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ЎЗБЕКИСТОН РЕСПУБЛИКАСИ ОЛИЙ ВА ЎРТА МАХСУС
ТАЪЛИМ ВАЗИРЛИГИ
БУХОРО ДАВЛАТ УНИВЕРСИТЕТИ
“Тасдиқланди”
Филология факультети
Илмий кенгашида муҳокама қилинган
ва тасдиқланган.
Кенгаш раиси: ____________________
____________________
“___”____________________ 2011 йил
ОЛИЙ ТАЪЛИМНИНГ
5220100 – “гуманитар фанлар, филология (инглиз)” таълим соҳаси
5220100 – “бакалавриат” таълим йўналиши 2-курс талабалари
учун
2011/2012 ўқув йилининг I - семестрида ўқитиладиган
Тили ўрганилаётган мамлакат маданияти
фанидан
Маърузалар матни ва уларда ўқитиш
технологиялари
БУХОРО – 2011
LECTURE I
FOCUS ON BRITAIN: BRIEF GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE
Discussion points:
1. Introductory notes
2. The English
3. Land and people
Key words: nation, population, the English, Scots, kingdom, English Channel, Pennine,
Scotland, Wales, England, customs, stay-at-home.
The English
Almost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The French are supposed to
be amorous, gay, fond of champagne; the Germans dull, formal, efficient, fond of
military uniforms, and parades; the Americans boastful, energetic, gregarious and
vulgar.
The English are reputed to be cold, reserved, rather haughty people who do
not yell in the street, make love in public or change their governments as often as
they change their underclothes. They are steady, easy-going, and fond of sport.
The foreigner's view of the English is often based on the type of Englishman he
has met travelling abroad.
Since these are largely members of the upper and middle classes, it is obvious
that their behaviour cannot be taken as general for the whole people. There are,
however, certain kinds of behaviour, manners and customs which are peculiar to
England.
The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. There is no place like home, they
say. And when the man is not working lie withdraws from the world to the company of
his wife and children and busies himself with the affairs of the home.
"The Englishman's home is his castle", is a saying known all over the world; and
it is true that English people prefer small houses, built to house one family, perhaps
with a small garden. But nowadays the shortage of building land and inflated land
values mean that more and more blocks of flats are being built, and fewer detached
and semi-detached houses.
The fire is the focus of the English home. What do other nations sit round? The
answer is they don't. They go out to cafes or sit round the cocktail bar. For the
English it is the open fire, the toasting fork (i.e. a long fork on which bread is toasted
before the fire to make it crisp) and the ceremony of English tea. Even when central
heating is installed it is kept so low in the English home that Americans and Russians
get chilblains, as the English get nervous headaches from stuffiness in theirs.
Foreigners often picture the Englishman dressed in tweeds, smoking a pipe, striding
across the open countryside with his dog at his heels. This is a picture of the aristocratic
Englishman during his holidays on his country estate.
Since most of the open countryside is privately owned there isn't much left for
the others to stride across. The average Englishman often lives and dies without ever
having possessed a tweed suit.
Apart from the conservatism on a grand scale which the attitude to the
monarchy typifies, England is full of small-scale and local conservatisms, some of them
of a highly individual or particular character.
Regiments in the army, municipal corporations, schools and societies have their
own private traditions which command strong loyalties. Such groups have customs of
their own which they are very reluctant to change, and they like to think of their
private customs as differentiating them, as groups, from the rest of the world.
Most English people have been slow to adopt rational reforms such as the metric
system, which came into general use in 1975. They have suffered inconvenience from
adhering to old ways, because they did not want the trouble of adapting themselves to
new. All the same, several of the most notorious symbols of conservatism are being
abandoned.
The twenty-four hour clock was at last adopted for railway timetables in the
1960s—-though not for most other timetables, such as radio programmes.
In 1966 it was decided that decimal money (i.e. the new decimal monetary
system introduced in 1971, the pound being made up of 100 pence; previously the
pound consisted of 20 shillings and each shilling of 12 pence) would become regular
form in 1971 — though even in this matter conservatism triumphed when the
Government decided to keep the pound sterling as the basic unit, with its onehundredth part an over-large "new penny".
The English are amongst the most amiable people in the world; they can also
be very ruthless. They have a genius for compromise, but can enforce their
idea of compromise on others with surprising efficiency. They are generous in
small matters but more cautious in big ones.
Land and People
Although you may think of Britain as England, it is really four countries in
one. There are four very distinct nations within the British Isles: England,
Scotland, Wales and Ireland, each with their own unique culture, history, cuisine,
literature and even languages.
Scotland in the north and Wales in the west were once separate countries.
They have different customs, traditions, language and, in Scotland's case, different
legal and educational systems, all fought over with the English centuries ago, and
even now not entirely resolved. Both the Scottish language Gaelic, and particularly
Welsh, can still be heard spoken in each country, but nevertheless English is still
their main language.
The awe inspiring Highlands of Scotland or the isolated islands of Scottish
Hebrides possess some of Britain's most dramatic landscapes. Wales offers a land
of myths and legends with imposing castles on just about every hilltop.
Snowdonia, in north Wales, is Britain's most majestic national park. As for
Iceland, its greatest asset is its people. No matter where you go on the "emerald
island" you will be embraced by the Irish people's hospitality.
Moreover, the British speak English in an infinite variety of regional accents a
Yorkishman sounds very different to an East London "Cockney"(Cockney — a
person from the East End of London, usually someone who speaks with a strong
accent. Only someone born near enough to hear Bow Bells, the bells of St Mary-le-
Bow church in the City of London, is considered to be a true Cockney), or to a
Glaswegian but they will all give you an especially warm welcome nonetheless.
Not only accents but attitudes and even food change from region to region.
Scotland is famous for its haggis (Haggis — a food eaten in Scotland, made from the
heart and other organs of a sheep cut up and boiled inside a skin made from the sheep's
stomach. Haggis is typically eaten with boiled turnips and potatoes, known in
Scotland as "neeps and tatties"), its Scotch broth (vegetable and barley soup) and
cock-a-leekie (chicken and leak soup with prunes); Wales for its Welsh cakes and
bara britth (speckled bread), both eaten at tea-time; and English for its variety of
cheeses: Cheshire, Cheddar or Wensleydale to name a few.
And there are scores of local dishes unique to just one town or area, such as
the clotted cream teas of the West Country or Yorkshire pudding^, which is not a
pudding at all, but savoury and eaten with roast beef.
The British Isles enjoy a mixture of disparate cultures and life styles. City
lovers should begin in London. Currently undergoing a cultural renaissance it's the
place to see and be seen in. The other British cities also offer variety. Soak up the
past in York, an ancient and well preserved city, which in places looks much the
same as it must have done to its inhabitants in the 15th century.
By contrast Blackpool, a seaside resort on the northwest coast, has only been
developed since the 1850s and was designed purely for holiday fun. Manchester and
Glasgow have clubs which rival London, while Cardiff and Belfast have some of the
best shopping arcades in the country.
Britain is country rich in history and traditions. History has left its imprint in
the form of many legends — the folk hero Robin Hood, who stole from the rich to
give to the poor; Dick Turpin (Turpin, Dick (1706-1739) - an English
highwayman who was hanged at York, but who later came to be sung as a popular
hero) the infamous highwayman and the Scottish Loch Ness Monster.
You can come across other tales of dragons and monsters, and knights in
shining armour everywhere in Britain. It is impossible to mention all the museums
and heritage parks that can educate and illuminate.
For those into night life, Britain boasts thousands of venues where you can
enjoy world famous bands like Oasis, Blur, The Prodigy, Radiohead... the list
goes on. Each of the major cities has its own tradition and culture to explore - as
does each of Britain's regions.
Lоcal events and festivals based on customs and traditions which have
evolved over the centuries, bring out an endearing side of the British character.
These include colourful English Morris dances (the dances, are associated with
fertility rites for crops and cattle); well dressing in Derbyshire (a
thanksgiving for the gift of water); Guy Fawkes Day (celebrating the failed
attempt to blow up Parliament on 5 November, 1605) and the Scottish "First
Footing" tradition on Hogmanay or New Year's Eve, (the First Foot to pass over
the threshold of the house bearing a gift ensures good luck and prosperity for the
following year).
Haunting mountains and tranquil lakes, rolling hills and wooded valleys,
rugged coastlines and peaceful estuaries... Britain is a land of unspoiled natural
beauty, where the mood and rhythm of the countryside change from one region to
another, and from season to season.
The British weather creates an ever-changing pageantry of deep blue skies,
cloud-drifts, mist, rain and showers, frosts, dew or snow; and days of gusting
winds or of calmness, with barely a breeze. Throughout the ages the weather has
inspired artists and helped to form Britain's verdant countryside.
Britain's landscape varies from the soft rolling hills of Southern England,
through the flatter expanses of Midlands and Eastern England, to the dramatic hills
and lakes of Northern England, Wales and Scotland.
Britain is a deceptively large island and is surrounded by some very beautiful
coastline. The south of England has popular sandy beaches, especially in the west.
But the coast in south west Wales is a unique coastal National Park (protected from
development). Its beaches are great for sunbathing and the rock pools and cliffs are
havens for wildlife. Up in Scotland, the striking white beaches of the west coast
and islands are excellent places for explorative walks.
The British are enthusiastic about their sports, and the best loved are football,
rugby and cricket - that game still so often seen on English village greens with men in
pristine "whites". But more people prefer to watch than to take part.
As to the geographical position, the British Isles lie to the north-west of the
continent of Europe and consist of two main islands, the larger of which is Great
Britain, and the smaller is Ireland.
These and over five hundred small islands are known collectively as the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with a total area of 242,5
thousand sq. km. Great Britain is made up of England, Wales and Scotland.
So, Britain comprises Great Britain (England,_Wales and Scotland) and
Northern Ireland, and is one of the 27 member-states of the European Community. Its
full name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The north-west and west of Great Britain is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean. In
the west the country is also washed by the Irish Sea. The eastern coast is open to the
waters of the North Sea. The south-eastern tip of Great Britain is separated from
France by the English Channel which is 32 km wide at its narrowest point.
Northern Ireland which lies to the west of Great Britain is separated from it by
the North Channel and is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea.
Great Britain is very irregularly shaped, being deeply indented by numerous
gulfs of the sea; no part of the country is more than 120 km from the sea.
Britain constitutes the greater part of the British isles, a geographical term for a
group of islands lying off the north-west coast of mainland Europe and the next
largest comprises Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic.
Off the southern coast of England is the Isle of Wight ^ and off the extreme
south-west are the Isles of Scilly; off north Wales is Anglesey. Western Scotland is
fringed by the large archipelago known as the Hebrides and to the north east of the
Scottish mainland are Orkney and Shetland.
All these have administrative ties with the mainland, but the Isle of Man in the
Irish Sea and the Channel Islands between Great Britain and France are largely selfgoverning, and are not part of the United Kingdom.
With an area of some 244,100 sq km, Britain is about the same size as the
Federal Republic of Germany, New Zealand or Uganda, and half the size of France. It
is just under 1,000 km long from the south coast of England to the extreme north of
Scotland and just under 500 km across in the widest part. No place in Britain is as
much as 120 km from tidal water.
The prime meridian of O°_passes through the old observatory at Greenwich
(London).
The seas surrounding the British Isles are shallow, usually less than 90 m,
because the islands lie on the continental shelf. To the north- west along the edge of
the shelf the sea floor plunges abruptly from 180m to 900m.
The shallow waters are important because they provide breeding grounds for
fish. The warming effect on the air of the North Atlantic current is magnified as its
water spreads across the shelf.
The climate is generally mild and temperate. The prevailing winds are southwesterly and the weather from day to day is mainly influenced by depressions
moving eastwards across the Atlantic. It is subject to frequent changes but to few
extremes of temperature. It is rarely above 32°C (90°F) or below -10°C (14°F).
Near sea-level in the west the mean annual temperature ranges from 8°C
(46°F) in the Hebrides to 11°C (52°F) in the extreme south west of England; latitude for
latitude it is slightly lower in the east.
The mean monthly temperature in the extreme north, at Lerwick (Shetland),
ranges from 3°C (37°F) during the winter (December, January and February) to
11°C (52°F) during the summer (June, July and August); the corresponding figures
for the Isle of Wight, in the extreme south, are 5°C (41°F) and 16°C (61°F).
The average annual rainfall is more than 1,600 mm (over 60 inches) in the
mountainous areas of the west and north but less than 800 mm (30 inches) over
central and eastern parts. Rain is fairly well distributed throughout the year, but, on
average, March to June are the driest months and September to January the wettest.
The distribution of sunshine shows a general decrease from south to
north, a decrease from the coast inland, and a decrease with altitude. During
May, June and July (the months of longest daylight) the mean daily
duration of sunshine varies from five hours in northern Scotland to eight
hours, in the Isle of Wight; during the months of shortest daylight
(November, December and January I sunshine is at a minimum, with an
average of an hour a day in northern Scotland and two hours a day on the
south coast of England.
MOUNTAINS
The island of Great Britain is quite distinctly divided into two parts: mountainous (north and west) and lowland, sometimes hilly (south and east).The relief
map of Britain shows that its land mass is generally high in the north; it slopes
down to the lowlands, low plateaus and sandy plains of the southern part.
The most important mountain territories are those located in the north in
Scotland, having, in the main, the trend from north-west to south-west. Geologically these mountains are among the oldest in the world formed by ancient hard
rocks with traces of volcanic action. They are deeply trenched with valleys and sea
lochs and river gorges.
The largest valley — the central lowlands —divides these mountain ranges into
the Southern Uplands and the Northern Uplands. The narrow valley of Glen separates
the Northwest mountains from the Grampians where the highest point of the British
Isles, Ben Nevis (1343 meters) with its majestic beauty adds to the picturesque
environment.
From the Southern Uplands of Scotland the mountains stretch to Wales
Peninsula. To the south of the deeply inlanded Solway Firth Gulf, along the
Western Coast runs the mountain range of Cumberland. To the East of this massif
lies the broad central upland known as the Pennines - the backbone of Britain,
stretching up to the river basin of the Trent verging on the English Midlands.
The Pennines form an almost continuous stretch of high land extending to
890 km. In the North the Pennine region is joined to the Southern Uplands of Scotland
by the Cheviot hills, a mass of granite and old red sandstone.
Valleys penetrate from the lowlands on either side into the heart of the
windswept moors. Just as Scotland has her glens and straths, so Northern England has
her ravines and dales, the slopes of all these valleys being steep,with grass carpets
similar to those of the Highlands. The dales are separated from each other by high
heather-covered moorlands or pastures.
The Pennines footlands in the northeast form a very distinct geographical unit
known as North England. In the west the Pennines end abruptly in the Lancashire
lowlands and in the east slope down to the flat plains of Yorkshire. The range
terminates with limestone rocks of Yorkshire and Derbyshire.
The Cumbrians, a most rugged beautiful range of mountains, occupy almost the
whole northern and central part of Wales Peninsula leaving but narrow strips running
along the seacoast as a fringe to the mountains.
In the extreme south-west is Cornwall peninsula open to the winds of the
Atlantic where ancient rocks make a low plateau, rising to the high moorlands of
Exmoor and Dartmoor. Age-old erosion is responsible for the low elevation of
these hills. Cornwall is a hilly country. Between the southern fringe of the
Pennines and the Cotswold Hills in the south occupying the entire area of the
central part of England lies the Midlands, the hilly region of the country.
Lowland Britain extends from the mouth of the river Tyne in the northeast of
England to the mouth of the river Exe. Two parallel rows of chalk and limestone
ridges stretch from the south-west to the north-east, thus separating the Midlands
from the lowlands of southern and eastern England.
RIVERS
The rivers of Britain are short; their direction and character are determined by
the position of the mountains. Most of the rivers flow in the eastward direction
since the west coast is mountainous. Due to the humid climate the water-level is
always high. The rivers seldom freeze in winter, most of them remain ice-free but
they are not navigable for ocean ships. British rivers form deep estuaries, and
strong tides penetrate into them thus preventing the formation of deltas.
The most important rivers are the Severn, the Thames, the Ouse, the Tyne, the
Tees, the Tweed, the Eden.
LAKES
Owing to the fact that British lakes are rather small and remote, with no
outlets, they afford limited economic possibilities in the system of navigable
waterways. The largest of them are Lough-Neagh in north-east Ireland, LoughLomond and Lough-Ness in Scotland.
Most lakes of Scotland especially those situated in the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and north Lancashire are famous for their unique beauty and
scenic surroundings. The sixteen major long and narrow lakes lie snugly among the
steep slopes of Highlands of Scotland. It is a remarkable assemblage of ridges and
deep valleys, smooth slopes and rugged crags, tiny tarns and beautiful deep lakes,
gashed ravines and plunging waterfall's and emerald meadows.
The deepest lake is Wastwater, Rydal Water is a shallow reed-covered lake.
The largest lake is Windermere which lies in the long narrow basin of the valley.
MINERAL RESOURCES
It is not the variety of mineral resources of the land that made the British Isles a
place of abode for people a long time ago. Even the persistent endeavours of many
a prospector assisted by machines of exclusive searching power have not added
anything to their diversity.
Though since times immemorial people have had here all the necessities: coal to
keep their hearths warm, iron, copper, tin and silver ores to make hardware of
intricate designs and mechanical devices of fabulous precision; clay to be used in the
manufacture of various ceramics for beautifying homes and salt, the oldest spice
used by people.
Coal is still the mineral that contributes much to the development of many
industries in Britain. By the absolute deposits of coal Great Britain claims the sixth
place in the world.
Coal-mining is one of the most developed industries in the places where coal
deposits are estimated to be of the highest economic potential. There are coal
basins of Northumberland and Durham, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Nottingham and
Derby, Staffordshire, South Wales, North Wales and Glasgow.
Among other mineral resources, iron ores found alongside coal layers are of
primary importance, but the iron content of most of the ores is very low. There are
tin and copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire, copper and lead mines in
England.
Lead and silver ores are also mined in Derbyshire and Cumberland and
Lancashire. Ore-mining, once a very intensively developed industry (tin-ore
mining in Cornwall, e.g.) now takes a low percentage of the total of heavy industry in
Britain.
The British share in the world's output in this field of heavy industry is
extremely low. One of the minerals that is worth mentioning here considering its
practical value is clay mined in many places of Britain. In Staffordshire it is the
basis of the most flourishing ceramics production. There are deposits of salt in
Chester.
CLIMATE
The greater part of the moisture is said to be in the "rain-shadow". The
Eastern Area is cold and dry in winter and hot and less dry in summer and autumn. It
approximates more closely to the continental conditions.
Autumn and winter are the wettest seasons in Britain. In the western area and
along the south coast the driest month is usually April or May, whereas in the
Eastern Area it is February or March. The wettest month for most parts of Britain is
October with the exception of East Anglia where due to frequency of summer
thunderstorms July is the month in which most rain falls.
On the average, Britain has 204 rainy days a year, with the maximum in
Scotland and the minimum in the estuary of the river Thames.
The climate of Britain is very variable. The marked features that chiefly
determine the climate of England are: the position of the Island in the temperature
belt; the fact that prevailing winds blow from the west and south-west; the
moderate influence of the Atlantic Ocean with its Gulf-stream current; the
indentations of the coast line, making most parts of the country accessible to the
oceanic influence.
Equally important for English weather is the influence of high pressure
system with the anticyclones on the one hand and the low atmospheric pressure
with the winds blowing in anti-clockwise direction from the Atlantic, bringing
summer and autumn storms and accounting for rapid changes in the weather on the
other hand.
Due to the moderating influence of the sea Britain has an insular climate
rather humid and mild with no striking discrepancy between seasons. The Eastern
Areas of Britain reached by the rains after they have already lost.
POPULATION
With some 58 mln people, Britain ranks sixteenth in the world in terms of
population. Great Britain is inhabited by the English who constitute 81 per cent of
the total population, the Scots (about 5,150 thousand people), the Irish (1,350
thousand people) and about 900 thousand Welshmen who live in Wales.
Among other nationalities inhabiting Great Britain there are Gaels, Jews,
Poles, Germans, French people and Italians as well as migrants from India,
Pakistan and African countries.
The national language is English. Some national minorities such as Irishmen,
Welshmen and Gaels speak also their own languages belonging to Celtic languages.
According to their denomination the overwhelming majority of the residents belong
to the Protestants, the rest forming the catholic minority.
The growth of the population was most rapid from the middle of the 18th
century to the end of the 19th. In the last decades of the 19th century the growth of
the population was diminished. It was only during the first years after World War II
that the growth of British population temporarily increased.
According to the census taken in 1969 the population of Great Britain is 57
million people. The density of population varies, but in general it is rather high.
The average density is 226 persons per square km.
The most thickly peopled part of Great Britain is England. The north-west of
Scotland and the Scotland Islands are the most sparsely populated area in Europe.
ENGLAND
Of the four countries which make up British Isles, England is the largest. It
occupies an area of 131.8 sq. km with the population of 45.9 million people.
England borders on Scotland in the North, in the East is washed by the North Sea, in
the South separated from the continent by the English Channel, in the West it is
washed by the Bristol Channel, borders on Wales and is washed by the Irish Sea in the
North-West.
The Atlantic Ocean washes the rocky and broken west coast of England,
Wales and Scotland and is gradually wearing it away, leaving caves, little coves and
beaches of gleaming sand.
For centuries the land of the low and sandy east coast has been reclaimed by the
North Sea. Far up deep inlets such as the Thames and Severn estuaries, great ports
like London and Bristol have come into being, well protected from the violence of
the sea.
On the south coast white chalk cliffs are facing the English Channel and the
cliffs of Dover, the Seven Sisters and Beachy Head can be seen gleaming white
many miles out at sea. The Mainland of England can physically be divided into:
Northern England; The Central Plain; South-East England; South-West England.
WALES
Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides — by Bristol Channel in the
south, St. George's Channel in the west, the Irish Sea in the north. Its territory is
20,8 thousand sq.km. The capital city is Cardiff.
Geographically Wales may be considered part of Highland Britain and is noted for
high mountains with the highest peaks of Great Britain, rivers, waterfalls and lakes.
Wales is a region of heavy rainfall and in the valleys sheltered by the high
mountains from the cold east winds. Its climate is rather mild. Wales has never
been densely populated. Its population is about 2.329 million people who reside
principally in 3 industrial counties of the south — Glamorganshire, Cardiganshire and
Mon-mouth. The Welsh keep their own language, but English is spoken in towns
as well.
SCOTLAND
Scotland is the most northern of the countries that constitute Great Britain. It
occupies the area of 78.8 thousand sq. km with the population of 5.2 million
people. With England lying to the South it is bounded on the North and West by the
Atlantic Ocean, and on the East by the North Sea.
Scotland is noted for the presence of numerous arms of the sea, in several
cases penetrating very far inland. The name "Scotland" (the ancient "Caledonia")
originated in the 11th century, when part of the country was called "Scotia."
The mainland of Scotland can physically be divided into structural regions:
Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands. The mountains and
rocks of the Highlands stand out in defiance of frost, rain and wind as the highest
mountains in the British Isles that had taken their present shape in the Great Ice
Age.
The Lowlands are the cradle of the Scottish nation. This section is densely
peopled. The Southern Uplands seldom rise over 579 metres above sea level.
The chief cities of Scotland are the capital city Edinburgh, the main industrial
centre Glasgow, and the two regional centres Aberdeen and Dundee.
NORTHERN IRELAND
Northern Ireland (area: 14,144 sq.krn.; population - 1,665,000; capital Belfast) occupies the northeast section of the island of Ireland. In the south-west it
borders on the Irish republic (Eire), it is separated from the island of Great Britain by
the North Channel.
Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain of volcanic origin deepening in
the centre to form the largest lake of the British Isles, Lough N'eagh.
The landscape is hilly, the mountains are not very high and are mostly situated
on the fringe of the plateau. The hills have gently rounded outlines traversed by
numerous glens. Antrim plain lies in the north-east of Northern Ireland, the granite
mountains of Morn stretch to the south of this plateau, Sperrin mountains rise in the
north-west.
The coastline of Northern Ireland is rugged with rocks and cliffs, it is indented
by gulfs and bays.
Northern Ireland has a typical oceanic climate with mild damp winter (mean
temperature in January is +4°, + 5°) and cool rainy summer (mean temperature in
July is+14°,+15°).
The average amount of rainfall is 1100 mm. The net of the rivers is rather
thick, the main rivers, Erne, Logan and Bann are deep and are connected by
navigable canals.
Forests are rather scarce, moors and meadows prevail. Northern Ireland is an
agrarian-industrial district with small farming units. Most of the arable land is used for
crops especially oats and potatoes, large areas are given over to cattle rearing,
pastures and hay.
In the lower reaches of the rivers and on the coast the population is occupied
with fishing. Light industry is developed in Northern Ireland, ship-building, machinebuilding and food industry prevail.
The main cities and ports are Belfast and Londonderry.
The French are supposed to
be amorous, gay, fond of
champagne; the Germans
dull, formal, efficient, fond
of military uniforms, and
parades; the Americans
boastful, energetic,
gregarious and vulgar.
Northern Ireland has a
typical oceanic climate
with mild damp winter
(mean temperature in
January is +4°, + 5°) and
cool rainy summer (mean
temperature in July
is+14°,+15°).
Northern
Ireland
area:
14,144
sq.km.
population
1,665,000
capital
Belfast
МАЪРУЗАЛАРНИ ЎҚИТИШ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАРИ:
1-МАВЗУ: FOCUS ON BRITAIN: BRIEF GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE.
2 – СОАТ
1.1 Маърузанинг олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
1. Introductory notes
Маъруза режаси
1. The English
2. Land and people

