Hector Perez Garcia, Mendez v. Westminster
School District, Delago v. Bastrop ISD
1950-1959
Dwight Eisenhower, Interstate Highway Act, Housing Boom, Baby Boom, G.I. Bill (Servicemen’s
Readjustment Act), Economic Prosperity, Conformity, Television, Jonas Salk, Beatniks (Beat Generation), Jack
Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Rock and Roll, Elvis Presley
Cold War
Korean War, Harry Truman, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight Eisenhower, Hydrogen Bomb, Massive Retaliation,
Sputnik, Red Scare, Richard Nixon, Alger Hiss, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, Venona Papers, Joseph McCarthy,
John Foster Dulles, Eisenhower Doctrine, Vietnam, Dienbienphu, Geneva Accords
Civil Rights Movements
Dwight Eisenhower, Jim Crow Laws, Segregation, Sweatt v. Painter, NAACP, Thurgood Marshall, Brown v.
The Board of Education, Earl Warren, Montgomery Bus Boycott, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Rosa Parks,
Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Civil Rights Act of 1957, Little Rock Central High School, Orville
Faubus, Lester Maddox, George Wallace, Southern Democrats, Hernandez v. Texas
1960-1969
John Kennedy, New Frontier, Peace Corps, Lyndon Johnson, Great Society, War on Poverty, Economic
Opportunity Act, Job Corps, Medicare Act of 1965, Urban Renewal, Immigration Act of 1965, Barry
Goldwater, Youth Culture, Hippies, Beatles, British Invasion, Motown Sound, Tinker v. Des Moines, Sam
Walton
Cold War
John Kennedy, Space Race, John Glenn, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Fidel Castro, Cuba, Bay of Pigs
Invasion, Alliance for Progress, Berlin Wall, Cuban Missile Crisis, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, Nikita
Khrushchev, Lyndon Johnson, Ho Chi Minh, Vietcong, Domino Theory, Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Napalm,
Agent Orange, Tet Offensive, Roy Benavidez, Guerilla Warfare, Media, Credibility Gap, Hawks, Doves,
Richard Nixon, Henry Kissinger, Vietnamization
Civil Rights Movements
Sit-ins, Freedom Rides, Birmingham, “Letter From the Birmingham Jail”, John Kennedy, Robert Kennedy,
Billy Graham, March on Washington, “I Have a Dream” Speech, Lyndon Johnson, Civil Rights Act of 1964,
24th Amendment, Selma Marches, Voting Rights Act of 1965, Affirmative Action, Black Power, Malcolm X,
Black Muslims, Black Panthers, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Ghetto Riots, Chicano Movement, Cesar Chavaz,
United Farm Workers, Dolores Huerta, Chicano Mural Movement, Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique,
National Organization of Women, Women’s Liberation Movement, Equal Pay Act, Phyllis Schlafly
1970-1979
Richard Nixon, 26th Amendment, Inflation, Environmental Protection Agency, Endangered Species Act, Spiro
Agnew, Gerald Ford, Watergate, Executive Privilege, United States v. Nixon, Nixon Resigns, Stagflation,
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Jimmy Carter, Department of Energy, Three Miles
Island, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Community Reinvestment Act, Panama Canal Treaty, Camp David
Accords, Menachem Begin, Anwar Sadat, Shah Pahlavi, Iranian Revolution, Iran Hostage Crisis, Ayatollah
Khomeini
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1970-1979 (continued)
Cold War
Cambodian Invasion, Silent Majority, Pentagon Papers, Fall of Saigon, Nixon Visits China, Nixon Visits the
Soviet Union, Helsinki Accords, Soviets Invade Afghanistan
Civil Rights Movements
Regents of University of California v. Bakke, Red Power Movement, American Indian Movement, Alcatraz,
Wounded Knee, White v. Register,Title IX, Roe v. Wade, Equal Rights Amendment, Wisconsin v. Yoder
1980-1989
Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Conservatism, National Rifle Association, Moral Majority, Jerry Falwell,
Heritage Foundation, Reganomics, Federal Deficit, Trade Deficit, Mazzoli-Simpson Act, Sandra Day
O’Connor, Sun Belt, Terrorism, Lebanon, Libya, Iran Contra Affair, Recession, Rust Belt, Bill Gates
Cold War
Reagan Doctrine, Grenada, Peace Through Strength, Strategic Defense Initiative System, Increased Military
Spending, Mikhail Gorbachev, Berlin Wall Comes Down
1990-1999
George H.W. Bush, Recession, Rodney King, Americans With Disabilities Act, Invasion of Panama, Manuel
Noriega, Gulf War, Saddam Hussein, Somalia, Bill Clinton, Ross Perot, Health Care Reform, Hillary Clinton,
Economic Recovery, Contract with America, Newt Gingrich, Clinton’s Impeachment, Yugoslavia, Bosnia,
Kosovo, Genocide, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), World Trade Organization (WTO),
Globalization, China and Human Rights, Somalia, Haiti, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Iraq, Robert Johnson
Cold War
Eastern European Countries Turn to Democracy, Soviet Union Fell, Commonwealth of Independent States,
Cold War Ended
2000-Present
George W. Bush, Al Gore, Election of 2000, Popular Vote, Electoral College, No Child Left Behind, September
11, Terrorism, World Trade Center, Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda, Taliban, Afghanistan, War on Terror,
Transportation Security Agency (TSA), Department of Homeland Security, USA Patriot Act, Guantanamo Bay,
Military Tribunals, War in Iraq, Weapons of Mass Destruction, Saddam Hussein, Abu Ghraib Prison, Hurricane
Katrina, New Orleans, Levees, Financial Crisis, Forclosures, Bailouts, Emergency Stabilization Act, Hillary
Clinton, Barack Obama, Oprah Winfrey, John McCain, Sarah Palin, American Recovery and Reinvestment Act,
Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagen, Pakistan, Osama bin Laden, Iranian Sanctions, “Arab Spring”, Iraq, Israel,
China, Lionel Sosa
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