Тили
ўрганилаётган
маданияти
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
мамлакат
фанининг
мазмун-
моҳиятини англаш;

Тили
ўрганилаётган
маданияти
фанининг
мамлакат
мақсад
ва
вазифаларини ўрганиш;

Фаннинг
педагогик
аспектларини
ўрганиш
таҳлил қилиш;
- nation,
- population,
- the English,
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
- Scots,
- kingdom,
- English Channel,
- Pennine,
- Scotland,
- Wales,
- England,
- customs,
- stay-at-home.
ва
прагматик
ва
уларни
Педагогик вазифалар
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабаларни тили ўрганилаётган мамлакат Талабалар тили ўрганилаётган мамлакат
маданияти фанининг мақсад ва вазифалари маданияти
билан таништирилади
Фаннининг
педагогик
фанининг
мақсад
ва
вазифалари ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
ва
прагматик Фаннининг
аспектлари ҳақида маълумот берилади.
педагогик
аспектлари
ҳақида
ва
прагматик
маълумотга
эга
бўладилар.
Тили ўрганилаётган мамлакат маданияти Тили ўрганилаётган мамлакат маданияти
фанининг
бошқа
фанлар
билан
ўзаро фанининг бошқа фанлар билан ўзаро
алоқаси мисоллар ёрдамида тушунтириб алоқаси мисоллар ёрдамида тушунтириб
берилади.
бера олдилар.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Маъруза, намойиш, блиц сўров, кластер,
ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Маъруза матни, компютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
Ўқитиш
усулларини
қўллаш
мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат,ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Маърузанинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2-босқич
Асосий
жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3-босқич
Якуний
босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1. Ўқув фанининг номини айтади,
предметнинг дастлабки умумий тасаввурини Тинглайди ва ёзади
беради. Услубий ва ташкилий томонлари,
талабалар билимларини баҳолаш
мезонларини ва фан структурасини
таништиради.
1.2. Мазкур фаннинг ўрганиладтган
Мавзу номини ёзиб
мавзулари бўйича назарий ва амалий
оладилар.
машғулотлар, уларнинг узвийлиги хақида
қисқача маълумот бериди, Асосий
адабиётлар рўйхати билан таништиради.
Ўқув дастурини талабаларга таништиради.
1.3. Маъруза дарсининг мақсади ва ўқув
Саволларга жавоб
фаолияти натижаларини айтади.
беради.
Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга тортиш учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
2.1. Маъруза режасининг барча саволлари Тинглайди, ўрганади,
бўйича визуал материални намойиш қилади. ёзади, аниқлайди,
Мавзунинг
асосий
жойларини
ёзиб саволлар беради.
олишларини сўрайди.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол жавоб ўтказади.. 1.
Асосий жойларни
1. What are the four nations within the ёзади.
British Isles? How are they different?
2. What do the British Isles enjoy?
Саволларга жавоб
3. What is Britain rich in?
беради.
4. What does the country boast?
5. What do the local events and festivals Ҳарбир таянч
bring out? What do they include?
тушунча ва
ибораларни
Жавобларни тўғрилайди ва хулосалайди.
муҳокама қилади.
Ёзади.
2.2. Талабаларга эркин фикр айтишга рухсат
берилади ва уларни рағбатлантиради.
Жавоб беради.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва
кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдвги машғулотга кўриладиган
масалани эълон қилади ва мустақил
тайёргарлик кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва унга
тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун саволлар
берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни ўрганишга
Tинглайди.
Мустақил ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
беради.
Slides
The French are supposed to
be amorous, gay, fond of
champagne; the Germans
dull, formal, efficient, fond
of military uniforms, and
parades; the Americans
boastful, energetic,
gregarious and vulgar.
Northern
Ireland
area:
14,144
sq.km.
population
1,665,000
capital
Belfast
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What are the four nations within the British Isles? How are they different?
2. What do the British Isles enjoy?
3. What is Britain rich in?
4. What does the country boast?
5. What do the local events and festivals bring out? What do they include?
6. How is the British landscape different?
7. What are the British enthusiastic about?
8. If you are in Britain, what part of it will you go? Why? Explain your
choice.
9. England has been a lot of things to different people. What is it to you?
10. Can you compare England with the place you live? What is the
difference? Are
there any similarities?
11. Where does England (Wales, Scotland) lie? What territory does it cover?
12. How can you characterize England (Wales, Scotland)?
13. What is the population of Britain (England, Wales, Scotland, Northern
Ireland)?
14. Name the capital cities of all the countries of Great Britain.
15. What is the difference between Great Britain and the United Kingdom?
16. What is the Commonwealth?
17. Where is Ben Nevis situated?
18. Name the highest mountain peak of Britain.
19. Which is the longest (deepest) river of Britain?
20. Explain the origin of "Scotland".
LECTURE II.
ENGLAND IN THE PERIOD OF ANCIENT HISTORY
Key words: pre-Celtic, Stone Age, Picts, Gaels, Scots, conquest, invasion,
Brythons, rites, civilization, romanization
Discussion items:
1. The pre-Celtic period
2. The Celts
3. The Roman conquest
4. The Anglo-Saxon invasion
1. The Pre-Celtic Period
As far as historical research could establish, the first inhabitants of the
British Isles were nomadic Stone Age hunters. They probably lived in the dry
caves of the limestone and chalk hills. The Paleolithic population unable with their
rude stone tools to cope with the impassable woods and wild tangled bush growth
that covered nearly the whole of the land, had to rely upon the bounty of nature.
They must have lived on what the woods, the ocean and the rivers had to offer.
• Historians refer to the
original population as the Scots
and Picts with whom newcomers
started merging. It was the
geographical position that
attracted the newcomers: the
way of Mediterranean civilization
across the North Sea to
Scandinavia, rich in trade amber,
lay straight from the Iberian
Peninsula between what later
came to be Ireland and Britain.
Historians refer to the original population as the Scots and Picts with whom
newcomers started merging. It was the geographical position that attracted the
newcomers: the way of Mediterranean civilization across the North Sea to
Scandinavia, rich in trade amber, lay straight from the Iberian Peninsula between
what later came to be Ireland and Britain.
Those newcomers must have been a Mediterranean people. Among the
suppositions made by historians and archeologists about the Late Stone Age
population of Britain those of special interest to us concern the time (the time is
usually given as around 2,400 B.C.) and the reasons of their migration to the
British Isles from the Mediterranean areas, their territorial distribution there, the
nature of their civilization.
These people are thought to have settled on the chalk hills of the Cots-wolds,
the Sussex and Dorset downs and the Chilterns. They were joined after a few
centuries by some similar southern people who settled along the whole of the
western coast, so that the modern inhabitants of Western England and Wales and
Ireland have good archaeological reasons to claim them for their forefathers* Their
civilization as the monuments show was quite advanced, and the splendour of their
burial arrangements can be taken as a sign of class differentiation.
An Alpine race came to subdue them, however, about 1700 B.C. from the
east and south-east, from the Rhineland and Holland.
•
Historians refer to these later
immigrants who settled in the east,
south east and up the Thames Valley,
as “the Beaker Folk” for they left
a characteristic relic of their
civilization, an earthenware
drinking vessel called “beaker”.
Historians refer to these later immigrants who settled in the east, south east
and up the Thames Valley, as “the Beaker Folk” for they left a characteristic relic
of their civilization, an earthenware drinking vessel called “beaker”. They are
believed to have been powerful and stocky; they surely had knowledge of bronze
and employed metal tools and weapons. They gradually merged with the previous
arrivals; in the Salisbury plain area evidence of both races was discovered, and the
mixture was later supplemented by more arrivals, though never so numerous or
important as those described.
Bronze Age beaker
A characteristic monument to this civilization, primordially rude and
primordially majestic, made mysterious by the clarity-obliterating centuries, is the
so-called Stonehenge, a sort of sanctuary erected by the abovementioned fusion of
peoples on Salisbury Plain about eleven hundred years B.C. or somewhat earlier.
This circular structure, or rather semicircular ruin as it is now, was formed by a
mere juxtaposition of tall narrowish slabs standing so as to provide support for the
horizontal slab, capping those perpendicular props for all the world like houses
built of playing cards by infant architects reckless enough to disregard the
seemingly precarious balance of the hanging stones - whence the name of the
structure, the "Hanging Stones" (O.E. hengen "to hang"), Stonehenge.
The purpose was believed to be that of a place of worship since the circular
earthwork around the double horseshoe of the standing and hanging stones did not
look like a fortification. The cult was guessed at, and the general supposition
placed it as the sun cult. The geometrical precision of the structure promoted later
hypotheses associating with astronomical observations. Both guesses may be close
to the target, though, for the ancient priests were surely in need of astronomical
data to control their less enlightened believers.
2. The Celts
The thick dark oak and ash woods made even the east and south-east lands
unfit for cultivation while all the implements the islanders had to combat the
thicket and clear the arable land with were unwieldy stone axes or soft bronze
ones. Probably, that was the reason why traces of earlier civilization are only found
on the treeless slopes of Western downs.
Iron tools appeared only after a new stream of invaders, tall and fair, poured
from the continent, from what is now France and Germany. Whole tribes migrated
to the Isles, warriors with their chiefs, their women and their children. The
invasion of these tribes known as Celtic tribes went on from 8 th-7th centuries B.C.
to 1st cent. B.C.
The first Celtic comers were the Gaels, but the Brythons arrived some 2
centuries later and pushed the Gaels to Wales, Scotland, Ireland and Cornwall
taking possession of the south and the east.
Then, after a considerable lapse of time somewhere about the 1 st cent. B.C.
the most powerful tribe the Belgae, claimed possession of the south-east while part
of the Brythons was pushed on to Wales though the rest staged in what is England
today, and probably gave their name to the whole country. Thus the whole of
Britain was occupied by the Celts who merged with the Picts and Scots, as well as
with the Alpine part of the population; the latter predominated in the West while
the rest of the British Isles became distinctly Celtic in language and the structure of
society. The Gaelic form of the Celtic dialects was spoken in Caledonia (modern
Scotland) and Ireland, the Brythonic form in England and Wales.
The social unit of the Celts, the clan, superseded the earlier family groups;
clans were "united into large kinship groups, and those into tribes. The clan was
the chief economic unit, the main organizational unit for the basic activities of the
Celts, farming.
This Celt-dominated mixture of Picts, Scots and other ingredients came to be
called Brythons, or Britts.
The introduction of the iron axe opened up new possibilities; woods could be
cleared and more areas put under cultivation. Later on, with the advent of the
Belgae, the heavy plough was introduced, drawn by oxen. Fertile valleys cleared of
forests could be farmed so successfully that soon the south-east produced enough
grain and to spare. It could therefore be exported to Gaul and the Mediterranean
and luxuries from those lands brought a new brightness to the otherwise austere
existence of the tribesmen. Besides, rough crockery-making, hide-processing and
the like, were practiced.
It was a patriarchal clan society based on common ownership of land. Soon
the primitive ways of land-tilling began to give way to improved methods. It was
then that social differentiation began to develop. Even slight technical
improvements created opportunities for the tribal chiefs to use the labour of semidependent native population. Along with the accumulation of wealth the top
elements of the clans and tribes showed tendencies of using military force to rob
other tribes.
Fortresses were built on hilltops, tribal centres in fact, towns began to appear
in the more wealthy south-east. Among the first towns mentioned are such as
Verulamium, Camulodunum, Londinium.
The population of the town grew apace. Some of the inhabitants of the
continental countries trading with the British Celts, such as the Celts of Gaul, etc.
came over to Britain and settled in Kent, contributing to the civilization of that part
of Britain since they could teach the British Celts some useful arts. The British
craftsmen perfected their skill mostly in bronze work and learned to give an
adequate expression to the subtle artisticism of the Celtic spirit.
The Celts were good warriors. The Celts of the British Isles were heathens
until Christianity was brought to them by later invaders, the Romans. Their
religion was a weird mixture of heathenism, that is the worship of certain Gods and
Goddesses, with the worship of the Sun and Moon, and of Serpent, the symbol of
wisdom. The priests were called Druids and their temples were so superior to the
general run of buildings that the believers were sure they had profited by some
supernatural assistance in their construction. The rites were associated with bloody
sacrifice usually of animals but sometimes human beings.
By the end of the B.C. era there were attempts at unification. At the time of
the Romans’ first expedition (middle of the 1 st c. B.C.) camulodunum is believed
to have been the capital of a powerful chief, Cassivelaun.
Coin of Cymbeline, 'King of the Britons'
With the beginning of our era royal power in the land of the Britons began to
unite great areas. Thus, from 5 A.D. to 40 A.D. the Belgic tribal chief: Cunobelin
(Shakespeare’s Cymbeline) united the Celtic tribes of Southern Britain under his
rule and called himself “Rex Britonum” that is "King of the Britons" - a title which
was impressed on the coins that he struck in his capital, Camulodunum.
It was this king who invited Roman traders and craftsmen to come and settle
in Britain. Some historians attribute the origin of London to this reign (the Celtic
phrase Llyn-din, "Lake-Fort" is believed by some to have given the town its name)
and archeologists state that the first wooden London bridge was built at that time.
The city was called Londinium.
The Romans started infiltrating into the country as immigrants and traders
bringing in eastern luxuries and taking out corn, metals and slaves. Thus, ground
was prepared for the Roman conquest.
3.The Roman Conquest
Many historians attribute the interest that the Romans took in the British
Isles to purely strategic reasons. The thing is, that Gael, at that time but freshly
conquered by the Roman Empire, completely subdued and reduced to the status of
its province, was restless under the Roman yoke and, Britain not infrequently
figured as a sort of Celtic resistance centre. Other reasons could also be found,
however. Under the Belgic tribes, with the introduction of the heavy iron plough,
agricultural advancement elevated Britain to the position of a major cornproducing country.
Now, Rome, more and more parasitical with each decade, wanted food badly
– hence Caesar’s expedition in 55 B.C. when a 10-thousand-strong Roman army
was repulsed by the iron-weapon-possessing Celts with the help of the Channel
storms. A year later the expedition was repeated with the increased army of 25
thousand, and Camulodunum was taken possession of. However it led to
practically nothing more serious than Caesar's departure with Celtic hostages and a
promise of ransom which he doesn’t seem to have ever returned to claim. But
Roman influence came in other ways than that of military conquest.
Trade contacts were developing all through the 90 years separating Caesar's
attempted invasion from the actual conquest. That took place in 43 A.D. when the
Emperor Claudius sent a 50-thousand strong army which landed in Kent and
crossed the Thames. Since that time up to 410 Britain was one of the remote
provinces of the Roman Empire. It was military occupation that the Romans
established, and it lasted 4 centuries.
The Celtic tribal chiefs must have been sensible enough to see when they
were beaten and so agreed to recognize the Romans as their rulers. That could not
be said about the wide masses of the people, though. The people’s resistance grew
to a pitch in 59-61 A.D. when the Celts of what is now Norfolk rallied in an
irresistible avalanche poured upon the Roman strong-holds; Roman military camps
were razed to the ground, separate Roman detachments were annihilated, and
Camulodunum, Verulanium and Londinium were destroyed and burnt down. The
rebellion was headed by Boadicea whom the Celts called their queen (a statue of
this brave lady can be viewed as a monument of historical importance in London
today). But the uprising was suppressed.
The suppression of the Celts was a hard enough job, it tasked the Roman
legions to the utmost. At the end of the 1st c. A.D. when Agricola was the chief
Roman governor of Britain (78-85 A.D.), he invaded Caledonia and in the battle of
Mons Grampius defeated the chief of the Picts, Galgacus. Ireland was in those days
inhabited by the Scots in the 4th cent. The Romans made no attempt to subdue
Ireland; as to Wales, it belonged to the so-called military districts of Roman Britain
together with the other mountainous areas of the north and west.
Hadrian's Wall - the northern limit of Roman occupation
So forts were built at Carleon, Chester and York with a legion in each to
ensure the safety of the occupation zone where the towns were restored and walled
with ditches ( Narrow channel dug in or between fields, or at the sides of a road,
etc. to hold or carry off water) supplementing the protective power of walls.
London was made an inland port and lively trade was concentrated there
since Roman Britain exported grain for the needs of the metropolis and of other
Roman provinces as well, skins of wild and domestic animals, tin, pearls, - and
slaves, too.
London's position was especially fortunate for it was a centre of both
external and internal trade; the Romans built roads leading to the garrison towns.
Three of those roads converged upon London making it a veritable commercial
centre. There were 4 principal roads: Ermine Street, leading to Lincoln and York;
Watling Street from London to Chester; Icknield way connecting London with
Cirencester, Gloucester and Caerleon in South Wales and the Fosse way that
passed through the Cotswolds and connected Lincoln with Exeter, the extreme
south-eastern Roman fort.
The Roman baths
All that no doubt was beneficial for Britain1s agricultural development.
There’s something to be said for the cultural influence as well: Christianity was a
step forward as compared to the heathenish Druidical rites; there was a handful of
Latin words to enrich the Celtic vocabulary. There were some brutal laws that
stayed on after the Romans left, chiefly concerned with the institution of slavery.
Romanization was nearly non-existent in Ireland and Scotland. In the
countryside the old Celtic way of life was preserved, the Celts continued living in
their old Celtic way, passing their native customs and traditions from generation to
generation and speaking their Celtic dialects enriched by some of the Latin words
like “castra” – military camp, “via strata” – street, “vallum” – wall etc.
Roman mosaic pavement with head of a sea god
The decay of Roman power in Britain became apparent already at the end of
the 4 cent.; finally in 407 orders came for the legions to return. Evidently, the
safety of Rome itself was in question. So the Romans left, and failed to return.
th
4.The Anglo-Saxon Invasion
The Romanized Celts were left to their own resources. They had formidable
foes both within and without: barbaric Germanic tribes across the North Sea and
the unconquered Gaelic Celts of Scotland and Ireland. The latter, the Celtic tribes
of North and West, were bitterly resentful of their enemy-tamed kinsmen and were
fully determined to stage a comeback with a vengeance.
The Germanic tribe of the Jutes, believed to have been a Frankish tribe from
the lower Rhine reaches, were the first to arrive. They seem to have been in contact
with the Romans and were well in military matters since they used to serve as
hired soldiers in the Roman army. They settled in the southern part of the island.
Other Germanic tribes that followed in their wake, went about the business
of invasion in a very thorough fashion. They were the primitive Angles and
Saxons, backward Teutonic tribes from the so-called German coast, that is from
the country around the mouth of the Elbe and from the south of Denmark.
They were land-tillers, living in large kinship groups and having a special
layer of professional warriors to do the fighting. By the 4th c. A.D. the latter were
beginning to feel important since their military exploits brought them booty and
took them to distant lands, widening their horizons. Their first raids to the British
Isles were a chance for them to rise higher above the general run of peaceful
peasant, plunder and not conquest being the principal object of such raids. The
desultory raiders in war-bands began to infiltrate into Britain at the end of the 4th
and early 5th cent. The traditional date of their wholesale invasion however is 449450 A.D.
This is the time when migrations of people in Western Europe were
becoming the normal state of thing, and vast Anglo-Saxon hordes poured into
Britain, the object being territorial conquest. They came in family groups and in
tribes, with wives and children immediately following them.
The ancient organization of blood-relations as a social unit was beginning to
decay since the military group was growing in importance. Besides, there appeared
another unit of society, a territorial one – the village or the township as it was
called. The very process of migration, of invading a new country, aided the decay
of kinship group structure, formerly homogeneous: it was going to pieces in the
process of settling as it was sometimes a whole family group that settled on a
certain land plot dividing it in equal shares among the members.
The conquest must have been ruthless in its character. The barbaric tribesinvaders not only annihilated all the remnants of Roman culture, they killed and
plundered and laid the country waste. The Celts were mercilessly exterminated.
After the first shock even the Romanized Celts must have rallied to resist. We do
find mention of resistance headed by Ambrosius Aurelianius early in the 6 th cent.
Another brave tribal leader, King Arthur, organized Celtic resistance so as to make
it a constant menace to the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Hero of Celtic independence,
Arthur became in the memory of the people a defender of the faith, and his knights
of the Round Table, bright examples of all moral virtues. The legends extol King
Arthur's courage and integrity. In fact he becomes a sort of symbol of the Celtic
people's independence and the popular fancy endows him with wisdom and power:
he is stronger than any magician, he is indestructible. Mortally wounded, as Celtic
independence was wounded, he does not die.
The folk legends must have been so full of genuine feeling that even 13
centuries later the depth of that feeling could be fathomed by a poet, to be
crystallized in moving verse. In Alfred Tennyson's “Morte d’Arthur” Arthur's last
remaining knight carries him from the battlefield where all the brave Celts perished
with glory. He makes his way through the mountains of Cornwall where he
“… quickly strode from ridge to ridge
Clothed with his breath, and looking
as he walked
Larger than human on the frozen hills …”
The lines of the poem make the tragedy of the conquered people something
personal and poignant.
Thus the resistance of the brave Celts protracted the conquest period, which
to a great extent determined the political structure of the conquerors' society. There
appeared many independent tribal communities.
Groups of tribes brought together by necessities of their common settlement
formed separate states which chose separate kings.
By the end of the 6th cent. Kent was the only kingdom of the Jutes while the
Angels and Saxons formed 6 kingdoms, three of the Angles in the northern and
central part of the island – Northumbria in the North between two rivers, the Forth
and the Humber; East Anglia in the East, in what is now Norfolk, Suffolk and part
of Cambridgeshire, and Mercia in the Midlands, between East Anglia and the still
unconquered Wales – and three of the Saxons in the southern part: Sussex and
Essex to the south and north of Kent respectively in the south-eastern corner of the
island and Wessex in the western part of the southern section, with Essex, Kent
and Sussex for its eastern neighbors and the Devon peninsula with King Arthur’s
legendary Celtic stronghold in Cornwall, still unconquered, for its western
neighbour.
Prehistoric, Roman and Anglo-Saxon England
МАЪРУЗАЛАРНИ ЎҚИТИШ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАРИ:
2-МАВЗУ: ENGLAND IN THE PERIOD OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
2 – СОАТ
1.1 Маърузанинг олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Маъруза режаси
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
1. The pre-Celtic period.
2. The Celts.
3. The Roman conquest.
4. The Anglo-Saxon invasion.

Келтларгача бўлган давр мазмунмоҳиятини англаш;
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади

Келтлар даврини ўрганиш;

Романлар
истилоси
(ғалаба)
тўғрисида ахборот бериш;

Англо-саксонларнинг
тўғрисида маълумот бериш;
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
pre-Celtic,
Stone Age,
Picts,
Gaels,
Scots,
conquest,
invasion,
Brythons,
rites,
civilization,
romanization
босқини
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабаларни
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Келтларгача бўлган давр Талабалар
мазмун-моҳияти билан таништирилади
Келтларгача
мазмун-моҳияти
ҳақида
бўлган
давр
айтиб
бера
оладилар.
Келтлар даври ҳақида маълумот берилади.
Талабалар
Келтлар
даври
ҳақида
маълумотга эга бўладилар.
Романлар истилосини (ғалаба) тушунтириб Романлар
берилади.
истилосини
(ғалаба)
тушунтириб бера олдилар.
Англо-саксонларнинг босқини тўғрисида Англо-саксонларнинг босқини тўғрисида
маълумот берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
айтиб бера оладилар.
Маъруза, намойиш, блиц сўров, кластер,
ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Маъруза матни, компютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
Ўқитиш
усулларини
қўллаш
мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Маърузанинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2-босқич
Асосий
жарён
(55 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1. Маърузанинг мавзусини эълон қилади ва
унинг режалари билан талабаларни
Тинглайди ва ёзади
таништиради.
1.2. Мазкур фаннинг ўрганиладиган
мавзулари бўйича назарий ва амалий
машғулотлар, уларнинг узвийлиги хақида
Мавзу номини ёзиб
қисқача маълумот бериди, Асосий
оладилар.
адабиётлар рўйхати билан таништиради.
Ўқув дастурини талабаларга таништиради.
1.3. Маъруза дарсининг мақсади ва ўқув
Саволларга жавоб
фаолияти натижаларини айтади.
беради.
Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга тортиш учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
2.1. Маъруза режасининг барча саволлари Тинглайди, ўрганади,
бўйича визуал материални намойиш қилади. ёзади, аниқлайди,
Мавзунинг
асосий
жойларини
ёзиб саволлар беради.
олишларини сўрайди.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол жавоб ўтказади.
Асосий жойларни
1. What can you tell us about the first ёзади.
inhabitants of the British Isles?
2. When the invasion of
tribes Саволларга жавоб
known as Celtic tribes began?
беради.
3. What kind of mixture came to be
called Brythons, or Britts?
Ҳарбир таянч
тушунча ва
Жавобларни тўғрилайди ва хулосалайди.
ибораларни
муҳокама қилади.
2.2. Талабаларга эркин фикр айтишга рухсат Ёзади.
берилади ва уларни рағбатлантиради.
Жавоб беради.
3-босқич
Якуний
босқич
(10 дақиқа)
3.3. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса қилади.
3.4. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва
кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдaги машғулотга кўриладиган
масалани эълон қилади ва мустақил
тайёргарлик кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва унга
тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун саволлар
берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни ўрганишга
беради.
Tинглайди.
Мустақил ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Slides
• Historians refer to the
original population as the Scots
and Picts with whom newcomers
started merging. It was the
geographical position that
attracted the newcomers: the
way of Mediterranean civilization
across the North Sea to
Scandinavia, rich in trade amber,
lay straight from the Iberian
Peninsula between what later
came to be Ireland and Britain.
•
Historians refer to these later
immigrants who settled in the east,
south east and up the Thames Valley,
as “the Beaker Folk” for they left
a characteristic relic of their
civilization, an earthenware
drinking vessel called “beaker”.
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What can you tell us about the first inhabitants of the
British Isles?
2. When the invasion of tribes known as Celtic tribes
began?
3. What kind of mixture came to be called Brythons, or
Britts?
4. What can you tell us about the first towns mentioned
are
such
as
Verulamium,
Camulodunum,
Londinium?
5. What was the only kingdom of the Jutes by the end
of the 6th century?
LECTURE III
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANGLO-SAXON SOCIETY
Key words: civilization, common, holder, military obligations, the ceorls,
Discussion points:
1. Way of life.
2. Anglo-Saxon civilization and literature.
Compared to the continental peoples the Anglo-Saxon society was lagging
some two centuries behind for land was still in communal ownership which
corresponded to the type of social relations that prevailed.
The Anglo-Saxon society was in transition from a stage where the family
group was the basic unit to a state where the territorial unit, the village community
or the township as it was called, was coming up to the fore as the elementary unit
of society.
Even at that early period it was not a community of equals. Class
differentiation was laid to a great extent, by the division into the toiling ones and
the fighting ones, with the latter using their power to the best advantage, i.e.
beginning to exploit those whom they were supposed to defend. From the tribal
organization the society was passing to the beginning of the feudal class
organization.
After the turbulence of the invasion period gave place to the settled routine,
the tribal unit that emerged was a peasant family with a land plot called “hide”. It
was a plot that could be cultivated with one heavy plough drawn by 8 oxen, that is,
from 16 to 48 hectares.
The hide consisted of separate strips of land of 1 acre /=0,4 hectare/ each.
Thus the head of the family, the hide holder, had over 100 strips scattered all over
the common field which was called an open field, "open /here meaning
"unfenced", "with no hedges or enclosures of any kind"/.
The whole field belonged to the village community which was the economic
unit of the period. Every township had two or three fields which were cultivated on
the principle of crop rotation obligatory for all: one of the fields lay fallow while
the others were under crop.
The hide was run by the head of the family; neither the hide nor its parts
could be sold or given away by any member of the family, or the head of the
family himself, without the consent of the whole collective body of the village
inhabitants, that is, it was not considered as private property. The hide owner had,
besides, his share in the common pasture and in the common waste land or the
woods that could be used as pasture for cattle.
The hide ownership was connected with military obligations: in case of war
every hide was supposed to furnish one armed and fully equipped warrior.
The open field system was democratic enough: there was public control over
the cultivation, though the labour was individual; every hide owner heading his
family worked to raise enough food for the family, not for sale. It contributed to
the unity of the township and gave everyone not only equal plots but also equal
rights in deciding how to organize the crop rotation, what to sow, how to determine
the grazing rights, etc.
But the hide was not enough as a holding to furnish - and maintain - a fully
armed warrior since wars were so exhaustingly frequent. So the professional
warriors or thanes undertook to do the fighting in return for certain obligations that
the land cultivators, the ceorls, would willingly take: they would till the extensive
fields that the thanes got from the king for their services, or pay rent as long as the
thane and his fighting followers protected the peace-loving cultivator.
The latter might grow richer, if he preferred fighting and plunder and did
not scruple to oppress Ms weaker neighbors, or he might get poorer if he preferred
honest work since rent or obligatory service on the thane's fields were equally hard,
and then his hide was diminished, divided into shares given to other tillers. When
the division was no longer possible, the peasant was no longer an one-ox share
man, but had to get himself a very small plot, usually of wasteland, and live on the
border of the village, earning as a laborer on the thane's domain, or a village
craftsman. If such was the case, he was called a bordar or cotter.
This differentiation of social classes connected with the transformation of
the village community illustrates the development of feudalism, of class society
and the decay of the tribal society of which the hide was a characteristic feature or,
rather, transformational economic form since it was supposed to be cultivated by
one family of blood-relations.
The eorls, the tribal and communal aristocracy of the 6th-7th cc. were more
wealthy and distinguished but not entitled to any special right, but they exercised
considerable influence on the village meeting /”Galimot”/ decisions.
The wars and the impending unification of the country /it will be complete in
the 9th century/ promoted the appearance of the big, middle and petty landowners
of the feudal type. The warrior was becoming a landowner buying his arms, his
horse and objects of luxury for his family at the expense of the peasants working
for him. This was how the military-landowning estate of thanes sprang into
existence.
So the thane was being transformed into the lord of the manor and the free
peasant - coerl, or ceorl /cp. the Mod. English "churlish, churl", a rude, rough,
gloomy person/ into a serf, at the end of the settlement period. The chiefs, that is,
leaders of the expeditions that took the invaders to Britain during the invasion
period, were becoming founders of the royal dynasties in the kingdoms organized
by the invaders, and they were land-givers to ordinary holders, and bocland, i.e.
land given as special encouragement, freed from any obligation or tax, approaching
private property in status to the eorls or thanes with a written document stating the
possessor’s durable rights and freeing him from any kind of duties.
Thus the salient feature in the formation of feudal society structure in Britain
was the preservation of village community for a lengthy period of time. This, in its
turn, led to the preservation of ancient social institutions, village popular
communities, village meeting or "Galimots" and "hundreds", administrative
divisions of counties.
The bigger territorial units, shires, evolved out of the tribal units; they were
governed by top-layer representatives of the hundreds; the shires were presided
over by "earldormen", the shire heads. With passage of time the community selfgovernment system was changing* The class of feudal lords that was in the process
of formation used the power of kings – a tool not only of personal enrichment but
also of struggle against the democratic ways of the community system. Those ways
were an obstacle to the process of feudalization.
The transition from the tribal structure to feudalism was a step forward in
the development of material production forces and, consequently, of culture.
To sum it up, the Anglo-Saxon society of the 6th-7th cent, had no distinct
class stratification but even that early the сeorls and warriors were striding to
extend and consolidate their privileges, accumulate wealth. Get more and more
slaves.
The invasion helped to advance the Wide as a unit of military, not tribal
organization. The hide holder was a free warrior and frequently, as wars became
more frequent, his holding was not enough to enable him to keep that status with
all the expenditure it involved. So more and more often the fighting was done by
the thane.
Thus, the "division of labor" from which to a certain extent the feudal
system springs, between the war man and the land-tilling man led to such a state of
things where the thane started preying on his land-cultivating neighbours.
The class of feudal lords, thus started, needed royal power as a weapon of
appropriating land and ceorls to cultivate it, as a weapon of struggle against the
communal order of things which was still an obstacle on their way to the feudal
order of things.
Big and middle landownership of the feudal type did not become to any
great extent advanced until the 7th-8th centuries.
3. Anglo-Saxon Civilization and Literature
At the end of the 6th century /597/ - Roman Christianity was introduced. It
was a process that was completed late in the 7th century, and its slow and
protracted nature was probably due to the fact that the village community members
associated the ideas, views and customs of the village community system with
heathen cults and rites.
The religious beliefs of the Anglo-Saxons had reflected the primitive fear of
the incomprehensible forces of nature and of the no more comprehensible ways of
society development.
• Roman Christianity
was introduced аt the
end of the 6th century
/597/ - It was a process
that was completed
late in the 7th century.
Their highest heathen deity was Woden, the war god, since wars were so
important a feature in those barbarous times. The elements were commanded by
Thor the thunder boss, love and fertility were the province of Freya, the love
goddess, and Tiu commanded the darkness.
The names they gave to the days of the week show which day was sacred to
the Sun, the Moon and the night, and how after those the middle of the week was
devoted to the war god and then the thunder god and after those Preya - the love
goddess - appeared on the scene to restore the ravages of darkness, and war, and
thunder, followed by Saturn, the god of agriculture and merry-making, and then
Sunday came again celebrating the life-giving Sun.
Roman Christianity was a reliable ally for the newly-arising feudal lords; it
was indispensable for the king since it sanctified his power. In short, feudalism the formation of the Anglo-Saxon future - had to lean on the Roman form of
Christianity. The Celtic form was outdated for it belonged to the tribal past. The
feudal future required a much colder and a much more ruthless form of religion and the Roman Christianity suited.
The Anglo-Saxons had no big cities, only scattered villages and townships,
that is, arrangements of the house with the wattle-and-mud huts of the villagers
grouped round it. The house had a large yard where much of the housekeeping
work was done with lots of auxiliary buildings like sheds and barns.
The interior arrangements were characteristic: there was always a spacious
hall where most of the family’s social life was spent, where the lord had his meals
with his family, his thanes and his guests. The fare used was very simple: salt,
meat, beef, pork or mutton, eaten off big dishes with no other forks than those
supplied by nature though knives were used to help the fingers.
Drinking was at a much more advanced even at the dawn of Anglo-Saxon
society; no tea is mentioned as the beverage of the period; the drink is usually
described as mead or fermented honey, or brewed ale. The Anglo-Saxons had
learnt to make wine from the Romans.
The ladies did not stay at table long but withdrew to their "with-drawing"
room and the men stayed on to drink more. They welcomed all sorts of wandering
minstrels who would sing, play or tell stories.
When the Anglo-Saxons came to the British Isles they brought nothing in
the way of literature with them though they had their runic writing. Before they
were converted to Christianity and even after they used pagan-sounding charms.
The village community was disintegrating; the ties of kinship were torn
asunder. Greed and injustice triumphed while kindness proved to be a source of
failure.
With great sadness watching avarice, grabbing, violence, injustice kill the
most attractive of human features inherent in the kinship and tribal groups, in the
village community, the ordinary men splendid moral values characteristic of the
tribal personality, as courage, natural justice, willingness to sacrifice oneself for
the general for the happiness of the collective body of tribesmen.
These were the ideas that inspired the poetry. Much of it was lost to posterity
since writing came with the introduction of Christianity, and what was left was
mostly composed by professional poets, who both composed their songs and sang
them while gleemen, performers only sang the songs. Anglo-Saxon poetry
reflected historical legends and primitive beliefs, customs and habits, ties of
kinship and tribal relations.
Early Anglo-Saxon poetry is much on the elegy side deploring loss of
kindness and sincerity in human relations, the brevity of human existence, the
might and the implacability of the mysterious fate.
The greatest monument
of the Anglo-Saxon poetry
/early period/
"The Poem of Beowulf"
The greatest monument of the Anglo-Saxon poetry /early period/ "The
Poem of Beowulf", was created early in the 7th cent, and has 3182 lines full not
only of masterful descriptions and dignified speeches but also of fine lyrical
feeling which is in keeping with the whole body of early Anglo-Saxon poetry.
The plot is simple enough: Beowulf, a young hero of the Geats ( a tribe in
southern Sweden) hears of a sea monster killing the warriors of the king of the
Danes, Hrothgar, right after their feast in the “mead-hall” called Heorot. So he
goes there with his warriors and mortally wounds the monster in the single combat
with his bare hands and then kills, still another terrible, the first monster’s mother,
in a submarine cave with a magic sword that he wrests from the enemy.
The symbolic meaning of the poem was interpreted by many investigators as
a triumph of human courage over the mysterious hostile forces of nature.
There’s another, a later, Christianity-influenced idea of one gaining salvation
for all by the sacrifice of his own life. This can be seen from the second half of the
poem where Beowulf, now an aged king, saves his people from the wrath of a firebreathing monster who hoards treasure in the cave and becomes a menace when
robbed of some part of it by one of the people.
Gold is shown here as a force that threatens the tribal society, that brings
discord and ruin. Desire of gold is the root of all evil, and Beowulf dies protecting
his people from the grave menace.
Literary historians meditating over possible influences that might explain
the high aesthetic qualities of “Beowulf” generally conclude that it was created by
one author, probably acquainted with the tradition of Latin epic narrative, for
definite rules of stricture are observed throughout the poem, and the same
conventions of language are strictly adhered to /comparisons are made, for one
thing, with Virgil's "Aeneid".
There was another opinion contraverted by this later one, classifying the
poem as a sort of synthesis of separate parts created by many scops, probably not
Christian as yet, and then united into a single narrative by a Christian-opinionated
author, treating Grendel aa a descendant of Cain, the Biblical character, and
making allusions to the struggle of God and Satan in connection with the hero’s
struggle against evil forces.
If this earlier criticism has grounds, then the unifying influence that is the
person who welded the parts into a whole, must have been a consummate master of
the art anyway, so thoroughly is the job done, and no stitches showing.
The 7th and the greater part of the 8th century, as it will be remembered,
were the period of Northumbrian supremacy. King Edwin extended the frontier to
the Forth where he built his stronghold that was named after him, Edinburgh; Holy
Island, and the Lindisfarne Abbey, monasteries and churches, became centres of
art and letters, of spiritual and intellectual forces that worked miraculous changes
in the lives of the heathen Angles.
The shaft of the Northumbrian cross at Bewcastle, the illuminated letters of
the Lindisfarne Gospel where every decorated leaf is a work of art, with the clear
serpent design and quite sophisticated composition, the versified Biblical
episodes of Caedmons poetry, the story recent conversion unfolded in Bede’s
"Ecclesiastical History of the English people", all these treasures that survived,
bear witness to those changes.
It was in the north of Britain that Anglo-Saxon literature was actually born
as far as one can judje from the existing monuments, great literary treasures having
been irrevocably lost in the Danish raids from which the North was the first to
suffer.
The Venerable Bede of Northumbria /673-735/ lived in a monastery all his
life, teaching and writing. He wrote on problems of science, such as geography,
astrology, climate, seasons, etc. He also wrote on orthography, metrics and
rhetoric.
His greatest work was lll8Latin "Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum",
the crowning work of his life, written in Latin and completed 4 years before his
death. The work was translated a century and a half later by King Alfred.
In his "Ecclesiastical History" Bede also writes about the first Anglia poet, a
shepherd called Caedmon who, as the legend goes, "did not learn the art of poetry
from men, but from God; for which reason he never could compose any vain
poem, but only those which related to religion".
Caedmon was taken to the monastery of Whitby where since he was
illiterate, the monks wrote his exposition of the Biblical topics that were suggested
to him.
However, literary historians nowadays credit Caedmon with only one hymn
of nine lines, describing the creation of the world.
The latter part of the 8th century was a period of Mercian supremacy. It did
not last long, for Scandinavian raids began at the end of the century and the power
of Wessex was to begin soon. The link that connected Northuibrian culture with
that of Wessex was the poetry of Cynewolf /750-825/, educated at York.
Cynewulf developed a sort of historical legend, versified expositions of lives
of saints in poems entitled “Christ”, “Elena”, “Juliana” and a few others.
The culture of Wessex is inseparable from, and inconceivable without, the
name of king Alfred. He invited foreign scholars and translated numerous books
from Latin. His first effort was the translation of "Pastoral Care"(Cura Pastoralis) a
book by pope Gregory the Great /590-604/ on the duties and responsibilities of
priests. He wrote a preface to it, in which he recalls the pre-conquest state of
culture and complain of the decay of learning in England.
Other translations that
are attributed to
Alfred are
"Consolation of Philosophy",
by Boethius 470-525,
compendious "History of the World“
by Orosius /Ab.500/.
Other translations that are attributed to Alfred are "Consolation of
Philosophy", by Boethius 470-525, compendious "History of the World" by
Orosius /Ab.500/ and Bede’s historical work already mentioned.
He systematized a kind of national diary, called "The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle", a year-by-year account of important historical events in the kingdom
that before Alfred was no more than a set of unsystematic historical notes by
monastery scribes.
After Alfred, there was only one important writer in old English literature
before the Norman Conquest: this was Aelfric /955-1025, appr./, a monastery
teacher turned tamed religious writer. His work that is of special interest for a
historian, however is not of religious nature; the work in question, "Colloquy on
the Occupations", was written by Aelfric in Latin as a sort of teaching aid.
МАЪРУЗАЛАРНИ ЎҚИТИШ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАРИ:
3-МАВЗУ: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANGLO-SAXON SOCIETY.
2 – СОАТ
1.1 Маърузанинг олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
1. Way of life.
2. Anglo-Saxon civilization and literature.
Маъруза режаси

Англо-саксонлар жамияти тўғрисида
маълумот бериш;
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади

Англо-саксонларнинг
яшаш
тарзи
билан таништириш;

Англо-саксонлар
маданиятини
ўрганиш;

Англо-саксонлар
адабиётини
ўрганиш ва таҳлил қилиш;
civilization,
common,
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
holder,
military obligations,
the ceorls.
Педагогик вазифалар
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар Англо-саксонлар жамияти билан Талабалар Англо-саксонлар жамияти ҳақида
таништирилади.
айтиб бера оладилар.
Англо-саксонларнинг яшаш тарзи ҳақида Англо-саксонларнинг
маълумот берилади.
Англо-саксонлар
яшаш
тарзи
ҳақида
маълумотга эга бўладилар.
маданияти
ёрдамида тушунтириб берилади.
мисоллар
Англо-саксонлар
маданиятини
ёрдамида мустақил тушунтириб бера
оладилар.
мисоллар
Англо-саксонлар адабиёти ўрганилади ва Талабалар
таҳлил қилинади.
Англо-саксонлар
адабиётини
ўрганиб, мустақил таҳлил қилиш кўникмасига
эга бўладилар.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Маъруза, намойиш, блиц сўров, кластер, ақлий
ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Маъруза матни, компьютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
Ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин бўлган
ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат,ёзма назорат, ўқув
топшириқ
Маърузанинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
боскичлари вақти
1- босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2- босқич
Асосий
жараён
(55 дақиқа)
Ўқитувчи
1.1. Маърузанинг мавзусини эълон қилади ва
унинг
режалари
билан
талабаларни
таништиради.
1.2.
Мазкур фаннинг ўрганиладиган
мавзулари бўйича назарий ва амалий
машғулотлар, уларнинг узвийлиги хақида
қисқача
маълумот
беради,
Асосий
адабиётлар рўйхати билан таништиради.
Ўқув дастурини талабаларга таништиради.
1.3. Маъруза дарсининг мақсади ва ўқув
фаолияти
натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга тортиш учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
2.1. Маъруза режасининг барча саволлари
бўйича визуал материални намойиш қилади.
Мавзунинг
асосий
жойларини
ёзиб
олишларини сўрайди.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол жавоб ўтказади.
1. What was the definition of the term “hide”
in the Anglo-Saxon society?
2. When was the Roman Christianity
introduced?
3. What can you tell us about the plot of “The
poem of Beowulf”?
4. What representatives of the Anglo-Saxon
society do you know?
5. What was written as a sort of teaching aid?
Талаба
Тинглайди ва ёзади
Мавзу номини ёзиб
оладилар.
Саволларга жавоб
беради.
Тинглайди, ўрганади,
ёзади, аниқлайди,
саволлар беради.
Асосий жойларни
ёзади.
Саволларга жавоб
беради.
Ҳарбир таянч
тушунча ва
ибораларни
муҳокама қилади.
Ёзади.
Жавобларни тўғрилайди ва хулосалайди.
3-босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
2.2. Талабаларга эркин фикр айтишга рухсат
берилади ва уларни рағбатлантиради.
3.5. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса қилади.
3.6. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва
кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдвги машғулотга кўриладиган
масалани эълон қилади ва мустақил
тайёргарлик кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва унга
тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун саволлар
берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни ўрганишга
беради.
Slides
Жавоб беради.
Tинглайди.
Мустақил ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
• Roman Christianity
was introduced аt the
end of the 6th century
/597/ - It was a process
that was completed
late in the 7th century.
The greatest monument
of the Anglo-Saxon poetry
/early period/
"The Poem of Beowulf"
Other translations that
are attributed to
Alfred are
"Consolation of Philosophy",
by Boethius 470-525,
compendious "History of the World“
by Orosius /Ab.500/.
Савол ва топшириқлар:





What was the definition of the
term “hide”
hide” in the AngloAnglo-Saxon
society?
When was the Roman
Christianity introduced?
What can you tell us about the
plot of “The poem of Beowulf”
Beowulf”?
What representatives of the
AngloAnglo-Saxon society do you
know?
5. What was written as a sort of
teaching aid?
LECTURE IV.
MEDIEVAL ENGLAND: EARLY MIDDLE AGES
Key words: medieval, warfare, Northumbria, dominatioin, hierarchy,
unification, supremacy, superiority.
Discussion points:
1. Political Unification
2.The Scandinavian Invasion
1.Political Unification
Class struggle was growing in scope and the big landowners looked for
support and aid, where both support and aid could be obtained - at the court. This
circumstance was an impetus to the political unification of the country which,
however, took three centuries to achieve /VI-IX/.
The seven kingdoms that were established on the conquered territory were
busy consolidating their administrative and political stability. There was much
inner strife going on, members of the royal families plotting agains each other for
the crown, parts of kingdoms getting comparative independence, new kingdoms
springing up and dying away.
After the period of inner warfare, i. e. by the end of the 6 th cent., the seven
kingdoms described above emerged giving historians grounds to dub the period
and the state of things as hierarchy, or the rule of 7 kingdoms. From then on the
period of struggle for domination begins, to last for some 3 centuries.
The first to achieve superiority was Kent. Its supremacy was but short-lived,
so the 7th cent, was the century of Northumbrian supremacy.
The king of Northumbria Edwin extended his domain to the river Forth and
built his stronghold there, which he called Edinburgh. He was early converted to
Christianity and very soon Northumbria became a cultural centre.
It was here that Caedmon, the first Anglo-Saxon poet, created his religious
poems in Anglo-Saxon. Northumbria had territorial advantages and convenient
natural borders, Celtic Christianity was exercising unifying influence and the next
Northumbrian king, Oswald, re-united the kingdom.
Ireland sent missionaries to spread Christianity which had so withered after
king Edwin’s death. The island of Lindisfarne was made headquarters of the
missionaries and the Northumbrian king, seeing how Christianity contributed to
the consolidation of the kingdom, encouraged the new religion.
The Lindisfarne monastery soon became a cultural centre, the art
illuminating the Gospels flourished there to a great - and unprecedented – extent.
But nothing helped when the 2 parts of the kingdom, Deira and Bernicia, always at
war on a small scale, let their bickerings grow to the size of permanent quarrel.
Under those circumstances, Northumbrian ambitious attempts to enlarge its
territory at the expense of the neighbouring states, Mercia in the south and
Scotland in the north, ended in failure and in the 8th cent. Mercia gained the
position of supremacy. The next Mercian king, Offa, crowned his efforts shoving
the Welsh further west and erecting a fortified wall later called Offa’s dyke, to
keep them there.
The fertile plains of the Midlands tilled diligently by hard working people,
kept Mercia wealthy and strong but it had no convenient natural frontiers and early
in the 9th cent., the superiority of Wessex, a kingdom combining the advantages of
excellent natural frontiers, good fertile lands and the initiative of its ruler Egbert,
became apparent.
3 kingdoms
emerged
to contend
for supremacy
Northumbria
Mercia
Wessex
Thus, gradually, only 3 kingdoms emerged to contend for supremacy Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. Finally, Egbert defeated the Mercians in a terrific battle and in 829 proclaimed the political unification of the country, with
himself as its king; he was assisted by the inroads of the Vikings, the Northmen,
into the territories of Mercia and Northumbria which rendered his rivals whose
land was overrun by the remorseless enemy, rivals no more.
Summing up, we conclude that the feudalization process was accelerated by
the Danish raids since they led to the growth of the king taxation, impoverished the
ceorls in many ways apart from endangering their lives so that the peasant found
himself in a need of a strong patron. Thus a free community member had to give
up independence for the sake of safety and minimum subsistence.
The royal power which represented the interests of the feudal lords, a class
that was steadily taking shape, did not give them land but also provided them with
legal guarantees of the peasants’ dependent state.
•
hlafweard,
the landowner,
the Anglo-Saxon
word for "lord“
(OE hlaf “bread” and OE word
Weard "guardian, giver”
Thus the landowner became a hlafweard, the Anglo-Saxon word for "lord"
(OE hlaf “bread” and OE word weard "guardian, giver”; later through metathesis,
transposition of letters in a word, lhoferd; still later, through contraction, lord).
Another step in the evelopment of feudalism was made when the feudal
lord’s power was enhanced by way of the delegation of royal rights to powerful
lords. When very powerful lords appeared on the feudal scene so that the authority
of the traditional township courts was weakened and the lords were granted the
right to hold courts of their own.
It was extremely profitable for the lords who were greatly enriched that way.
As feudal relations were consolidated, changes took place in the
organization of administration. The hundred ealdoman (modern Alderman) was
gradually becoming a royal functionary subordinate not to a village community
meeting but to another functionary who was higher in the administrative hierarchy
and was appointed by the king.
The highest state power was concentrated in the hands of the king and the
aristocratic Witenagemot that included the greatest land magnates, Shires
aldermen, thanes, bishops. They were the king’s councellors but at the same time
they restricted his power since he was supposed to submit the more important of
the state decisions to the Witenagemot’s approval.
From the 5th cent. to the first half of the 11th cent., one step after another was
made on the way to feudalism, so that gradually the ancient was replaced by the
force, elected tribal and community leaders were replaced by the king's
functionaries, the democratic popular community meetings were replaced by the
Witenagemot of land magnates, thanes and bishops, and the feudal lords court of
law came to replace the court of the hundred.
2. The Scandinavian Invasion
So, in the 9 century Wessex succeded in consolidating all the kingdoms
into a unified country, which broke up the tribal structure and advanced feudalism.
Still, England could not be called a centralized state with the strong power of the
king.
The foreign invasion helped the cause of unification for it made unity an
alternative to a complete loss of independence. The invaders who in 793 began
their predatory expeditions were two Scandinavian peoples, Danes and
Norwegians. Later on the Danes became the invaders of England and the
Norwegians constituted the bulk of the hosts invading Scotland and Ireland.
They were skillful warriors and cunning shipbuilders; they were ferocious
and unscrupulous fighters and daring pirates.
The Danes surpassed the Anglo-Saxons in military skill and in military
equipment. In 842 they burnt up London, in 850 they stayed to winter in England,
and in the 60ies of the 9th century thy founded their first permanent settlements.
With this as a springboard, they moved to overrun and plunder Northumbria,
Mercia and East Anglia which had already lost their resistance power. In 871 they
founded a fortified camp in Reading that served them as a base for their further
push on to Wessex.
It was the young king of Wessex, Alfred nicknamed the Great (871-899),
who finally stopped them.
th
The year 871
is called
“Alfred’s great year
of battles”
The year 871 is called “Alfred’s great year of battles”, when the Danes saw
that they were dealing with staunch resistance at last and had to make a truce with
the young king.
This was the period when the Scandinavian invasion began to assume new
forms – such as settling down to found kingdoms. This is what they did in
Northumbria and East Anglia.
The conquest of the larger part of Britain began in the 5th cent. and largely
completed by the end of the 7th cent, or in the early 8th cent., had brought the
members of the various Germanic tribes which participated in the invasion and the
settlement of the conquered country, into contacts with Celtic-speaking Britons
living under their domination.
A new language-contact situation was to arise when, in the last third of the
9th cent., Viking war-bands began the systematic occupation of English territory
and the settlement of occupied areas in various parts of the country.
New phase in Viking raids on England began in 865 when a great army
consisting mainly of Danish Vikings landed in East Anglia and, after subjugating
it, went on to Northumbria and capture York, then crossed the length breadth of the
English midlands and penetrated deep into Wessex before the West Saxons
succeeded in bringing their offensive to a halt. Then the other kingdoms became
again the main target of the Viking attacks and, within less than a decade, all of
them except Wessex had lost their independence.
Northumbria shrank to a much-ravaged Bernicia /including Durham and
Norumberland/, while its southern corresponding broadly with modern Yorkshire,
became a Danish kingdom /the York Viking kingdom/. The eastern part of Mercia
was annexed by the Danish rulers and Western Mercia made dependent upon it.
The Danes now devoted themselves to the systematic occupation of East
Anglia but hostilities broke out again between them and the English under the King
of Wessex In 886 GUTHRUM, their leader, entered into agreement with Alfred,
King of Wessex, which defined the southern boundary of the Danish dominions in
East Anglia and Mercia as running from the mouth of the Thames, then up the
river Lea to its source, thence in a straight line to Bedford, and then up the Ouse to
Watling Street. The treaty of Wedmore practically meant the division of England
into two parts one of which comprised the territory of the kingdom of Wessex /all
southern England from Kent to Cornwall/ and Western Mercia /or "English
Mercia"/ and the other territories under Danish. This is how place names in what
was East Anglia and Mercia have the characteristic Scandinavian endings /cp.
Derby, Ashby, Norwich, Ipswich, etc/.
There were no fresh attacks from the Northmen some 15 years later they
made an abortive attempt to conquer English territory and, repulsed, turned their
attention to Northern Gaul where early in the 10th century Normandy was founded
by them. They did not manage to impose their language up the land, so the Norman
dialect of French was formed there, to be brought in Britain a century and a half
later as the language of the Norman invaders.
Alfred the Great made vigorous efforts to restore the country’s economy
and build up its military potential so as to secure it against future invasions. He
established fortifications in key points along the frontier with permanent
detachments of professional soldiers. Those fortified centers later on developed
into towns, the first in the Anglo-Saxon menage.
His attempts to consolidate the state, establish a system of administration,
bring about some sort of order in the law system were all crowned with success.
King Alfred's "Truth, the first code of England's Common Law, was
compiled about 890.
King Alfred's
"Truth, the first
code of England's
Common Law,
was compiled
about 890.
•
The Scandinavian /Viking/ invaders who were no further from the AngloSaxons than just another, Northern, branch of Germanic people /the Goths the
eastern branch and the Anglo-Saxons the western one/, were gradually assimilated,
the Scandinavian words enriching the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary.
Seafarers and traders, the Danes surely influenced the movement and new
developments began to be in town life and trade. Already in the middle of the 10th
cent, commerce was encouraged by the king's granting the title of thane to every
merchant who made three voyages in his own ships.
The Scandinavian raids were renewed at the end of the 10th cent, when the
Danes saw the opportunity presenting itself in the shape of administrative
slackening in the reign of Aethelred the Unready /978-1017/.
The nature of those raids was different; this was again a new phase of the
Scandinavian invasion, money, and not conquest, plunder or devastation being the
object. Tribute was claimed as the only condition for the withdrawal of the raiders.
Aethelred the Unready was ready enough to exact the money from the people in
the form of a special tax called Dane-geld, that is, Dane-money. Bribed in this
manner, they retired, to return again in a year or two with demands increased as
well as the size of the host.
Dane-geld
=
Dane - money
The Danish raids accelerated the process of feudalization. The wars arid the
state unification helped stratification in agriculture, so that big land owners,
smaller landowners and petty landowners appeared.
The sum that was taken out of the Anglo-Saxon tax payers’ pocket was
huge; the last payment made in 1018 looked like a permanent tax for after a fierce
struggle England was made part of the Danish kingdom including also Norway and
Sweden with Sweyn’s son Canute as King (1017-1035). In fact, that tax was the
beginning of property tax in England.
The reign of Canute was marked by a growing unwillingness on the part of
the thanes and knights to continue as professional warriors and the king had to
create a permanent army of well-trained soldiers who were paid for their service.
Ironically, their first payment was made out of the tribute which was exacted from
Englishmen as the last “Danish money”. Henceforth the English tax payers were in
fact supporting the permanent army.
It was also during Canute’s reign that the Godwin family, formerly of little
renown, came to power in England, that is, south-west of the line marking the
“Danelaw” territory.
The political picture of 10th century England would be incomplete without a
brief description of tike system of administration and justice supplements by a
brief account of the class composition of the community.
The old units, the township, and the hundred, were giving place to shires.
The unification of the smaller kingdoms into one centralized state created
administrative difficulties. The Danish garrison towns and those built by the
Anglo-Saxons for defense against the Danes not infrequently served as centers of
such shires.
Serfdom or freedom were not only political concepts but economic concepts
as well since they were connected with the holding of land. The big landowners
went on getting “bocland” with its privileges. Besides, a numerous layer of smaller
lords, or knights, sprang up in the course of the Danish wars.
The gradual process of feudalization proceeded, the rule being more and
more strictly observed of every plot of land being possessed by a lord and every
peasant having a lord over him.
So, the so-called free peasants, though personally free, could hold their land
under the unavoidable condition of military service or a money rent to the lord.
The latter was also entitled to a juridical power over the man: the lords were
granted the right to hold courts and fine those they found guilty of certain offences,
putting the money into their lordly pockets.
Now, the serf held land in return for hius own personal labour on the lord’s
fields. He could not leave, the plot or his lord, he was tied to him and the land he
tilled by bonds that only death could sever.
After Canute's death in 1035 and then the death of his sons, the Godwin
group succeeded in restoring the old Saxon dynasty to the throne of England; this
is how Edward, son of Aethelred the Unready, was brought back from Normandy
(the part of France occupied by the Northmen) where he had to stay at the court of
his cousin.
Weak willed and extremely pious, he prepared ground for the Norman
conquest soon to take place bringing crowds of Norman counselors, Norman
monks and Norman nobles who played on his weaknesses and got what they
coveted - a lot of best land and church posts. It was in his reign that the Westminster Abbey was built and the royal residence was moved into its immediate vicinity,
to a new palace he had built in Westminster.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDALISM IN ENGLAND
Key words: conquest, consolidation, Exchequer, Curia Regis,
Doomsday book, vassal, Justiciar.
Discussion points;
1. The Norman Conquest and consolidation of feudalism
2. The Norman rule
1. The Norman Conquest and Consolidation of Feudalism
When Edward died early in 1066 getting posthumously the title, the Saxon
"Assembly of Wise Men", the Witenagemot /it can be translated into modern
English as "Council of the Wisest"/ declared Harold king William, the duke of
Normandy, cousin to Edward the Confessor, declared himself heir to the throne of
England. To make assurance doubly sure he got the Pope of Rome on his side and
started preparations for an overwhelming campaign that was to sweep the Saxon
rulers off the British throne for ever placing one foreigner after another in that
exalted position.
The Normans were the same Northmen who had invaded Britain three
centuries earlier. They had assimilated not only the French language of the country
the northern part of which they had made their home but together with Romanized
Celtic tongue of the Gauls, a Celtic tribe, assimilated their culture, their advanced
civilization, so that Duke of Normandy headed an already complex feudal state.
The church, fully under the influence of Rome, exercised its cultural influence to
the benefit of Norman civilization, and church architecture had reached an
advanced stage there. So very soon the country was filled with church edifices and
abbeys in the ponderous round-shaped and wide-arched Romanesque style.
The army that was to carry William’s ambitious plans of conquest into effect
was superior to the Saxon “fyrd”.
Since the Alfred the Great’s time the latter was improved by the Danes’
experience that Alfred had taught them to profit by, such as the great axe and using
horses to cover great distances.
The horsecarls formed the efficient nucleus of the Saxon army, “the fyrd”,
where the men who were probably always wishing they were home to harvest their
crops, were imperfectly equipped and worse trained.
So, the defeat inflicted on King Harold’s army by the French-speaking followers of William, Duke of Normandy, in the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066
marked the beginning of another foreign invasion of England which far surpassed
the preceding Viking invasions in its effects on the social, economic, cultural and
linguistic development of the country.
Linguistically the Norman conquest meant the dissemination in England of a
non-Germanic language, which over a period of almost centuries was to play a
significant role as a means of oral and written communication among certain sections of the population.
•• Linguistically
Linguistically the
the
Norman
Norman conquest
conquest
meant
meant the
the
dissemination
dissemination in
in
England
England of
of aa nonnonGermanic
Germanic language,
language,
which
which over
over aa period
period
of
of almost
almost centuries
centuries
was
was to
to play
play aa
signi-ficant
signi-ficant role
role as
as aa
means
means of
of oral
oral and
and
written
written
communication
communication
among
among certain
certain
sec-tions
sec-tions of
of the
the
population.
population.
The establishment of Norman rule in England didn't lead to large-scale
immigration and mass, settlement of the conquerors.
Within the population of late century England, which has been estimate at
about one and a half million, the French-speaking foreigners from Normandy and
various other parts of France clearly represented a small minority of less than ten
per cent.
There were considerable differences as far as the effect of the Conquest on
the ethnic composition of the population were concerned. To some extent, the
events of 1066 did lead to the rise of ethnically mixed communities of greater or
lesser importance and in certain social classes or strata of the developing AngloNorman feudal society even brought about a numerical predominance of foreigners
from the French-speaking part of the continent.
As a consequence of the Norman Conquest, political and economic power
became concentrated in the hands of a small group of great feudal landlord which
included the king himself, the greater feudal landlords among the clergy - the
archbishops, bishops, and the superiors of the more important abbeys - and the
vassals of the king, or lay barons.
At the time of the "Doomesday" Survey /1086/ this exceedingly small group,
which constituted the feudal aristocracy of Norman England foreigners. Their
economic power secured them the most positions in the military and civil
administration of the country. They replaced the Anglo-Saxons at the King's Court,
which at that time was the most important instrument of central government, and
for over a century also held the more prominent positions in the administration of
the shires, the local government.
The peculiar situation in this group was further characterized by the fact that
many members of the baronial class were at the same time holder of lands in
Normandy and other parts of northern France and thus maintained close personal
relations with their original homeland well into the 12th even into the early 13th
century.
The re-distribution of the conquered land also led to considerable changes
within the lower ranks of the ruling class the numerically larger group of lesser
feudal landlords, who held their lands by knight's service or by payment of a fixed
rent to the barons or ecclesiastical landlords from whom they had received their
lands.
The lower ranks of the regular clergy of post-Conquest England were soon
joined by foreign monks, mainly from Normandy but also from other parts of
France, who were received into those older English monasteries which had been
placed under foreign abbots or were sent to look after the vast lands donated to
continental abbeys by the king and many of his barons; others came in the wake of
the monastic revival in the early 12th century, which resulted in the foundation of
larger numbers of new monasteries, priories and smaller cells in different parts of
the country.
Monastic life in England was thus strongly influenced by clerics of French
extraction, esp. during the first century after the Norman Conquest, what the
Norman Conquest did not effect, however, was essential changes in the ethnic
composition of the peasantry, which comprised more than 80% of the population
or of the town people in the urban or semi-urban communities of Norman England.
The linguistic situation was certainly not only affected by changes in the
conquered country itself but also by changes in its relations with the Continent.
William the Conquerer accession to the throne opened a period of almost one and a
half centuries during which the King of England was at the same time Duke of
Normandy and, as such, a vassal of the King of France. For half a century from the
accession of Henry II in 1154, the continental dominions of the English king
extended down to the Pyrenees and included not only the Duchy of Normandy but
also the counties of Anjou, Maine, Touraine and Poitou as well as the duchy of
Aquitaine.
The loss of Normandy /with the exception of the Channel Islands/ to the
King of France in 1204 had important consequences esp. for the members of the
feudal aristocracy who had up to then held lands on both sides of the Channel,
since it forced them to make their choice. The territorial losses in King John's reign
/1199-1216/, which also included the counties of Anjou, Maine, Touraine and
Poitou, drastically changed the relations between England and France, but certainly
did not bring about the end of all contacts between the two kingdoms.
The final loss of all French territories controlled by the English, with the
exception of Calais, did not occur until the end of the so-called Hundred Years’
War /1337-1530/.
The Norman Rule
To keep the Anglo-Saxons in subjection, William started building castles
and strongholds. He distributed all the important governmental and church posts
among his nobles. It was no easy task to administer all the parts of the country in
the king’ name for William had no means to exercise direct control: he has no
trained civil servants and lawyers, the system of transport and communications was
practically non-existent.
He broke the old arrangement of the lord’s vassals owing allegiance to the
lord first and foremost since it gave the barons a chance to resist the king with a
host of vassals at their disposal.
Instead, he made the vassals of his barons to swear an oath of loyalty to the
king thus establishing direct connection with the wide masses of his subjects and
weakening the barons’ power, curbing their tendency to regionalism for the benefit
of strengthening the centralizing power of the crown.
Establishing feudalism in its most developed form meant organizing the
system of tenancy, of the holding of land with the king as the only owner granting
the right of tenancy to his tenants-in-chief in return for military service.
The number of independent, or partially independent, free-holders was
greatly reduced since their existence formed a flaw in the perfection of Norman
feudalism in England.
Twenty years after the
Conquest William I organized a
registration of all the holders of
arable land, of the general
amount of arable and pasture,
all the taxes paid, etc. The
King's agents were so
thorough, so inquisitive and
omniscient that the census was
nicknamed "Doomsday Book".
Twenty years after the Conquest William I organized a registration of all the
holders of arable land, of the general amount of arable and pasture, all the taxes
paid, etc. The King's agents were so thorough, so inquisitive and omniscient that
the census was nicknamed "Doomsday Book".
As a result the king got a clear idea of all the taxable property in the land so
that his impositions could be regular and complete. He had first-source information
about the economic state of the country, its wealth and the distribution of this
wealth.
From this invaluable document one can see that the process of village
community, or township, developing into the feudal manor, was nearing
completion.
The population of England, according to the data of the
“Doomsday” census takers, amounted to the imposing figure of about two million.
The agricultural workers constituted 91 per cent of the population, the remaining 9
per cent being represented by lords with their families, domestics, their
functionaries who were actually running the manor, the clergy, merchants,
craftsmen, etc.
The bulk of the toiling masses were not a homogeneous layer of society.
Villeins formed the overwhelming majority, almost half of all the agricultural
population of the country.
Slaves were also a dwindling group, mostly house-servants or shepherds or
people of any other occupation that did not require much skill or responsibility, but
implied a lot of drudgery and hard labour.
The village community was a sort of pre-feudal survival, quite strong at
times and places. This and the existence of a certain number of free holders
constituted peculiarities of English feudalism, alongside with some juridical
survivals such as the meets of hundreds and counties where the leading freemen
could be heard and sometimes even villains took the floor.
The peasants as a whole tended to support the central power since they
fancied it capable of curbing the tyrannical tendencies of their immediate lords.
Another peculiarity of English feudalism will become apparent in the 14 th
century when the survivals of pre-feudal freedom sort of developed into the
tendency to achieve the rent-paying instead of day-work-doing status and from that
there was but a step to the free wage-labourer status, and the early decay of
feudalism under the influence of new economic forces.
•
After William's death
in 1087 the crown
passed to his son
William the Second
/1087-1100/.
After William's death in 1087 the crown passed to his son William the
Second /1087-1100/. William the Second failed to keep the barons in check. In
France where regionalism prevailed over centralization and the feudals’ power was
almost unlimited, they saw their ideal, and the young king’s unpopularity with his
great subjects was much greater than with the masses of peasants.
William the Second had the support of both knights and villains against
feudal anarchy in the struggle between the baronage and the crown. This support
saved him in 1088 when the barons tried to shake off the yoke of centralized power
and indulge in feudal anarchy and in 1095 when the northern barons raised a
rebellion.
The second successor concentrated his royal attention on the system of law
courts realizing that the first thing was to stop the practice of private courts being
hold by lords of the manor. He worked changes in the very idea of offence, causing
a crime to be regarded as a violation of the king's peace, not just an offence against
the victim or the victim's family who used to get the compensation.
It was only natural that such an approach justified the crown in exacting
fines, the most popular punishment under Henry I.
But administration of justice locally was a complex job, so Henry I set about
reconstructing the central government itself. He settled the so-called Curia Regis, a
court of justice and finance. Closely allied with this was a special court, the
Exchequer, intended to take care of the king's income.
The head of the Exchequer was the Justiciar who grew into the chief
minister of the kingdom. Curia Regis took the law trials in his hands and special
judges were travelling to and fro to administer the king’s justice on the spot and
collect the costs and fines bringing the proceeds to the Exchequer.
The travelling judges were sometimes authorized to exercise control over the
county functionaries and see to the collection of the king’s revenue.
Summing up, we infer that after the Norman Conquest feudalism was fully
established in England, that the feudal system of the post-Norman conquest period
created conditions for the growth of production and the development of productive
forces.
The feudal society of England achieved certain economic progress at the
expense of the villains /serfs before the Conquest/ forced labour.
Before the Conquest the economic basis of feudalism developed out of the
pre-feudal village community or township and the administration system took on a
feudal form.
After the Conquest the moulding of a political superstructure to fit the
economic basis was completed and the whole of the land passed out of the hands of
its old owners into the hand of the Conqueror.
All power was based on landownership and the king became the only
landowner. He granted it to his tenants-in-chief and got the payment from them in
terms of military and other services and customary dues.
The Norman conquerors that constituted the top of the ruling class of
England had an imperative need of strong state machinery to defend their
privileges. This circumstance accounts for a very important peculiarity of the
English feudal state, its early centralization and the relative durability of royal
power.
Historians say that England had a development that was unique in European
history: from the start the power of the state was greater than the power of the
feudal nobility. The sheriffs, the representatives of the central government in each
county, remained stronger than any baron in his territory.
The basic production unit of the fully developed feudal society in England
was the manor which started taking shape before the Norman conquest but did not
attain ultimate completion until the 13th-14th centuries.
The villains’ dues and obligations were growing harder to pay and they were
especially unbearable in manors belonging to big land magnates.
The fact that there was no impassable border line between the knight and the
top city commercial circles was another peculiarity of the English feudalism.
The knights suffered from the great feudal lords' arbitrariness and were
therefore interested in having a strong state power able to limit the barons' rights
and privileges, on the one hand, and guarantee trade development, on the other. In
this, the knights' interests coincided with those of the towns' merchant and
craftsmen elite.
The community of basic interests and contradictory nature of secondary
interests that those strata of the ruling class realized full well, led them both to
struggle and to desire of compromise. This was how in the throes of acute political
struggle the compromise was finally effected.
The parties concerned agreed that the political form wanted was a feudal
monarchy with class representation.
МАЪРУЗАЛАРНИ ЎҚИТИШ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАРИ:
4-МАВЗУ: MEDIEVAL ENGLAND: EARLY MIDDLE AGES.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDALISM IN ENGLAND.
2 – СОАТ
1.1 Маърузанинг олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
1. Political Unification.
2.The Scandinavian Invasion.
3.The Norman Conquest and consolidation of
feudalism.
4. The Norman rule.
Маъруза режаси

Матнда
ўй-фикрларни
ифодалаш
йўлларини ўрганиш;
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади

Матндаги сўз ва сўзсиз ифодаланган
қатламни ўрганиш;

Матнларда муаллифлар томонидан
қўлланиладиган рамзлар ва уларнинг
турларини ўрганиш ва таҳлил қилиш;
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
- medieval,
- warfare,
- Northumbria,
- domination,
- hierarchy,
- unification,
- supremacy,
- superiority,
- conquest,
- consolidation,
- Exchequer,
- Curia Regis,
- Doomsday book,
- vassal,
- Justiciar.
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар Скандинавияликлар босқини билан Талабалар
таништирилади.
Норманлар
истилоси
Скандинавияликлар
босқини
ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
ва
феодализмнинг Норманлар истилоси ва феодализмнинг
мустаҳкамланиши ҳақида маълумот берилади.
мустаҳкамланиши ҳақида маълумотга эга
бўладилар.
Норманлар
жамияти
қонун-қоидалари
тушунтириб берилади.
Норманлар жамияти қонун-қоидаларини
мисоллар
билан
тушунтириб
бера
оладилар.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Маъруза, намойиш, блиц сўров, кластер,
ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Маъруза матни, компьютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин бўлган
ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат,ёзма назорат, ўқув
топшириқ.
Маърузанинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2-босқич
Асосий
жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3-босқич
Якуний
босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1. Маърузанинг мавзусини эълон қилади ва
унинг режалари билан талабаларни
Тинглайди ва ёзади
таништиради.
1.2. Мазкур фаннинг ўрганиладиган
мавзулари бўйича назарий ва амалий
Мавзу номини ёзиб
машғулотлар, уларнинг узвийлиги хақида
оладилар.
қисқача маълумот беради, Асосий
адабиётлар рўйхати билан таништиради.
Ўқув дастурини талабаларга таништиради.
1.3. Маъруза дарсининг мақсади ва ўқув
Саволларга жавоб
фаолияти натижаларини айтади.
беради.
Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга тортиш учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
2.1. Маъруза режасининг барча саволлари Тинглайди, ўрганади,
бўйича визуал материални намойиш қилади. ёзади, аниқлайди,
Мавзунинг
асосий
жойларини
ёзиб саволлар беради.
олишларини сўрайди.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол жавоб ўтказади.
Асосий жойларни
1. What do you understand under political ёзади.
Unification in the Early middle Ages?
2. What does the word “hlafweard”
Саволларга жавоб
indicate?
беради.
3. Who was William the Second?
4. Speak about the Norman rule.
Ҳарбир таянч
5. How was the feudalism consolidated in
тушунча ва
England?
ибораларни
муҳокама қилади.
Жавобларни тўғрилайди ва хулосалайди.
Ёзади.
2.2. Талабаларга эркин фикр айтишга рухсат
берилади ва уларни рағбатлантиради.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва
кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдaги машғулотга кўриладиган
масалани эълон қилади ва мустақил
тайёргарлик кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва унга
тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун саволлар
берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни ўрганишга
беради.
Жавоб беради.
Tинглайди.
Мустақил ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Slides
3 kingdoms
emerged
to contend
for supremacy
Northumbria
Mercia
Wessex
The year 871
is called
“Alfred’s great year
of battles”
King Alfred's
"Truth, the first
code of England's
Common Law,
was compiled
about 890.
•
Twenty years after the
Conquest William I organized a
registration of all the holders of
arable land, of the general
amount of arable and pasture,
all the taxes paid, etc. The
King's agents were so
thorough, so inquisitive and
omniscient that the census was
nicknamed "Doomsday Book".
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What do you understand under political
Unification in the Early middle Ages?
2. What does the word “hlafweard” indicate?
3. Who was William the Second?
4. Speak about the Norman rule.
5. How was the feudalism consolidated in England?
6. When was “Truth, the first code of England`s
Common Law” compiled?
7. Who was Canute?
8. Speak about the Norman conquest.
9. When did the final loss of all French territories
occur?
10.What does the Norman Conquest linguistically
mean?
LECTURE V.
THE GREAT CHARTER AND THE BEGINNING OF PARLIAMENT
Key words: Great Charter, parliament, feudal anarchy, throne,
mercenaries, personal military service.
Discussion points:
1. Social and economic development of England in the 12th cent.
1.1. The Plantagenet Dynasty.
1.2. Henry the Second's Reforms.
2. Struggle for the Limitation of the King's Power.
3. English Expansion on the British Isles.
1. Social and economic development of England in the 12th
century
Feudal anarchy increased after Henry I died. Feudalism was showing its teeth. At
last, under the pressure of the people's uprising the struggling sides came to a
compromise in 1153: Stephen, Henry's nephew, was to be king, and after his death the
throne was to be left to Henry of Anjou, the son of Henry's daughter.
A year later Stephen died,
and a new dynasty,
doubly French,
was begun by Henry II
Plantagenet /1154-1189/,
the earl of Anjou
whose vast possessions
in France now joined to England,
included half of France.
A year later Stephen died, and a new dynasty, doubly French, was begun by Henry
II Plantagenet /1154-1189/, the earl of Anjou whose vast possessions in France now
joined to England, included half of France.
The political situation, the state of the public mind in the Henry II came into, was
highly propitious, and the new king managed to rise to the situation.
The country at large was fed up with feudal anarchy and even a less efficient
reformer than Henry of Anjou would have been welcome and supported after the two
disastrous decades of unrestrained anarchy, as long as that reformer's goal was the
curtailing of the barons power.
So he began with the more immediate task of destroying the baron castles,
veritable strongholds built in the years of anarchy that made each baron quite powerful.
Seeing the bad grace with which the barons submitted to the demolition of what
upheld their power, Henry thought he did not want their customary 40-days service in
times of war. It was much safer to exchange their personal military service for money
payment, so the so-called "shield money" was introduced which could be paid to welltrained professional soldiers, mercenaries as they were called.
The military might of the country profited by the commutation since the
mercenaries, directly responsible to the king, could be sent to fight anywhere, not being
limited by the conventional 40-days of feudal military service.
But order had to be kept within the country itself and Henry wit, half his
possessions in France was often absent from England, a circumstance that could be taken
advantage of by the barons.
So Henry Plantagenet resorted to a very important - shall we say desperate
measure: he organized a militia composed of all freemen and knights, Englishmen,
armed them to the teeth and said he relied on them to control his barons, the Norman
nobility. He certainly earned their loyalty; he could rely on them; Henry II introduced
reforms in the domain of justice and administration. His idea was to place English
jurisdiction on a much higher, professional level. Under him Curia Regis was run by
specially trained officials and the amateurish feudal sheriffs were also replaced by
specialists.
Another branch was formed into a special court of justice, the King's Bench. The
establishment of traveling commissioners representing the crown, of traveling judges
through a system of 12 jurymen, did away with barbarous feudal court trials.
Now everyone who could afford to pay the required fees was allowed to appeal to
the royal court for a judgment by inquisition, i.e. by investigation.
A unifying system of Common Law made such trials far less arbitrary and
immeasurably more satisfying.
At the end of the 11th cent, the so-called Crusades began to be popular. They were
sponsored by Rome as one more way to power and influence. The Pope of Rome sent his
emissaries to go throughout all Europe preaching a Crusade and persuading the kings
and nobles to sell their lands and take their subjects to Jerusalem to drive out the
Saracens. They were persuaded in the Roman Church that whoever died in the holy war
would be sure to go to the heaven. But a lot of money was wanted.
International-scale fairs sprang up in England as early as the end of the 11th cent,
and foreign merchants brought things there that were eye-openers indeed. The Crusades
also opened the Anglo-Norman eyes to a lot of things, and then the Crusade participants
simply had to be prepared for great money expenditures.
Exportation of goods was the answer, and since the both sides of the Channel
belonged to the same owner, foreign trade was made safe and the traditional English
items of exportation - lead & tin found their way to foreign markets as well as f wool,
comparatively new export items.
Artisans of higher qualification were encouraged to come and settle and ply their
trade. Trading contacts with Scandinavian and Baltic countries were steadily developing.
Iron was not yet mined at home in sufficient quantities, and it was more and more
wanted, so it came from Sweden and Spain; cloth came from Flanders and France.
In place of the rough and uncouth-looking castles Henry caused unfortified and
fairly comfortable manor houses to be erected. The top layers of English society were
beginning to develop a taste for fashionable life.
The towns among which only London was an outstandingly important centre
made so by its geographical and commercial position as a centre of both home and
international trade, differed from villages only in size mainly.
When crafts and trade came to enrich the town's economy, the town began to
strike bargains with those from whom they held the land taking obligations of payments.
Special corporations of leading citizens were organized to see to the collection and
payment of this sum; to secure the bargain in writing /called "charter"/.
Such arrangements were encouraged by Henry II who saw in the townsmen's
collective responsibility an aid to his administrative innovations.
In Henry II's reign the church was becoming increasingly strong. The church was
closer to crown since all the administrative writing and reading work was done by
churchmen. The church supported the crown against the barons also because the latter
were the churchmen' rivals in land possessing and struggle for influence.
The Roman Catholic Church was by this time striving to become as
overwhelmingly important in England as it was elsewhere in Europe.
In his juridical reforms Henry II naturally wished to introduce order in this case as
well for he saw that snatching cases from the king's courts under the pretext of the
culprits connection with the church.
In the 12th century
London became an industrial
and commercial centre
England was rapidly developing economy. A lively wool trade was bringing new
profits contributing to the growth and development of towns. Big towns were springing
up on the king's lands. It was in the 12th cent, that London became an industrial end
commercial centre of considerable importance for those times.
The second Plantagenet king, Richard I /1189-1199/ popularly called Richard the
Lion Heart was an enthusiastic crusader. In his reign the Third Crusade was under way.
2. Struggle for the limitation of the king’s power
The 13th century began under a new king, the second son of Henry II and a third
Plantagenet, John, nicknamed very significantly the Lackland.
In the feudal medieval triangle "the crown - the barons - the church" he was rash
enough to fight both the barons and the church simultaneously.
The confiscation of English possessions in France meant great losses to Norman
barons. In fact guarding his vassals’ possessions was one of the duties of a feudal king,
and this lapse made John extremely unpopular.
Then they resorted to the feudal right of vassals being entitled to an armed
rebellion against their lord as an emergency measure in case he betrayed their interests.
The barons would not have been so bold as to resort to this last emergency if the king
had been supported by the church as it usually had been the case.
Unsupported by the church Henry II would have cut a poor figure in his struggle
against the barons.
The Pope when John opposed his choice of Stephen Langton for the post of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, declared John excommunicated, i.e. deprived o the church’s
blessing and church membership, and, consequently, deposed, for no person driven from
the church could head the government of a Christian country.
He was now easy game for any king with a decent army outlawed, as he was, so the
kings of France and Scotland were persuaded to fight him. John went down on his knees
to the Pope and received his pardon at a very high price, 1000 pound sterling annually.
Stephen Langton headed the barons’ rebellion as it was evident that the church in
England did not support the king. Marching through the country with the people
thronging to them, they reached London and set up their banner there. The king was
urged to send earl of Pembroke to the barons to say that he approved of everything and
would meet them to sign their charter when they would.
 The
Charter was based on the
document compiled by Henry I
when he confirmed the old Anglo Saxon laws modernizing them to
suit the feudal reality. The bulk of
the document enumerated
measures and conditions that
ensured the barons ’ uninterrupted
exploitation of their peasant
holders.
The Charter was based on the document compiled by Henry I when he confirmed the old
Anglo-Saxon laws modernizing them to suit the feudal reality. The bulk of the document
enumerated measures and conditions that ensured the barons’ uninterrupted exploitation
of their peasant holders.
But the interests of merchants were seen to, as they were clearly becoming a power
even at the dawn of the 13th century; the Charter made a point of guarding them from the
king’s arbitrary taxation.
The Charter cancelled the right of the king to control the personal property and the
personal liberty of all freemen, the towns were guaranteed their municipal liberty.
Checking the king’s power, the Charter was an instrument of perfecting feudalism and
establishing a baronial oligarchy.
The Charter, however, acquired wider and more radical implications when the
class composition was changed, when villeinage died out and the idea of freedom was no
longer connected with land holding.
But it was a great enough event in 13th century England to make king John mad,
and he broke the Charter immediately afterwards. As soon as he broke it, the war and
hostilities were renewed to be interrupted by John’s sudden death in 1216. His son
Henry was a child, only 9 when he cane to the throne and the barons entrusted the
administration of the country in the infant king’s name to their representatives
constituting the Great Council with Archbishop Langton at the head.
Henry’s minority was a fat time for the barons, but the time of his majority came
and he took the affairs of the state in his hands as Henry III (1226-1272). The change
was soon felt for the new king meant to assert his authority throughout the country and
the barons instantly felt pressure increasing that threatened their i8dyllic enjoyment.
Social contradictions in the country in the middle of the 13 th century were deepened by
growing feudal exploitation. The Pope of Rome never slackened his demands so strongly
felt on the knights and the citizens.
•
“The Oxford Provisions”
(1258) – The barons gathered
at Oxford to force the king
to satisfy their demands.
So, they were resentful, ready to support the barons in their opposition. The barons
gathered at Oxford to force the king to satisfy their demands called “the Oxford
Provisions” (1258). They wanted no more French favorites, no more papal extortions;
they demanded the right to appoint the justiciar (head of the exchequer), chancellor, and
all sorts of officers and sheriffs. The “Oxford Provisions” meant a baronial oligarchy.
After the barons got what they wanted they disregarded those who had helped
them, the knights of the counties and the citizens of towns. The latter met at Westminster
in 1259 to adopt the so-called “Westminster Provisions” that took care of the interests of
the knights, citizens and the top layers of the free peasants. The “Westminster
Provisions” were intended to guard the citizens from the arbitrary actions of both the
king’s officials and the feudal courts.
A civil war began in 1263 with Simon de Monfort, earl of Leicester, against the
king’s power. The king’s army was defeated, and he and his son Edward taken prisoners
and imprisoned. Prince Edward escaped from prison, collected those who had left Simon
de Monfort’s side, gathered them into an army, led the army to meet Monfort, fought the
battle of Evasham, won the battle, killed Monfort and freed his father.
Summing up we see that the marked strengthening of royal power under the first
Plantagenet king late in the 12th century and early in the 13th century caused
dissatisfaction not only among the broad peasant masses but also among all the strata of
the ruling class. The barons were determined to fight the king, so in 1213 they stormed
the king’s fortresses. The London top layers supported them and opened the gates of
London thus bringing about John the Lackland’s capitulation, and on June25, 1215 the
Great Charter was signed.
Most of its articles deal with immunity of the barons and the church possessions;
the controlling organ, a committee of 24 barons, was nothing but a weapon in the hands
o the baronial oligarchy.
Some limitations were imposed that restricted the barons’ arbitrary treatment of
the knights; measures were introduced to consolidate the positions of the merchants and
knights in their commercial activities.
By insisting on the freedom of merchants from arbitrary taxation the Charter
marked the alliance between the barons and the citizens of London.
Under Henry III the barons and bishops had grounds to protest against the way the
king violated the stipulations of the Charter. So the feudal magnates met in Oxford in
1258 to work out a new system of governing the state. But the complex system of state
machinery they devised (Oxford Provisions) implied only unlimited baronial power and
left the knights stranded, so the Westminster Provisions devised by the knights, in their
turn, limited the barons’ privileges with reference to their vassals.
When a number of barons agreed to that, a compromise was achieved between
those strata of the ruling class. It found a political expression in the Parliament that
Simon de Monfort convened in 1265. When Simon de Monford and his army were
defeated and Henry III reassumed power, both he and his son Edward I convened
Parliament in the pre-Monfort baronial form but in 1295 Edward had to include the
wider representation of knights and burgesses, which confirmed the status of England as
feudal monarchy with class representation.
3. English Expansion on the British Isles
In the latter part of the 13th century and the early part of the 14th century Adward i
pursued the policy of expansion by subjugating some other countries of the British Isles.
Up to that time the Celts of Wales had enjoyed their liberty in the mountainous regions
of northern and western Wales. Edward failed for an opportunity to present itself, and
taking advantage of a Celtic rebellion headed by Llewelyn entered the country with a
large army, routed Llewelyn’s men, killed their leader and built castles to overawe the
countryside.
This did not mean an inclusion of Wales as part of Britain: in 1284 Wales became a
principality governed separately including the north and west of Wales; the eastern part
of Wales was considered part of England.
Having had his way with Wales Edward turned his attention to Scotland waiting
for his chance, for Scotland was divided: in the Highlands the Celtic tribes retained their
Gaelic speech and their ancient tribal customs while in the Lowlands the Saxons had
gradually asserted their feudal ways.
There were differences which grew to open quarrels and Edward had a chance to
intervene the country in order to administer justice between two competitors for the
throne of Scotland, Bruce and Balliol.
Edward made Balliol king, but very soon the newly created monarch saw that he
was king in name only. Edward crossed the border, marched in triumph through
Scotland declaring it part of England.
In
In 1297
1297 William
William Wallace,
Wallace, the
the
son
son of
of a
a small
small holder,
holder, a
a
knight,
knight, headed
headed the
the Scotch
Scotch
resistance
resistance and
and defeated
defeated the
the
occupation
occupation army
army under
under the
the
English
English governor.
governor. But
But he
he
failed
failed and
and was
was beheaded
beheaded in
in
1305.
1305.
In 1297 William Wallace, the son of a small holder, a knight, headed the Scotch
resistance and defeated the occupation army under the English governor. But he failed
and was beheaded in 1305. A few years later, Robert Bruce drew the English troops
away and was crowned king of Scotland.
As to Ireland, a foothold had been gained there by the English; an area around
Dublin called the Pale with a garrison to keep it, ruled from England. The economic
development of Ireland was hindered by division and internal wars. The decay of tribal
society was going on.
The Danish and later Saxon invasions had thrown Ireland back in its development.
Formerly a centre of rich and brilliant civilization, it could never recover from the brutal
Viking plunder to which it had been exposed four centuries earlier.
At the end of the century the barons revived their opposition and fearing another
civil war, Edward had to convene a Parliament on the 1265 model, of wider
representation which was dubbed “The Model Parliament”.
As to the structure of the English Parliament, its functions and role, they were still
vaguely defined. There was one chamber at first; later on, early in the 14th century the
Houses separated, the House of Lords being sacred to the highest clergy, bishops and
archdeacons and the like, with the lords as hereditary members, always invited to sittings
by personal letters from the king.
The House of Commons united the knights and burgesses; they were summoned by
sheriffs, and the circle of questions offered for their discussion was limited, mostly
questions of taxation and subsidies.
The kings of England used the House of Commons as an ally in their fight against
the barons, for a unification of the country. The barons tried to act without the Commons
in the reign of Edward II. They saw their chance and in 1310 they usurped the
government, but the king managed to subdue them; so he defeated them in a battle and
then the Parliament met, with the House of Commons, saying they had never confirmed
the barons’ powers.
МАЪРУЗАЛАРНИ ЎҚИТИШ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАРИ:
5-МАВЗУ: THE GREAT CHARTER AND THE BEGINNING OF
PARLIAMENT.
2 – СОАТ
1.1 Маърузанинг олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
1. Social and economic development of
England in the 12th cent.
1.1. The Plantagenet Dynasty.
1.2. Henry the Second's Reforms.
2. Struggle for the Limitation of the King's
Power.
3. English Expansion on the British Isles.
Маъруза режаси

Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
XII аср Англия ижтимоий-иқтисодий
тараққиётини ўрганиш;

XII
асрда
қудратини
қирол
ҳокимияти
чеклашга
доир
маълумотларни таҳлил қилиш;

Инглизларнинг Британия оролларига
кенгайиши (чўзилиши) ;
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
- Great Charter,
- parliament,
- feudal anarchy,
- throne,
- mercenaries,
- personal military service.
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар
XII
аср
Англия
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
ижтимоий- Талабалар
иқтисодий тараққиёти билан таништирилади.
XII
аср
Англия
ижтимоий-
иқтисодий тараққиёти ҳақида айтиб бера
оладилар.
XII
асрда
қирол
ҳокимияти
қудратини XII
асрда
қирол
ҳокимияти
қудратини
чеклашга доир ҳаракатлар ҳақида маълумот чеклашга доир ҳаракатлар ҳақида маълумотга
берилади.
эга бўладилар.
Генри
II
нинг
реформалари
тўғрисида
ахборот берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Генри II нинг реформаларини тушунтириб
бера оладилар.
Маъруза, намойиш, блиц сўров, кластер, ақлий
ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Маъруза матни, компьютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин бўлган
ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат,ёзма назорат, ўқув
топшириқ.
Маърузанинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2-босқич
Асосий
жарён
(55 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
1.1. Маърузанинг мавзусини эълон қилади ва
унинг
режалари
билан
талабаларни
таништиради.
1.2.
Мазкур фаннинг ўрганиладиган
мавзулари бўйича назарий ва амалий
машғулотлар, уларнинг узвийлиги хақида
қисқача
маълумот
беради,
Асосий
адабиётлар рўйхати билан таништиради.
Ўқув дастурини талабаларга таништиради.
1.3. Маъруза дарсининг мақсади ва ўқув
фаолияти
натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга тортиш учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
2.1. Маъруза режасининг барча саволлари
бўйича визуал материални намойиш қилади.
Мавзунинг
асосий
жойларини
ёзиб
олишларини сўрайди.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол жавоб ўтказади.
1. What is King’s Bench?
2. What was popular at the end of the 11th
century?
3. Who was famous as a Lion Heart?
4. What can you tell us about the struggle
for the limitation of the King’s power?
5. What was Charter and define it?
Талаба
Тинглайди ва ёзади
Мавзу номини ёзиб
оладилар.
Саволларга жавоб
беради.
Тинглайди, ўрганади,
ёзади, аниқлайди,
саволлар беради.
Асосий жойларни
ёзади.
Саволларга жавоб
беради.
Ҳарбир таянч
тушунча ва
Жавобларни тўғрилайди ва хулосалайди.
ибораларни
муҳокама қилади.
2.2. Талабаларга эркин фикр айтишга рухсат Ёзади.
берилади ва уларни рағбатлантиради.
Жавоб беради.
3-босқич
Якуний
босқич
(10 дақиқа)
3.7. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса қилади.
3.8. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва
кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдвги машғулотга кўриладиган
масалани эълон қилади ва мустақил
тайёргарлик кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва унга
тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун саволлар
берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни ўрганишга
беради.
Tинглайди.
Мустақил ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Slides
A year later Stephen died,
and a new dynasty,
doubly French,
was begun by Henry II
Plantagenet /1154-1189/,
the earl of Anjou
whose vast possessions
in France now joined to England,
included half of France.
In the 12th century
London became an industrial
and commercial centre
 The
Charter was based on the
document compiled by Henry I
when he confirmed the old AngloSaxon laws modernizing them to
suit the feudal reality. The bulk of
the document enumerated
measures and conditions that
ensured the barons’ uninterrupted
exploitation of their peasant
holders.
•
“The Oxford Provisions”
(1258) – The barons gathered
at Oxford to force the king
to satisfy their demands.
In
In 1297
1297 William
William Wallace,
Wallace, the
the
son
son of
of a
a small
small holder,
holder, a
a
knight,
knight, headed
headed the
the Scotch
Scotch
resistance
resistance and
and defeated
defeated the
the
occupation
occupation army
army under
under the
the
English
English governor.
governor. But
But he
he
failed
failed and
and was
was beheaded
beheaded in
in
1305.
1305.
•
•
•
•
•
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
What is King’s Bench?
What was popular at the end of the
11th century?
Who was famous as a Lion Heart?
What can you tell us about the
struggle for the limitation of the King’s
power?
What was Charter and define it?
LECTURE VI
ROMAN CHURCH INFLUENCE ON
CIVILIZATION, CULTURE AND LITERATURE
Key words: Christian ideology, predominant, Romanesque style, Gothic
architecture, folklore
Discussion Points:
1. General survey
2. Socio-economic development of England in XIII-XYIth centuries
1 .General survey
Christian ideology was predominant in feudal Europe, and England was no
exception to the rule. The feudal establishment was vitally interested in instilling a
belief in the infallibility of the faith, in the greatness of the church.
Architecture flourished after the conquest as churchbuilding mostly, though
the thick-walled castles of the feudal nobility, with round or square towers rising
the whole length of the building, pierced by narrow windows that served as
shooting apertures, formed a conspicuous feature of the times.
The majority of the cathedrals and monasteries were built late in the 11th and
early in the 12th cc. primarily by French architects and craftsmen in the so-called
Romanesque style. They were vast affairs, usually with a tall central part. The
arches were round, with a lot of brickwork decoration, beak-head edges and
chevron design.
The building seemed to be weighed down to the ground by the solidity of its
round-arched shape, sort of squatting, though powerful-looking and awe-inspiring,
as the cathedrals were meant to be by the abbots and bishops who organized the
construction. They evoked mixed feelings, however, for one couldn't help
wondering at the might of human genius that went into the building.
Later on Gothic architecture was introduced, again from Romanic countries,
France first of all. It was a style harmoniously blending architecture, sculpture and
pictorial art. The western facade of the cathedral buildings was in fact a sculptured
surface, mostly with symbolic biblical figures as the predominating theme and later
on realistic folk-lore features.
Art historians usually distinguish three periods of Gothic architecture in
England. Early English, with pointed arches and arrow-like windows and tall
tapering turrets and steeples and pinnacles that seem to uplift the whole structure,
seem to make it look up and aspire to Heaven. An early English cathedral produced
an impression of soaring into the air; it seems to be ready to take off and leave the
sinful earth below.
Salisbury cathedral is usually shown as an example of pure Early English
Gothic. Later into the 13th century the so-called Perpendicular Gothic was
introduced, with a lot of parallel-placed tall perpendicular shapes and lines
emphasizing the upward-directed movement of the structural rhythm; King's
College Chapel in Cambridge is often taken as a typical instance.
The 14th century brought, as many art historians are inclined to believe, a
deterioration of the Gothic style, the so-called "Decorated Gothic" where the purity
of the Gothic outline is marked, or in any'case obscured, by numerous decorations
making the whole somewhat gaudy or at least florid.
The 11th-13th centuries were remarkable for glass-staining. Stained glass,
with religious themes usually, pictures of saints, etc., was an important ingredient
of Gothic church architecture.
Pictorial art at this time was often represented by miniature painting and
drawing. The famous "Queen Mary's Psalter", richly illustrated with some seven
hundred drawings, has been the chief source of information on history of manual
illustration for centuries now.
A series of drawings illustrate the life of Christ and saints but there are also
pictures that would interest any historian for they shed a considerable amount of
light upon the social life of the period: they are scenes of the medieval past times
(like "practising at the butts" showing bowmen training in their skill of archery,
shooting arrows at targets called "butts"); they show people working (like the one
of a woman spinning, or another one, of peasant reaping, the bailiff standing over
them with a long whip in his hand, an extremely eloquent drawing). The realistic
trend was evidently getting the better, of the ecclesiastical one.
During the reign of the first Norman kings after the Conquest, three languages existed side by side within the kingdom: Latin as the language of the clergy
and the learned, French as the language of polite intercourse and English as the
language of the wide masses of the people. Latin was the language used in nearly
all public documents for it was the common language of Western Christendom and
as such made many contacts possible. Then, from the beginning of the reign of
Edward I onward for about a century French took the place of Latin till at last it
also yielded before English which once more had gained supremacy.
The English, or rather, the Anglo-Norman literature of the XII-XIIIth
centuries reflected the complicated linguistic situation quite faithfully: church
literature was in Latin, the so-called chivalric poetry was predominantly French
while folk-lore continued to develop in Anglo-Saxon. The language of the people,
however, could not but have words and expressions penetrating from the languages
of the upper layers of society, French and Latin.
Thus, without losing its native basis, the English language was profiting by
the situation, getting more rich and flexible, getting a wealth of synonyms to
denote the subtlest shades of feeling or impression to express the subtlest twist of
thought, getting to be what with the help of a few writers of genius it became in the
14th century - a general language for all layers of society.
The flourishing of feudal culture and the crusades meant contacts with other
cultures. English literature could thus profit by the poetical achievements of other
peoples.
Church literature was didactic; in keeping with the scholastic philosophy of
the time it preached asceticism, neglect of earthly existence, preparation for the
next world. Didactic poems like "Poema Morale" (ab. 1170, anonymous) or a
manual teaching how to avoid sin called "Handlyng Synne" translated from French
by Robert Mannyng early in the 14th c, will about characterize this sort of
literature.
Chivalric poetry, in French at first and later in English, was represented by
versified romance. Contrary to the Anglo-Saxon epic, it is not self-sacrifice for the
good of the people, the tribe, the kingdom, but defence of individual honour and
dignity, individual interest that is in the centre of attention. King Arthur, hero of
the Celtic anti-Saxon struggle of the 6th century is transformed in the chivalric
romance of the 11th-13th cc. into a hero of feudal knightly literature.
The poems were in French, only later on, in the 13th and 14th cc. they were
written in English; those that survived the ravages of time and came down to us are
such as "Arthur", "Arthur and Merlin", "Launcelot of the Lake", "Morte d'Arthur"
and a few others. As to the folk-lore of the period, it was oral and therefore little of
it has survived though what Langland and Chaucer used later on shows that the
folk-lore literature did not languish.
The development of towns brought about early bourgeois literature, fabliaux
borrowed from France with smart sly townsmen getting the better of knights and
priests, stories that were far from romantic, often showing coarse tastes and morals.
The 12th century was the time when the oldest English University was
founded in Oxford (1167) to remain the principal centre of science for centuries. It
was famous for the superior learning of its teachers and professors and for the
influence that it had on the development of English culture at large. A centre of
medieval scholasticism, controlled by the church, it was also a centre of resistance
to its stupefying influence.
The scientific revival of the 13th century brought the ideas of Aristotle in
the interpretation of a few great thinkers which gave English, that is, AngloNorman scholasticism its essential character. From the 13th century onwards
charters were granted to the Universities (in 1209 another University was established in Cambridge) which strengthened their position of independence, sort of
autonomy.
The townsmen and the scholars, "the Town and Gown" in the phrase of the
time, were two hostile camps, sometimes at war and sometimes allies like at the
time of the Civil War (1258-1263).
All this time the cultural influence of France never ceased. French monks,
the religious orders of Franciscans, Dominicans and Carmelites came in the 13th
century.
It was from their midst that the first light burst upon the scholastic darkness
of medieval logicians who made theology the centre of all their philosophical
searchings, employed deduction as their only method scorning original observation
and investigation and preached the triviality of earthly life which was to be
regarded only as a preparation for eternity.
Robert Grosseteste (died in 1253), the Bishop of Lincoln, was one of the
Franciscan monks, and during the reign of Henry III he used his pen and his
Oxford lectures to condemn the king's claims to unlimited rule. One of his pupils
was Roger Bacon (ab. 1214-1292), a great thinker with whose name the beginning
of natural sciences in England is inseparably connected. He saw that medieval
science tended to the encyclopaedic form.
Leaders of scholastic science like Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
accumulated stores of knowledge; but strict adherence to the scholastic methods
of deduction and reference to authorities made the'whole thing dead for the
scientists turned away from facts of a changing life which doomed science to
failure.
One of Roger Bacon's teachers, Albertus Magnus, had seen the deficiencies
of that approach, and he must have imparted the scepticism to Bacon. Albertus
Magnus was not only a theologian and philosopher, he was also far in advance of
his time in the fields of physics and chemistry; personal experience and
observation formed the basis of his approach.
Roger Bacon mastered mathematics, optics, alchemy, astronomy and was
soon able to criticize Thomas Aquinas, theologians and other scholasts, reversing
all the methods of thought by refuting the idea of absolute authority and extolling
experience instead. His words retain their actuality when taken in application to
many branches of science: he was heard to say that one must not give adhesion to
everything one hears and all one reads; on the contrary, it is one's duty to examine
with the most careful scrutiny the opinions of predecessors in order to add to them
what is lacking in them and to correct what is false and erroneous. He admitted that
man never reached perfection or an absolute certainty, but nevertheless man should
perfect himself.
The materialistic approach was already gaining ground in this eventful
century. Duns Scotus, a theology professor in Oxford, was making theology itself
preach materialism, arguing that the concepts people deal with are but reflection in
the people's minds of the outside-existing objects. Proving the priority of matter
and the derived nature of ideas Duns Scotus was initiating the materialistic
approach to the facts of life.
No wonder the church fought against the dangerous influence. Roger Bacon,
also guilty of "heresy", was not allowed to teach and had to spend 14 years in
prison where, by the way, he must have worked quite fruitfully for after he served
the prison term he came out with valuable inventions. He could look into the future
of science and his powerful thought pictured many of the scientific achievements
the world enjoys to-day.
2. Socio-Economic Development of England in XIII-XVIth
Centuries
The 13th century witnessed the peak of feudalism in England. The feudal
manor, always the feudal economy unit with its natural economy, was in no
striking way different in equipment from a peasant holding. The predominantly
wooden implements—such as wooden harrows, a number of ploughs where only the
share was of iron, since iron was inordinately expensive, sickles and scythes, pitchforks and carts, no fertilizers, extensive cultivation, low yields will about
characterize the agricultural scope of both the manor and the peasant holding.
The three-field crop rotation system which became universal was an
improvement as compared to the two-field system, resorted to for shortage of
arable landj More woods and waste land cleared, swamps and marshes drained
gave additional arable areas; new settlements appeared to cultivate them, the
virtues of intensive agriculture as against extensive perfunctory tillage were
extolled in the first treatise on agriculture.
The lords, no longer content with their scattered, though numerous strips of
land, sought to have separate arable areas where innovations could be tried, and so
introduced enclosed fields.
The towns (there were over 160 in the 13th c.) began to lose their semiagrarian nature and gradually a demand was developing for foodstuffs that the
craftsmen did not produce but consumed. Fairs were beginning to be a not wholly
unimportant feature of the town life and the manor owners were not above making
some money that way, so that part of the manorial economy was aimed at
producing no longer food only, but goods as well, to be sold either at the fairs or,
more conveniently, still, to professional buyers who could sell, grain especially,
not only at the local market, but at the foreign markets of France, Flandres,
Holland, Norway, etc.
The peasants could do the same, if circumstances allowed, and they had to
allow, for where else would the peasant get the money the manor owner required
more and more as pay for the peasant's holding? Hilly areas where the land was
more convenient for cattle-breeding than for grain husbandry specialized in cattle,
supplying grain-growing areas and the army with meat, and here money economy
development was inevitable. But sheep breeding was getting to be especially
popular, in the eastern and northern counties most of all.
Wool was clearly becoming a key to the economic development of the
country. It was very soon discovered how much easier it could be to grow wool on
the sheep's backs than to grow grain on the poorly cultivated fields, and the
difference in how many hands were wanted was striking. Here were not only home
markets ready to dispose of wool, for towns were beginning to develop woolprocessing (and it was no longer the rougher sorts of cloth only that were produced
in England); foreign markets were open to receive English wool, as the markets of
Flandres, for instance.
This meant that trade was developing on an international scale, and merchant
capital was appearing on the scene. These forces could not but lead to the break-up
of the manor, to the decay of villeinage, to the growth of towns] (charters of
independence had by this lime been obtained by practically all of them).
All the traders of towns united by a common necessity (the freedom cost a
pretty penny and everyone had to contribute his share) formed Merchant Guilds,
producing and selling certain goods. Later on those producing goods formed
separate Craft Guilds! Each master-craftsman (tailor, smithi carpenter, mason, etc.)
worked at home assisted by apprentices or journeymen, and sometimes by hired
hands.
This patriarchal arrangement was gradually giving way to sharper social
differentiations: an apprentice, that is pupil, could not always hope to become a
master craftsman, not for lack of skill or perseverance, but because their numbers
grew. As a consequence of the break-up of the manor and the steady development of
money relations a certain number of peasants, escaped villeins, etc, were drawn to
the towns.
The apprentices formed their own societies, secret because they were illegal,
and led a growingly bitter struggle against the master-craftsmen, against the
increasing hardships of their existence, against the exclusiveness of the Craft
Guilds. There was struggle between the goods-producing guilds and the
exclusively merchant guilds that were beginning to act as exploiting superiors.
There were important changes in the class composition of the countryside in
general. The 13th century witnessed the birth of the new class of gentry, new
nobles, small landowners who found it easier to adapt their less ponderous
economy to the period when money rent was beginning to play an increasingly
predominant role.
With these small feudal knights personal labour of villeins was never of
much use because of the limited nature of their agricultural operations; they had
early been inclined to busy themselves with their economy and trade if need be,
than, like their grander neighbours, to follow the king to war and glory and
consider plunder as an asset.
The class of gentry as the knights were then called collectively, was not exclusive at all: a wealthy peasant who sold enough wool to buy his freedom and
then sold still more to become genteel, or a craftsman citizen who accumulated an
income of 40 pound sterling, could be knighted and get included or get his son
included, into this layer that was becoming increasingly important in the economic
and political life of the country.
The village community was quickly disintegrating and the barons took advantage of it seizing the common land.
Thus class differentiation began among the peasants in connection with the
development of money economy and new relations. Their feudal lords wanted
money. It could be got if the yields were increased — but the agricultural economy
intensification was yet in its cradle.
The lord now was doing his utmost to get any surplus income from the
peasant. This is how the idea of commutation, exchange of villein labour for
money payment, arose, very profitable for the general run of landowner, the
knight, since he could hire wage labourers who would not require vigilant
overseers and would not, even nominally, be a responsibility. This advent on the
scene of great masses of hired labourers reflected the crisis of the manor.
Carried further, commutation became ransom paying for the right of free
holding, the great barons whose sweeping agricultural operations required vast
numbers of hands refrained from commutation while the knights, the gentry were all
for it.
Socially commutation was gaining ground, and the great lords, the magnates,
began to see that the new trends in agriculture implied increased investment (for
implements had to be purchased) and a lot of trouble in general: it seemed less
trouble to let the land on lease.
This was beginning to be a very profitable arrangement, for it did not lose its
feudal features, since the lease holders did not only pay rent but also performed
other obligations of the feudal cycle, as supplying the food of the manor, etc. Then
more land meant more profit and the big landowners tried to get bigger still seizing
the common lands and including them into their domains, since the courts of
justice were largely under their influence. The feudal state readily legalized this
course, which was disastrously detrimental to the peasant economy.
Class differentiation that was rapidly progressing among peasants was not the
former division into villeins and free holders, but a more modern division into the
rich and the poor. This differentiation progressed more rapidly among the free
peasants. The more sly and unscrupulous among them, those who could take
advantage of a neighbour's hour of need as sickness or death, would buy additional
landright, take an impoverished neighbour's land on lease, drive better bargains,
etc.
But even if the villein could grow more wool and get rich he would still be
bound to his lord's soil if the lord preferred his labour to the money, which was
generally the case with great lords. And then the money accumulated with great
pains would all go to pay for the right of inheriting his father's land -right,
according to the feudal law.
The overwhelming layer of the peasantry comprised those who had plots of
about one hectare and who had no right to use the common pasture.
Class struggle was assuming greater proportions in the countryside, for all the
sublayers of peasantry suffered from feudal lords' oppression. The lords resorted to
every expedient to enlarge their revenues, make a freeman a villein with the help of
the royal court that was always partial to the lord, and then get all sorts of payment
out of him.
But the greatest source of peasant discontent was the lords' tendency to
monopolize the use of common lands.
The peasants' resistance took various forms. Escape to other counties or to
the town, though difficult, was practised and many became outlaws. More generally
the peasants refused to pay rent or do the workday. There were also armed conflicts
developing from the peasants' insistence on grazing their cattle where they had
used to, disregarding the lord's fences, etc.
Towards the middle of the 14th century class struggle in town and country
grew more pitched in connection with two calamities that the first half of the
century brought: war and pestilence. They were both calamities for the people first
and foremost since the top layer profited by the war (at least for a time) and could
afford to escape contagion as far as it was possible in general.
The peasants' resistance was so strong that the feudal magnates could seldom
suppress it by means of their own administrative power. So even the strongest of
them, barons and bishops alike, were forced to appeal to the state organs asking for
help.
Thus the 14th century was the time when the Parliament and the local
administration organs were greatly strengthened. Their power grew showing the
role of the feudal state in exercising a rule of violence over the great masses of the
population.
Majority of cathedrals and
monasteries were built
late in the 11th and early
12th centuries primarily
by French architects and
craftsmen in the socalled Romanesque
style.
Art historians
usually
distinguish
3 periods of
Gothic architecture
in England:
Romanesque
style.
Early English;
later into
the 13th century
The 14th cent,
brought the
so-called
"Decorated
Gothic"
•• The
The 12th
12th century
century was
was the
the
time
time when
when the
the oldest
oldest
English
English University
University was
was
founded
founded in
in Oxford
Oxford /1167/.
/1167/.
МАЪРУЗАЛАРНИ ЎҚИТИШ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАРИ:
6-МАВЗУ: ROMAN CHURCH INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION,
CULTURE AND LITERATURE.
2 – СОАТ
1.1 Маърузанинг олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
1. England in the 13-14th centuries.
2. England on the eve of Wat Tyler’s uprising.
2.1. Wat Tyler’s uprising.
3. Cultural development in the 14th century.
4. Political reaction. The wars of the Roses.
5. The internecine wars.
Маъруза режаси

XII-XIV асрларда Англия маданияти
ва адабиётини ўрганиш;
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади

XIV
асрда
Англия
маданий
тараққиётини таҳлил қилиш;

Романлар черковининг маданият ва
адабиётга
таъсир
даражасини
ўрганиш;
- Christian ideology,
- structural rhythm,
- eve,
- uprising,
- internecine wars,
- the wars of the Roses.
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар
XII-XIV
асрларда
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Англия Талабалар
XII-XIV
асрларда
Англия
маданияти ва адабиёти билан таништирилади. маданияти ва адабиёти ҳақида айтиб бера
оладилар.
Талабаларга XIV асрда Англия маданий XIV асрда Англия маданий тараққиёти ҳақида
тараққиёти ҳақида маълумот берилади.
Романлар
адабиётга
берилади.
черковининг
таъсир
маданият
даражаси
маълумотга эга бўладилар.
ва
Романлар черковининг маданият ва адабиётга
тушунтириб таъсир
даражасини
оладилар.
тушунтириб
бера
Ўқитиш усуллари
Маъруза, намойиш, блиц сўров, кластер, ақлий
ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Маъруза матни, компьютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин бўлган
ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат, ўқув
топшириқ
Маърузанинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2-босқич
Асосий
жарён
(55 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1. Маърузанинг мавзусини эълон қилади ва
унинг
режалари
билан
талабаларни Тинглайди ва ёзади
таништиради.
1.2.
Мазкур фаннинг ўрганиладиган
мавзулари бўйича назарий ва амалий
машғулотлар, уларнинг узвийлиги хақида Мавзу номини ёзиб
қисқача
маълумот
беради,
Асосий оладилар.
адабиётлар рўйхати билан таништиради.
Ўқув дастурини талабаларга таништиради.
1.3. Маъруза дарсининг мақсади ва ўқув Саволларга
жавоб
фаолияти
натижаларини
айтади. беради.
Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга тортиш учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
2.1. Маъруза режасининг барча саволлари
бўйича визуал материални намойиш қилади. Тинглайди, ўрганади,
Мавзунинг
асосий
жойларини
ёзиб ёзади, аниқлайди,
олишларини сўрайди.
саволлар беради.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол жавоб ўтказади.
1. What is the influence of Roman Асосий жойларни
church on civilization?
ёзади.
2. What is the influence of Roman
church on culture?
Саволларга жавоб
3. What is the influence of Roman беради.
church on literature?
4. What three periods of Gothic Ҳарбир таянч
architecture art historians distinguish тушунча ва
and what are they?
ибораларни
5. When the oldest English University муҳокама қилади.
was founded?
Ёзади.
Жавобларни тўғрилайди ва хулосалайди.
3 босқич
Якуний
босқич
(10 дақиқа)
2.2. Талабаларга эркин фикр айтишга рухсат
берилади ва уларни рағбатлантиради.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва
кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдвги машғулотга кўриладиган
масалани эълон қилади ва мустақил
тайёргарлик кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва унга
тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун саволлар
берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни ўрганишга
беради.
Slides
Жавоб беради.
Tинглайди.
Мустақил ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Majority of cathedrals and
monasteries were built
late in the 11th and early
12th centuries primarily
by French architects and
craftsmen in the socalled Romanesque
style.
Art historians
usually
distinguish
3 periods of
Gothic architecture
in England:
Romanesque
style.
Early English;
later into
the 13th century
The 14th cent,
brought the
so-called
"Decorated
Gothic"
•• The
The 12th
12th century
century was
was the
the
time
time when
when the
the oldest
oldest
English
English University
University was
was
founded
founded in
in Oxford
Oxford /1167/.
/1167/.
• In 1348-49 England suffered a
devastating visitation of the
plague, the Black Death as it
was called. Out of the 4 mln.
people that lived in England,
little more than 2 mln.
remained.
-1455 “The Wars of
the Roses”
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1.What is the influence of Roman
church on civilization?
2.What is the influence of Roman
church on culture?
3.What is the influence of Roman
church on literature?
4.What three periods of Gothic
architecture
art
historians
distinguish and what are they?
5.When the oldest English
University was founded?
“Тасдиқлайман”
Инглиз филологияси кафедраси
мудири ф.ф.н. А.А.Ҳайдаров
____________________________
ТИЛИ ЎРГАНИЛАЁТГАН МАМЛАКАТ
МАДАНИЯТИ
фанидан
Бухоро-2011
SEMINAR - I
ENGLAND ON THE EVE OF WAT TYLER'S
UPRISING
Key words: Lollards, devastating visitation of the plague, rent, commutation,
political reaction, uprising
Discussion Points:
1. The Lollards.
2. Wat Tyller's uprising.
3. Cultural development in the XIYth century.
4. Political reaction. The Wars of the Roses.
5. The Internecine Wars.
1. The Lollards
The Hundred Years' War was a usual medieval feudal war of conquest, of
plunder and promise of rich ransom, and this is what the feudal top layers wanted
it for. There were also considerations of trade, gain, commercial calculation.
The remnants of Plantagenet possessions in France were only the obvious
apple of discord, and on this apple the country that was cutting its teeth was
going to test their new sharpness. France was rich and so hopelessly, so
classically feudal. Would one step that its opponent had made on her way
forward, matter? Or is it too early to rely on it? The Parliament went into feverish
activity again: huge supplies were to be voted and the House of Commons, now
sitting separately, met regularly and keenly felt its growing power.
The English common men, the yeomen, had their long bow that they had
learnt to handle to perfection, and its advantages over the heavy feudal cavalry,
and their superior tactics brought the English army victories during the first
twenty years of the war. The chief battles Englishmen remembered with pride
even after the futile hundred years, when only Calais was left of all their
conquests, were the battle of Crecy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356.
The internal troubles were grave enough. In 1348-1349 England suffered a
devastating visitation of the plague, the Black Death as it was called.
Out of the 4 million people that lived in England, little more than 2 million
remained. Thus shortage of labour was the gravest problem that the government
of Edward III was faced with after the winter cold killed the plague and the
country began slowly to return to normal life.
The countryside was in a disastrous state: herds of cattle perished as well,
vast areas of arable land went out of cultivation because of shortage of hands and
cattle; foodstuffs were hard to get and the prices soared sky-high, the wage
labourers demanded higher wages for they could not buy enough bread to sustain
them with the money they gotfor a day's toil; the villeins demanded their
freedom.
It was then that the feudal government rose to the occasion and showed the
essence of feudalism as a system, and the value of power that was in the hands
of the rich, the well fed, who, as everyone knows, can never understand the poor
and the hungry. The government of Edward III saw that if thev did not check
the labourers' demands, the lords would be ruined or would have to do the work
themselves.
The Parliament where only landowners were invited adopted the
notorious Statutes of Labourers. It was nothing short of a stroke of genius: wagefreeze was found to be the way out.
Class struggle in the village was assuming a wide swing. Those of the
lords who had practised commutation of personal labour for money payment, quit
rent, were doing their level best to make the villeins return to the old system,
for the quit rent was easy to pay.
There was another form of investment, the so called stock-and-land lease.
The landlord gave land, seeds and the implements to till the land with, for a certain
period of time. The rent that the tiller was to pay covered the cost of the land,
seeds and tools, and at the end of the period all those were to be returned to the
owner in good condition, to be leased to another or the same tiller.
Here the relations between the owner and the lease holder were purely
financial, no patriarchal dependence. No money—no land, no implements. Cash
relations were an important device in the peasant-lord struggle that was beginning
now in good earnest.
There was another aspect to the discontent of the wide masses. The Roman
catholic church was becoming more and more sinfully corrupt arousing anger and
indignation. This growing corruption was publicly condemned by simple village
priests, many of whom were as poor as the peasants and ready to share their
hardships, which they proved at the terrible time of the plague.
John Wycliffe, Oxford University professor, spoke with great indignation
of the immoral practices of friars dealing in "indulgencies", papers proclaiming
the Pope's pardon of all sins committed by the buyer in the past, present or future:
he spoke of the luxury and worldliness of monks and the inordinate wealth of
the church.
John Wycliffe was in fact initiator, peaceful and unsuspecting, of the movement that was to assume a mighty swing in a couple of centuries, the
Reformation.
John Wycliffe's followers, the Lollards, interpreted him much more radically
proceeding from all this amiable theory to practice. The Lollards in Western
Europe were participators of the anti-catholic plebeian peasant movement. Their
first appearance in England is traced back to the thirteen sixties but they achieved
official recognition in 1387. Their activization was determined by the growth of
social contradictions in the latter half of the 14th century.
They were poor wandering priests who preached to the people in the
streets of villages and town squares. They condemned the privileges of the
catholic church. They criticized the injustice of feudalism, demanding abolition
of villeins' labour on their lords' fields, the tithes and taxes. They demanded social
equality.
The decline in the influence of the church expressed in the "Lollard
heresy" as these theories were called was a direct consequence of the clerical
desire to turn what was to be spiritual power to political use, with unlimited
enrichment as the ultimate goal.
The people were disgusted to see monks becoming the biggest landowners.
The Lollards had supporters among the lords who seemed to give a willing ear
when Wycliffe preached the confiscation of monastery lands and all the wealth of
the monastic orders, for there were jealosies and rivalries among the lay and
ecclesiastical landowners.
Later on some of the Lollard organizations were headed by lords, and one of
them, Sir John Oldcastle, leader of an attempted rising that ended in failure, was
burnt at the stake by Henry V who was his old friend and therefore had a chance to
prove both his impartial justice and the danger of Lollardism for the realm.
John Ball, the cleverest and bravest of the Lollards, and poor priests like him,
proved to be very dangerous for the Establishment; in his sermons attended by
hundreds of peasants in south-eastern counties John Ball appealed to them
calling to action; he condemned the system of human relations hostile to God.
Naturally enough, the dangerous preacher was arrested and confined in
Maidstone Jail from which the people fired with the justice and beauty of his
reasoning freed him and made him their leader, together with Wat Tyler, a tiler by
his craft who was the leader and spokesman of the rebellious peasants.
Investigators of the history of Wat Tyler's uprising state the fact of the
movement being a result of preparation. Organizations of peasants had sprung
up to resist the Statutes of Labourers: funds had been collected to pay the
fines imposed upon the members by courts of justice.
Many of those who had fought in the war with France participated, and
introduced elements of military organization into the ranks. The programs of
demands, known later as Mile-End program and Smithfield program must have
been prepared in advance.
2. Wat Tyler's Uprising
The war with France was going on, with no apparent results. An especially
heavy tax was introduced, the poll tax of fourpence per head of adult male
population, irrespective of the status, or wealth for that matter.
The situation was grave indeed: just to think that the wealth of the nation
was in the hands of those who created that wealth. To remedy the situation, and
transfer the wealth into the pockets of those who never created anything, the
Parliament voted the poll tax. The collectors were corrupt, there were sharp
conflicts, and in May 1381 the peasants of South Essex villages killed some of
the collectors who were not only corrupt but also insolent.
The uprising flared up, in Essex and Kent first, by June all over the central
counties and East Anglia, and then Wat Tyler, Jack Straw and John Ball led the
army of peasants to London. In London they were joined by the poorest
population, slum dwellers who were for the most part escaped serfs, apprentices
and journeymen, and even by some wealthy citizens discontented with
trade limitations.
The King met the army of the rebellious peasants at Mile-End, a field near
the London Gate, and they acquainted him with their demands, commutation of
villein labour for a rent of 4 pence an acre, abolition of villeinage, freedom of trade
for all towns.
No demand of land, abolition of enclosures, nothing against the anti-labour
laws. Clearly the influence of the top layers of peasantry had predominated over
the more radical opinions, and the program was a great help to the development of
bourgeois relations in rural England
The king and his following, however, evidently thought the whole thing pernicious enough to justify treachery. Certificates were written out saying all the
demands were satisfied, and then the king suggested they should disperse.
Another royal audience was demanded and granted, the king met the peasant
army at Smithfield, near the London wall (famous as a place of execution), and
Wat Tyler, attended only by his banner bearer, rode to meet the king surrounded
by a crowd of followers.
The king asked why the rebel army was still in London, and Tyler replied
that there were other demands the king should hear. What was later called the
Smithfield program was then made known to the king and the king said he
agreed to everything.
One of the courtiers then insulted Tyler to provoke him and when Tyler
drew his dagger, the mayor of London struck him on the head and neck, and then
some more of the knights finished the job.
According to the speedily issued order all those who had not lived in London
for a year were to leave it on pain of death. And death reigned in full swing and
John Ball was ripped open, had his arms and legs chopped off, was hanged and
then beheaded.
All that was bound to happen, and the revolt was doomed to failure from the
first for the peasants were never really united, were not monolithic in their class
structure and their interests: the money economy was always a source of split up
among the peasants for top layers were formed which were more inclined to
collaborate with the nobles and merchants and to become exploiters in miniature.
There was no leading force capable of organizing the movement. Unripe
politically, they needed such leadership badly. The top layers of the townspeople,
though discontented and displeased by the royal abuse of power and the misrule of
the high officials, feudal lords and the church, were unfit to head an anti-feudal
movement since abolition of the feudal system had not yet become their goal.
It was one thing to join the movement with a view to certain advantages
that might be gained that way, but quite another to watch the ominous swing it
was acquiring. So they hastened to betray the movement and join the ranks of the
punitive forces while there was time to prove devotion to the winning side by
redoubled zeal in suppressing the rebels.
As to the town poor, those were faithful to the end - and the end was horrible
enough - but they were miserably weak and vague in their ideas of organization,
so they could only be led.
Much was achieved, though many lives were lost. This particular battle
was the first serious threat to feudalism in England, and as such left a lasting
imprint upon the social and economic life of the country. Under the pressure of
the peasant war one of its mainstays, serfdom, collapsed.
3. Cultural Development in the XIYth Century
In the long run, the Norman kings did much to centralize power and unite
England into a state, thus, in spite of themselves, preparing ground for a decay of
feudalism, bourgeois development and the beginning of a nation. The unifying
English language, the growth and influence of bourgeoisie and the powerful
peasant movement, religious "heresies" undermining the catholic church, this
bulwark of feudalism,— all these were signs of the time. The appearance of the
House of Commons (1343) heralded future developments. There were great
changes in the material life of the population.
There was progress in letters as well. John Wycliffe translated the Bible into
English creating the beginnings of English prose in fact (Middle English). English
literature took this as a propitious occasion and flourished accordingly. The life of
that turbulent time was reflected in literature that was both the culmination of the
medieval genres and a herald of the Renaissance literature to come.
William Langland (1332-1400) probably a poor priest, went much further.
His poem "The vision of Piers the Plowman" is far from knightly gallantry or the
subtleties of chivalric honour.-1 This severe allegoric sermon is closer to the
works of the Puritan authors of the 17th century, like Bunyan with his
"Pilgrim's Progress". "Piers the Plowman" is a passionate pamphlet in verse
directed against the social injustice of feudalism; it is an appeal to the toilers and
a warning to the privileged orders of the feudal society.
Written in the medieval genre of visions, typical of the church literature, it is
a series of allegoric pictures where the vices and virtues act as such, and the
hardworking peasant, Piers the Plowman, is the only one who knows the way
to the goal, the Truth. The poem was created in the time when the seeds of the
1381 peasant war were ripening, and John Ball used Langland's imagery and
characters in his fiery sermons.
The development of the national language was greatly promoted by the
work of Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), an outstanding poet, "father of
English literature" as many historians style him. His works paved the way for
English Renaissance literature. His realistic approach and humanitarian
atmosphere, his whole-hearted optimism and folk spirit make that everfresh
masterpiece of his, "Canterbury Tales", immortal. It is a splendid picture of 14th
century England showing all estates and walks of life with a vitality and
immediacy of perception that make the work not only a source of lively
aesthetic satisfaction but of authentic information as well.
Though influenced by Italian Renaissance literature, Boccaccio mostly, for
the plan of this major work of Early English realism was doubtlessly suggested by
"Decameron", Chaucer rises above his Italian teacher, so lifelike, so inimitably
English has his poem proved to be.
Chaucer rose to high court positions, travelled on diplomatic business, but
died in poverty. When Henry IV came to the throne (his father, the Duke of
Lancaster who replaced the last Plantagenet on the throne of England used to be
Chaucer's patron), the aging poet sent him a poem entitled "Complaint to My
Empty Purse". The King took the hint and increased Chaucer's scanty pension,
but it was too late — the great poet did not live to enjoy itr;
4. Political Reaction. The Wars of the Roses
The feudal estate utterly dependent for its prosperity on villein labour was
undermined by its loss. The great landlords whose sweeping agricultural
operations were conducted by the villein hands with the villein implements, found
themselves in a tight fix indeed. They could not afford to hire whole armies of
labourers.
They could not keep up with the new methods of land cultivation requiring
big investments for the purchase of new-fangled implements. Letting the land on
lease was the only way out and that was what they did. Time passed and prices
rose and the real value of the rent decreased but a fixed income is a fixed income,
and the great lords very soon felt they were losing ground, while a new class of
actual aristocracy was rearing its head, new nobles who were merchants made rich
by wool trade, merchants and yeomen dealing in grain, pork and other agricultural
products.
Those were getting power and importance, and against the background of
the rapid economic development of the country the impoverishment of old feudal
aristocracy was especially glaring.
A look at the old nobility as a class could reveal essential changes in these
former law-givers who used to hold courts and claim to be the pillars of peace and
order. The war made them little better than the pirates who raided the chartered
towns and terrorized peaceful burgesses. Each had a crowd of followers, veterans
and knights accustomed to violence, psychologically moulded by war into
intimidat-ors who could always assist their masters in terrifying any local court.
Feudal reaction raged. Free-thinking was eradicated in Oxford, the Lollards
were burnt at the stake. Some historians call the 15th century a century of paradox.
The old chartered towns launched to prosperity by the charters the
Plantagenet kings sold them, were now finding themselves overburdened with
taxes that the war with France was heaping on them, and crippled with the
consequence of the plague and pestered by the raids of pirates.
This is why the rapidly developing branches of industry, weaving industry
before all, took root in the countryside bypassing the guilds so that some village
might find itself a sort of micro-industrial centre of semi-capitalist production,
and against the background of the chartered towns' deterioration this
flourishing industry developing in unaccustomed surroundings really did give a
paradoxical air to the time.
Lords turned gangsters, and villages turned towns; towns turned garbage
heaps and merchants turned lords.
The Labourers were allowed higher wages. Besides, additional income
could be derived from spinning wool and weaving rough cloth which the peasants
and labourers could do at home in their unoccupied hours. The peasant farmer
could cultivate his land as tenant or as a freeholder. Wool industry was
developing, the feudal restrictions on usurers were removed, merchant and
usurers' capital was rapidly accumulating.
When Richard II came of age, the usual struggle "the crown - the nobles"
started. The nobles were supported by those of the new nobility and London
merchants who were interested in wool markets, who were connected with the
wool and clothing trade.
So the Parliament which by that time became a great force, seized the power
and deposed this last Plantagenet king. It went further than that: it also appointed
the next king, Henry IV (1399-1413). The power of the Parliament continued to
grow. The House of Commons established their right not only to vote of money
but also to inquire the expenditure. Under the next king it was enacted that no
law should have force until endorsed by the Commons.
The church also took advantage of the king's wobbly security, and got him to
agree to an anti-Lollard statute under which any church opposition that could be
framed up as heresy was punished by burning. In the next reign many Lollards met
their end at the stake.
Henry V (1413-1422) tried to remedy the impoverished feudal lords' plight by
renewing the war with France. He began the last stage of the Hundred Years' War
by the victorious battle of Agincourt in 1415 so that the imbecile French king
(Charles VI) was forced to recognize Henry V as his heir, giving his daughter in
marriage to the conqueror.
This striking success was to a great extent due to the treachery of one of the
most powerful French lords, the Duke of Burgundy who owned Flandres and a
great part of Northern France. This noble gentleman thought nothing of
betraying his country to go over to the side of the enemy thus enabling the
English to seize the whole of the north of France.
But the French people rose in defence of their country. An ordinary peasant
girl, Joan of Arc headed the French resistance, and the year 1429 when the town
of Orleans was liberated by the people inspired by her heroism and
resourcefulness, proved to be the turning point of the war. The French nobles
took it as a threat, however, for the ordinary Frenchmen who were saving the
country might realize their power and organize another Jacquerie 1 against feudal
oppression.
So the Burgundians who had become England's allies took care to get rid of
the popular heroine selling her to the British who promptly accused her of
witchcraft and burnt her at the market place in Roen to be an example to all
common girls and boys who dare to prevent the nobles from selling their
motherland and save it instead.
There were changes for the worse in the English expeditional forces. The
English and the Burgundian traitors quarrelled the latter rejoined their army
against their former allies. There was discontent among the peasants who
supported some of the nobles bickering for power, hoping to win an
improvement in the taxation system so that in 1450 a powerful uprising broke
out in Kent and Sussex, and began to spread.
The nobles in power were doing their best to line their pockets starving the
army, sending rotten supplies and delaying reinforcements. So in 1453 the last
battle was fought and the war was finally given up, with Calais the only trophy of
a hundred years of bloodshed. The Bor-deau capitulation of the English forces
proved to be the end of the war. Britain was utterly defeated in the Hundred
Years' War.
This result was no surprise to anybody, it could be foreseen in 1429, when
the guerilla movement started; that is why the nobles had concentrated their
energy on increasing their power in Parliament. They saw that the burgesses were
becoming bolder and the wealthy-peasantry were getting into Parliament. The
House of Common included wide circles of "the commons of England" since the
property qualification was low enough to enable burgesses of great income, petty
gentry and middle classes to be represented. To intimidate their opponents the
gangster nobles came to the sittings accompanied by their followers bearing heavy
sticks and clubs (arms were not allowed in the Houses).
This, however, could not be relied on, so a new reactionary law was introduced. It established a much higher property qualification for Parliament
membership, namely, an income of 40 shillings a year which was high for that
time.
By the end of the forties no one in England had any illusions left as to the
outcome of the war. While taxes were becoming more and more burdensome
for the peasants, discontent was growing among the new nobles and the London
merchants, since no one hoped to see a profitable termination of the war. In May
1450 discontent rose to the exploding point, and the York opposition did its best
to turn it to use.
The revolt broke out and at once assumed formidable proportions, the rebel
army amounting to no less than 40 thousand people. It was headed by Jack
Cade. The peasants' ranks were augmented by wage labourers, the gentry and
townsmen. In their "Charter of Complaints and Requests" they demanded tax
reduction, the cancelling of the Statutes of Labourers, punishment for the most
tyrannical of the feudal lords. They also demanded that Richard, Duke of
York, should rise to power.
The new nobles and burgesses hoped that York would abolish anarchy and
guarantee strong power. The rebel army defeated the royal forces and entered
London early in July, 145О. Thе most hated of the king's councillors were executed
by the peasant army but the London merchants got frightened and went over to
the side of the Establishment. Dissention began in the ranks, the gentry and
townsmen exibited signs of hesitation. Many of the wealthier part of the
rebels left Cade's side, his army was defeated and he was killed.
5. The Internecine Wars
After the war ended, the feudal lords returned to England with their soldiers
whose chief interest in life was killing for they had long lost the habit of working
and creating, destruction being their profession. It was only natural that they
readily took part in the fight for power and influence over the royal treasury.
They divided into two hostile groups, one supporting the House of York with a
white rose in their coat-of-arms, the other supporting the House of Lancaster
with a red rose in theirs.
The Lancaster dynasty was chiefly supported by the nobility of the
backward North and Wales while the York forces found support among some of
the feudal lords of the economically developed South-East. The York dynasty
was also supported by the new nobility and the wealthy citizens who were
interested in establishing strong and durable power.
The head of the York Party, Richard of York staying in Ireland as vice king,
returned to England after Jack Cade's revolt was suppressed and was formally
declared protector. But the struggle of the court parties did not stop there, and
finally Richard had to retire. He collected an army of war veterans. The march
of his army to the south and a battle (near Saint-Albans) of 1455 began the civil
war that goes in history under the romantic appellation of "The Wars of the
Roses" and which very unromantically plagued the country during 30 years.
In 1460 the Duke of York and his youngest son were killed in battle but his
eldest son Edward of York was crowned in Westminster in 1461 as Edward IV.
He reigned until he died in 1483. Edward had two sons. The eldest was twelve,
and he was to be King Edward V. Both he and his small brother were imprisoned
in the Tower by their uncle, Edward's brother Richard of Gloucester who
declared young Edward V illegitimate, seized the throne and killed the children in
the Tower.
Richard of Gloucester became king Richard III in 1483. His reign, however,
was brief for it did not stop the internecine wars and he did not manage to
secure the support of the gentry and townsmen.
Henry Tudor who was the earl of Richmond gathered an army in France. In
1485, in the battle of Bosworth, Richard's army was defeated and Richard
himself killed. This ended the War of the Roses, finished the internecine
bickerings and prepared the way for the economic development of the country.
Supported by the Parliament and by the gentry and the townsmen, Henry Tudor
established the new Tudor dynasty.
With the power of big landlords undermined by the long internecine war,
Henry VII Tudor (1485-1509) disbanded the troops of the remaining nobles,
destroyed their castles and made their lands his royal possessions. England
entered a new stage of absolute royal power and became a powerful centralized
state.
The Wars of the White and Red Roses were the last eruption of feudal
anarchy before absolutism was established. In the course of the wars the
greater part of the old aristocracy was exterminated while the property
confiscations undermined their power. At the same time the social significance of
the new nobility and the appearing bourgeoisie grew immensely.
Though the profound political reaction of the 15th century retarded the
development of British economy, it could not stop the progress of production
forces which was a result of the previous evolution both of economy and social
relations.
The liquidation of villeinage created favourable conditions for agricultural
development. Woolen cloth manufacturing centres sprang up in Eastern
England, in the south-western counties, and later in Yorkshire. Metallurgy centres
shifted to South Wales, to Birmingham and Sheffield.
Trade development encouraged the growth of shipbuilding and the merchant
fleet. The growth of both home and foreign market, of hired labour, of the scattered
manufacture created conditions for the growth of new capitalist relations in the
very womb of the feudal society.
1-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
ENGLAND ON THE EVE OF WAT TYLER'S UPRISING
2 – СОАТ
1.1АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
Амалий машғулот режа
6. The Lollards.
7. Wat Tyller's uprising.
8. Cultural development in the XIVth
century.
9. Political reaction. The Wars of the
Roses.
10.The Internecine Wars.
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар В.Тайлер қўзғолони ва
ундан кейинги даврдаги Англиянинг
сиёсий манзараси билан
таништирилади
Талабалар
XIV
асрда
маданий
тараққиёт ҳақида маълумот берилади.
• Хар бир савол буйича янги
билимларни мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан
уринли фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар,
адабиётлар ва маълумотлар банки
билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича
олаётган билим ва кўникмаларини
ривожлантириш.
•
Ўқитувчиларнинг асосий
эътиборларини ўқувчиларнинг чет
тилидаги сўз бойликларини фаол
эгаллашларини таъминлаш.
Lollards, devastating visitation of the
plague, rent, commutation, political
reaction, uprising
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар В.Тайлер қўзғолони ва ундан
кейинги даврдаги Англиянинг сиёсий
манзараси ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
XIV асрда маданий тараққиёт ҳақида
маълумотга эга бўладилар.
“Қизил ва оқ атиргуллар уруши”
мисоллар ва слайдлар ёрдамида
тушунтириб берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
“Қизил ва оқ атиргуллар уруши”ни
мисоллар ва слайдлар ёрдамида
тушунтириб бера оладилар.
Амалий
машғулот,
намойиш,
блиц
сўров, кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий
машғулот,
компьютер
технологияси, слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Тинглайди
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Мавзу буйича
умумий хулоса
килади.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Режа буйича
тайёрлаб келган
маълумотларни
асосли тарзда
етказиб беради.
Мустақил
ишлаш учун
топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Докладлар
мавзусига
тайёрланади
Slides
The Black Death
• The internal troubles were grave enough.
In 1348-1349 England suffered a
devastating visitation of the plague, the
Black Death as it was called.
William Langland
(1332-1400)
 ".
"Piers the Plowman" is a
passionate pamphlet in verse
directed against the social
injustice of feudalism; it is an
appeal to the toilers and a
warning to the privileged
orders of the feudal society.
Geoffrey Chaucer
(1340-1400)
"father of
English literature"
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
What can you tell us about the Black
Death?
2. Who was John Wycliffe?
3. Speak about the organizations of the
Lollard.
4. What was the aim of the Wat Tyler`s
Uprising?
5. Who led the army of peasants to London?
6. Who is considered to be the “father of
English Literature”?
7. What is the definition of the Wars of the
Roses?
8. Who tried to remedy the impoverished
feudal lords` plight by renewing the war
with France?
9. What was the last eruption of feudal
anarchy?
10.Dwell on the topic of the Internecine War.
1.
SEMINAR – II
TUDOR ABSOLUTISM. BEGINNING OF CAPITALIST
DEVELOPMENT
(Pre-Renaissance culture)
Key words: Pre-Renaissance, English knighthood, popular ballads, miracles,
previous accumulation, Wars of the Roses.
Discussion points:
1. Tudor absolutism
2. Beginning of caрitalist development
1. Pre-Renaissance Culture
Compared to the preceding and the following centuries, the 15th century
was comparatively barren: no great writer created masterpieces that could be
even distantly compared to Chaucer's in the 14th or Shakespeare's in the 16th
century.
The only important book of the time was "Morte d'Arthur" written by
Thomas Malory, a Yorkist nobleman after the pattern of one of the last chivalric
romances of the King Arthur cycle, a swan song of feudal nobility weeping
over the extermination of the "flower of English knighthood" and reflecting the
crisis of the feudal society.
Not so with folklore; popular ballads lived on and flourished all through the
century. Many of them were put down in writing (Caxton introduced printin g
while the Wars of the Roses were still raging on, in 1477).
Other ballads were historical, many of those describing the border warfare
between England and Scotland (like the famous "Chevy Chase"); still another
kind were ballads on everyday life topics like "The Two Sisters", "The Cruel
Brother", "Get Up and Bar the Door", etc.
There were also texts of 15th century "miracles", plays on religious
subjects that were born of church service with a choir and were in fact
illustrations to sermons.
They were later prohibited in connection with their increasingly secular
nature and then craftsmen's guilds undertook the staging, and the "pageant", or
movable platform that served for a stage on which the successive scenes were
enacted in various parts of the town, attracted holiday crowds laying the
foundation for the development of the national drama.
By the end of the 15th century new forces were beginning to work in English
culture. The Oxford University was becoming a centre for scientists and men of
culture who were discovering the Greek and Latin authors of antiquity. Pilgrimages to Italy were every time a revelation. The clear thought of the ancient
Greeks, unburdened by scholasticism, was opening the medieval eyes to new
beauties.
When Caxton established the first printing press, a means of disseminating
the new ideas was obtained. But it was not till the 16th c. that these ideas came
into their own, flowered and found triumphant expression in the works of
English humanism.
2-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
TUDOR ABSOLUTISM. BEGINNING OF CAPITALIST
DEVELOPMENT
(Pre-Renaissance culture)
2 – СОАТ
1.1. АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Амалий машғулот режа
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар Ренессанс даври маданияти
билан таништирилади
Талабаларга
XVI
аср
маданий
тараққиёти
ҳақида
маълумот
берилади.
Ренессанс даври халқ оғзаки ижоди
намуналари мисоллар ёрдамида
тушунтириб берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
3. Tudor absolutism
4. Beginning of caрitalist development
• Хар бир савол буйича янги
билимларни мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан
уринли фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар,
адабиётлар ва маълумотлар банки
билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича
олаётган билим ва кўникмаларини
ривожлантириш.
•
Ренессанс даврига қадар
маданият тараққиёти тўғрисида тўлиқ
маълумот эгаллашларини таъминлаш.
Pre-Renaissance, English knighthood,
popular ballads, miracles, previous
accumulation, Wars of the Roses.
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар Ренессанс даври маданияти
ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
XVI аср маданий тараққиёти ҳақида
маълумотга эга бўладилар.
Ренессанс даври халқ оғзаки ижоди
намуналарини мисоллар ёрдамида
тушунтириб бера оладилар.
Амалий
машғулот,
намойиш,
сўров, кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
блиц
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий
машғулот,
компьютер
технологияси, слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Тинглайди
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Мавзу буйича
умумий хулоса
килади.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Режа буйича
тайёрлаб келган
маълумотларни
асосли тарзда
етказиб беради.
Мустақил
ишлаш учун
топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Докладлар
мавзусига
тайёрланади
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What was the only important book of the time written by
Thomas Malory?
2. What historical ballads describing the border warfare
between England and Scotland do you know?
3. What ballads on everyday life topics do you know?
4. What kinds of texts of the 15th century are called
"miracles"?
5. When the Oxford University was becoming a centre for
scientists and men of culture?
6. What happened when Caxton established the first
printing press?
7. When was a means of disseminating the new ideas
obtained?
SEMINAR - III
Previous Accumulation in England.
Key words: Pre-Renaissance, English knighthood, popular ballads, miracles,
previous accumulation, Wars of the Roses.
Discussion points:
1. The Reformation in England
2. Previous Accumulation in England
3. Peasant rebellions in the 16th century
1.Previous Accumulation in England
The 15th century had begun the transitional period from feudalism to
capitalism. The 16th century continued it.
The expropriation of the peasant lands created a dangerous tension in the
country so it was only natural that the expropriator, the nobles, wanted security
and protection from the peasants 1 wrath. Feudal feuds plagued the country to
the detriment of economic and industrial development; a centralized state with a
strong reigning hand at I wheel was at the moment an alternative to feudal brawls.
The merchants were clamouring for trade developme: foreign trade had suffered
from the fut wars, its interests were to be promoted.
Well aware of what was expected him, supported by the gentry, new nobl
and newer bourgeoisie, Henry VII settled down to business preparing live up to
the requirements. From which historians say of him, one can see the feudal
ferocity and bourgeois busine sense, calculation and greed we merged in his
nature so as to guarantee the durability of the dynasty he founded.
In 1488 he passed the law of his treason according to which those nobly who
persisted in resisting his absolute power were to be accused of high treason
according to which those nobles who persisted in resisting his absolute power
were to be accused of high treason. He also created a special court: to deal with
cases like this, the sо called Star Chamber.
The law prove to be quite effective, and about eigr thousand people were
promptly found t have been plotting and so were accuse of treason, their estates
increasing th king's rapidly growing wealth.
Henry's instrument for bringing the nobles to their senses was the Privy
Council (the court of Star Chamber represented the Privy Council in its judicial
capacity). The role of Parliament was somewhat reduced.
3. The Reformation in England
The second Tudor monarch, Henry VIII (1509-1547), inherited a realm that
was quite different from the one his father had wrested from that master of feudal
intrigue, Richard III.
Peace, the old nobles cowed, and a brimming treasury; Spain friendly,
satisfied with English support for Spanish hostilities against France; the Pope
mollified by customary tribute and the skillful diplomacy of cardinal Wolsey
whom the Pope's favour made archbishop of York and cardinal while the king's
favour made him chancellor. Like his father, Henry VIII leaned upon the new
nobles and the bourgeoisie. His idea was to consolidate his position as absolute
sovereign.
He reorganized his administrative aids giving more importance to his Privy
Council and choosing its members from among civil servants, and not
feudal nobles. The Parliament was his obedient tool.
After the first quarter of the 16th century Spain began to claim a position of
supremacy and the policy of balance that-both the absolute monarchs of England
were pursuing (seeing to it that neither France nor Spain should become too
strong) prompted Henry VIII to support France to the detriment of Spain.
This meant displeasing the Pope who in many ways was dependent on the
Spanish king Charles V (together with the German king, Charles V had
managed to obtain control of the Papacy).
Displeasing the Pope was just what many classes in England welcomed,
for the Pope's exactions, as well as the tithes to be paid to the monasteries,
were anything but popular.
The Papacy remained a medieval institution, a centralized international
network of influence whose religious monopoly had to be broken if the monarchy
was to be absolute.
The Reformation and its practical application, dissolution of monasteries
or, the final goal, secularization of monastery lands, began with the Spanish
divorce. Henry obtained the divorce by breaking up with Rome (by an act of
Parliament), announcing himself head of the church (getting the Parliament to
adopt the so-called "Act of Supremacy"), appointing a new archbishop of
Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer.
Now the church was no longer an angle in the medieval triangle of "the
crown — the barons — the church". The Anglican church was now in a position
of subordination to the crown and it was supposed to know its place and its
sphere. Royal commissions visited monasteries assessing their lands and
property, and preparing "more grounds" for their dissolution, that is, finding out
facts witnessing to the monks' immorality.
In 1536 the bulk of the monasteries were suppressed and their lands confiscated; later the remaining ones were dissolved as well.
The secularization of monastery lands was welcomed by the new nobles
and the bourgeoisie and all those to whom the crown sold the lands.
The Reformation, however, was a religious expression of the bourgeoisie's
social protest, and as such, it had to be prevented from running to extremes for it
could become an expression of popular protest; to prevent such an issue,
Henry VIII made the catholic move forbidding the reading of the
Bible after it was translated into English Miles Coverdale who based his
translation on that of William Tyndale's, "the Great Bible" of 1539.
The financial interests of the crown which prompted the Reformation we
taken care of; but it was the first stage of the Reformation, and no changes the
catholic doctrine were to be suffered; So Henry burnt at the stake both thе
catholics who protested against I Anglican revolution and the nation character of
his church, and tho protestants who were inclined to too far.
The brief period between the ti chancellors, Wolsey and Thomas
Cromwell, was the time when the post chancellor was occupied by Thorn More
(1478-1535).
Presumably a catholic, he objected to the sort of reform tion that Henry VIII
introduced n because of religious considerations, i he seems not to have cared
for the form of religion, religious toleran being with him one of the principles a
happy society, but because the king's enrichment from the plunder of the
monasteries and the new nobles' enjoyment of the monastery lands were
accompanied by the sufferings of the people ousted from their holdings,
transform into homeless vagabonds.
Thomas More felt that someone had to say "no" the king's despotic
supremacy, and disgusted with the cowardly conformism surrounding him, he
refused to agree and was beheaded in compliance with Henry VIII's orders.
The struggle of the court parties went on, a sort of continuation of the Wars
of the Roses, only these wars were conducted by the warring factions at the
king's hearth, so to say. Dickens calls Henry VIII's reign "a blot of blood and
grease upon the History of England".
Probably, one of the causes of Hery VIII developing into a dirty killer was
that when his power became absolute, absolute became the despotism and un limited the tyranny. According to the Act of Supremacy the king became head
of the church. The Anglican church became the state church and the Anglican
faith became compulsory. The Anglican church became an important mainstay
of absolutism.
When Henry VIII died, his nine-year old heir was left in charge of a restless
country and an unsettled economy.
During young Edward VI's minority the country was ruled by a Council of
Regency consisting of the new nobles and led by Jane Seymour's brother, the
Duke of Somerset under whose rule protestantism went very far indeed.
Protestant preachers led by Bishop Latimer started converting the people and
Archbishop Cranmer introduced a new Prayer Book, which though vague in its
statements, was in English, and made Latin service out of the question.
Somerset and his surrounding promoted the Reformation mainly for the
benefit of their own pockets continuing the plunder of churches, expropriating
the endowments of the guilds allotted for religious education purposes, etc.
The beginning of the 16th century found the country in a state of transition
from feudalism to capitalism.The gentry went on enclosing common lands for
sheep rearing; even arable lands were enclosed.
By this time one tenth part of England's population lived in the country, and
the enclosures that began to threaten the villeins before Wat Tyler's uprising were
assuming the nature of a calamity for the peasants, free from villeinage now but
getting to be free from their lands as well.
Previous accumulation is the piling up of capital previous to the capitalist
method of production. It makes capitalist production possible; historically, it
makes its launching ground. Previous accumulation makes one of the most
important aspects in the evolution of feudalism at its stage of decay. It is based on
the expropriation of the peasant as an immediate producer.
While the means of production and the resulting product achieved with
their aid belonged to the immediate producer, neither money nor goods could
become a source of superfluous value, that is, could become a source of
capitalist accumulation; thus their possessors could not acquire the functions of
capitalists.
The basic and decisive condition of the capitalist production method is the
fact that not only the product of labour but labour itself becomes nothing but
goods; this in its turn presupposes a separation of property from labour that is a
separation of the immediate producer from the means of production, which
means the appearance of two different goods possessors: the owner of money, of
the welfare-producing means and the owner of labour ability. Thus the ability to
work becomes a kind of saleable goods.
The previous accumulation process is connected, therefore, with the appearance of this second goods-possessor; in other words, it is connected with expropriation of the toiling classes both of town and countryside.
The process was in fact a profound social upheaval when the midget proper
ty of many was transformed into the giant property of a handful of people.
The process started developing within the framework of feudalism and it
was performed through violent means such as forced dispossession of peasants,
connected with suffering and despair.
In England previous accumulation was enhanced by the development of
woolcloth industry in the country, by growth of the capitalist element in
farming, by changes in the system of prices all of which led to changes in the
society structure.
The decay of feudalism caused a disappearance of the class of peasant
landholders; they were fighting to turn copy-holding into free holding and a
dependent copy-holder into a free yeoman. The former feudal land-owners who
did not go in for new capitalist methods of farming were also becoming scarce.
The classes that were of social importance now were the gentry, new
nobles, the yeomenry, free-holders. The yeomen were desperately fighting for
land. Only their upper layers succeeded, and those gradually became capitalistic
farmers.
4. Peasant Rebellions in the 16th Century
The Tudor government and lords lived in constant fear of those expropriated
peasants. The fear made them urge laws against enclosures on the one hand (that
was what Somerset was hated for by the gentry and the new nobles) and bloody
laws against the "sturdy beggars" on the other. Such laws were repeatedly issued
beginning with the end of the 15th century (1495, 1530, 1536, 1547).
Poverty was proclaimed the worst of crimes, and most frightful punishment
was in store for those who dared to be poor, and landless and homeless.
The peasants tried both economic and revolutionary methods in their struggle
for the land. They tried to save enough money and buy it from the land
speculators, who had acquired huge tracts of monastery lands when Henry VIII
seized and sold them. Failing, they took up whatever arms they could get and
rebelled.
Peasant uprisings began in Lincolnshire in 1536. The 1536 rebellion,
known as "pilgrimage of Grace" was a catholic movement against the
Reformation and dissolution of monasteries.
When the peasant masses joined, however, it assumed quite dangerous
proportions and it took all the cunning of the Tudor government to suppress it
involving the rebels into long negotiations while the nobles of the South and East
were hurrying to the rescue. The rebellions spread to other northern counties,
were repeated in 1537, flared up again in ten years.
The greatest risings broke out in 1549. In Norfolk the rising was headed by
Robert Kett, a small landowner who joined the peasants when they came to
break his enclosures. In fact the peasants were so desperate that they were willing
to join any movement that promised a chance for them to voice their grievances.
The 1549 rebellions in Devon and Cornwall where the Celtic-speaking
people resented the English Prayer Book, was suppressed by hired German
soldiers.
The Norfolk rebellion, however, was a genuine peasant war against enclosures. The leader, Robert Kett, used his influence to moderate the movement
and finally abandoned the peasants running away from the decisive battlefield (he
was, however, caught and executed together with his brother).
The Norfolk peasants joined the movement to a man and 20 thousand men
took Norwich, the chief Norfolk centre, and then defeated a body of government
troops after which a whole army was sent to suppress them. The peasants broke
down enclosures and slaughtered sheep. They demanded that the common lands
should be returned and enclosures prohibited.
The most radical of them demanded equality of property and a complete
abolition of enclosures. The peasants were joined by the town poor which made
the movement still more formidable. However, lack of unity in their ranks and
the treachery of the bourgeois elements helped the government to suppress the
movement.
The Duke of Somerset who did not favour enclosures himself was
replaced by John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland who used treachery and
false promises to suppress the rebels, and then, supported by the Norfolk gentry
badly frightened by the powerful upsurge of peasant wrath, organized
wholesale slaughter of "the commoners".
A historian says the gentry were so bloodthirsty that even the Earl of
Warwick, later Duke of Northumberland, inhumanly cruel and treacherous as he
was, had to remind the gentry that if all the commoners were slaughtered there
would be no one to work for them: "All this while the hanging of ploughmen and
weavers and the like went on day after day, and the trees were thick with the
cawing of the crows.
At last the Earl of Warwick said scornfully "Shall we then hold the plough
ourselves and harrow over our own lands?" So the lords afraid of a shortage of
labour and rising wages, said that enough commoners had been hanged for a serviceable lesson." The "first English Commonwealth" as historians called it,
existed for two months.
3-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
PREVIOUS ACCUMULATION IN ENGLAND.
2 – СОАТ
1.1. АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
Амалий машғулот режа
4. The Reformation in England
5. Previous Accumulation in England
6. Peasant rebellions in the 16th century
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар Англиядаги деҳқонлар
қўзғолони билан таништирилади
Талабаларга
XVI
аср
илк
мулкдорликнинг
пайдо
бўлиш
жараёни ҳақида маълумот берилади.
Ренессанс даври халқ оғзаки ижоди
намуналари мисоллар ёрдамида
тушунтириб берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
• Хар бир савол буйича янги
билимларни мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан
уринли фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар,
адабиётлар ва маълумотлар банки
билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича
олаётган билим ва кўникмаларини
ривожлантириш.
•
Англиядаги деҳқонлар
қўзғолони тўғрисида тўлиқ маълумот
бериш.
Pre-Renaissance, English
knighthood, popular ballads,
miracles, previous accumulation,
Wars of the Roses.
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар Англиядаги деҳқонлар
қўзғолони ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
XVI аср илк мулкдорликнинг пайдо
бўлиш жараёни ҳақида маълумотга эга
бўладилар.
Ренессанс даври халқ оғзаки ижоди
намуналарини мисоллар ёрдамида
тушунтириб бера оладилар.
Амалий
машғулот,
намойиш,
блиц
сўров, кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий
машғулот,
компьютер
технологияси, слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Тинглайди
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Мавзу буйича
умумий хулоса
килади.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Режа буйича
тайёрлаб келган
маълумотларни
асосли тарзда
етказиб беради.
Мустақил
ишлаш учун
топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Докладлар
мавзусига
тайёрланади
Slides
•
Henry obtained the divorce by
breaking up with Rome
(by an act of Parliament),
announcing himself head of the church
(getting the Parliament to adopt
the so-called "Act of Supremacy"),
appointing a new archbishop
of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer.
THE GREATEST RISINGS
• The greatest risings
broke out in 1549.
• In Norfolk the rising
was headed by Robert
Kett.
The 1549
rebellions
in Devon in Cornwall
At
At last
last the
the Earl
Earl of
of Warwick
Warwick said
said
scornfully
scornfully "Shall
"Shall we
we then
then hold
hold
the
the plough
plough ourselves
ourselves and
and
harrow
harrow over
over our
our own
own lands?"
lands?"
So
So the
the lords
lords afraid
afraid of
of aa
shortage
shortage of
of labour
labour and
and rising
rising
wages,
wages, said
said that
that enough
enough
commoners
commoners had
had been
been hanged
hanged
for
for aa ser-viceable
ser-viceable lesson."
lesson." The
The
"first
"first English
English Commonwealth"
Commonwealth"
as
as historians
historians called
called it,
it, existed
existed
for
for two
two months.
months.
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What was Henry's instrument for bringing the nobles
to their senses?
2. Dwell on the topic “The Reformation”?
3. What is the definition of Previous accumulation?
4. How did Dickens call Henry VIII's reign?
5. What happened in Lincolnshire in 1536?
6. When did the greatest risings break out?
7. By whom the 1549 rebellions in Devon and Cornwall
where the Celtic-speaking people resented the English
Prayer Book, was suppressed?
8. What did the Earl of Warwick said at last?
9. What is the "first English Commonwealth"?
10.How long did the "first English Commonwealth" exist?
SEMINAR - IV
ENGLAND IN THE LATTER PART OF THE
XYIth CENTURY
(English Renaissance)
Key words: Socio-Political Ground, the Epoch, peasants, Edward VI,
protestants, Catholicism
Discussion points:
1. Socio-political ground of the epoch.
2. English Renaissance.
1. The Renaissance in England.
2. English folk books In Renaissance period.
3. Creation of William Shakespeare and his life.
4. Art, music, architecture in Renaissance.
5. Painting, sculpturing, theatre in Renaissance.
6. Religion during Renaissance.
1. Socio-Political Ground of the Epoch
We remember that the enclosures led to rural depopulation. The former
peasants, reduced to the position of homeless and defenceless vagabonds were
excellent material for exploitation at the new enterprises that were beginning to
spring up in the countryside, for capitalist industry began to develop in rural
England where the guild restrictions did not hinder it.
So, coal mining and woolen cloth industries begin to use the huge reserves
of working hands. In the 60-ies of the 16th century England had between three
and four thousand miners; about two thousand were employed ihthe
transportation of coal.
The peasants occupied in woolen cloth industry worked in their huts
combining their occupation with farming small plots of land. But large manuw
facturing centres began to appear with former merchants (who used to sell their
raw materials to individual weavers and then buy the product after each stage of
wool processing), as bosses. The army of the unemployed peasants was so vast
that the lucky ones were willing to take any terms.
The weavers gathered under one roof by the former go-between
connecting the weaver and the market, now owner of a manufacturing centre, got
pitifully low wages but those working at home got piece-worl payment on a still
lower scale. Real wages were extremely low for bread was terribly expensive, the
people had to be content with bread of beans, oat meal or peas in nauseating
mixture, wheat bread being a luxury.
Wage freezing laws were in action all the time and those who could not
find a master willing to employ them still had their ears chopped off and their
forehead branded with hot iron.
After Edward VI Mary Tudor (1553-1558), or Bloody Mary as she was
called later, ascended the throne full of ardent Catholicism, earnestly believing
herself a tool in the hands of the Catholic Deity sent to eradicate heresy in her
land. Catholicism was nearly restored, the breach with the Roman Pope made up
and a Papal Legate admitted, the old laws sending protestants to the stake to be
burnt (disregarded during Edward VI's reign), were revived and soon Latimer, a
leading protestant, went to the stake.
Hundreds of protestants were burned (archbishop Cranmer among them).
The gentry whose only care was their own skin and the land they had got from
the dissolution of monasteries, were ready to profess any faith probably
including that of the Devil provided their possessions were safe. But Mary did not
dare to restore the monasteries in their property and undo what her father had
done.
She had committed enough blunders as it was, marrying the king of Spain,
thus placing the country under Spanish control which enraged her former
supporters: English common sense always dictated that the commercial rival
should also be the political enemy, and here she was dragging the country into an
alliance with a country whose marine superiority and commercial greatness were
a sore in the English eye. Results were not slow to follow: union with Spain
meant war with France which ended in failure as England was defeated. Soon
Calais was lost, the sole remnant of the Hundred Years' War triumph and an
indispensable trade springing-board.
The unhappy bigoted queen, life-long witness of her father's atrocities and
therefore a moral cripple who knew no better, died hated and unloved even by her
own husband.
She left the country in a bad plight, with finances frustrated, naval power not
nearly equal to that of haughty Spain in possession of the Netherlands and
supreme on the seas, Scotland not a friend but an enemy, with France in
control (Mary Queen of Scots was then sixteen, and her mother, a Frenchwoman,
was reigning in her name).
Elizabeth knew that her claim to the throne was recognized only by the protestant part of England, the catholic part considering Mary Stuart the legimate
heiress. The feudal nobles of the North used Catholicism as a religious garment
of their hatred for absolutism that was putting an end to their feudal freedoms.
For Elizabeth Catholicism also meant the hateml supremacy of Spain supported
by Rome.
Mary Stuart finally married the French heir to the throne to whom she had
been betrothed. She became Queen of France the year after Elizabeth became
Queen of England but her husband died a year later and she returned to Scotland.
The extreme protestants in power there, and apprehensive of a return to
Catholicism, raised a rebellion against the catholic queen and made her abdicate
in favour of her son James (she had married a Lord Darnley).
Mary was imprisoned, escaped to join an army of her supporters, was
defeated and came to ask Elizabeth for asylum, an awkward guest. Elizabeth
solved the problem imprisoning her beautiful rival sister in the Tower where
she was constantly the centre of plots against Elizabeth organized by the
northern catholic lords.
Their revolt of 1569 aiming at wresting the throne from Elizabeth and
giving it to Mary ended in failure but another one was brewing as hostile Spain
was instigating the Northern lords' activities. War against Spain was in the air.
This was the time when powerful trade companies began to appear ousting
foreign merchants. A powerful fleet became a must, so Elizabeth promised
herself to attend to that as soon as the immediate issues were solved.
She had the support of Parliament in breaking off all relations with Rome. In
fact she brought the church system of England back to where her father had left
it, to the bourgeois reformation and anti-clericalism and the heads of persistent
catholics were chopped off during her reign no less assiduously than the heads of
persistent protestants during the reign of Bloody Mary. But then she did not
stand any bourgeois deepening of the Reformation.
The persistent protestants called puritans already in the beginning of her
reign» represented and supported by the new nobles and the growing bourgeoisie,
were trying to organize the church so that it would be headed by "presbyters",
wealthy church aldermen. She checked that though she supported the extreme
protestants of Scotland because they fought against the French occupation army.
A fleet of English ships and an army were sent to help the Scotch
protestants and by 1560 Scotland was free from French domination and a
protestant presbyterian church was established there. Spain was now to be
attended to, for the interests of England's growing trade were at stake, and
Elizabeth and her councillors turned their attention to building up the country
sea power.
Before 1400 the biggest ships England could boast were basin-shaped onemast boats never larger than of 100-ton displacement. Soon the compass and
astrolabe were introduced, maps were becoming reliable by the end of the 16th c;
the trade routes hunt was beginning in good earnest, land transportation being
too costly, risky and therefore unprofitable. Besides, gold was getting so scarce
in the Old World that trade development was seriously handicapped.
In 1497, five years after Columbus's ships touched one of the Bahama
islands (San Salvador he called it) near the North American coast, and then Cuba
and Haiti of the Antilles Greater (he called the whole thing West Indies thinking
he was near the coast of Asia near India), John Cabot, a Genoese sailor employed
by England' discovered Canadian Labrador and Newfoundland.
The way round the Cape was a Portuguese monopoly, so other countries
started looking for others, possibly shorter ones, and in 1519 a Spanish expedition
led by a Portuguese captain in their pay, sailed round the southern coast of South
America into the Pacific Ocean, quiet at the moment, so Magellan named this
usually unquiet expanse of water somewhat paradoxically as many sailors found
out later.
Moving further north-west he discovered the Marian and the Phillippine
islands, later made Spanish colonies, died in a fight with the natives, and the
remaining ships, loaded with spices, returned to Spain by way of Africa thus
completing the first round-the-world cruise.
The route, however, had been monopolized by Portugal, so the English
made unsuccessful attempts to find a northern way. An expedition was sent
(financed by a joint-stock company) round the northern tip of Norway, failed
in part but succeeded in reaching Archangel and establishing trade contacts
with Russia, so that in 1557 a Russian ambassador came to London, and a
Russian Company started its trade activities. Contacts were also established
with Iceland and the Baltic towns.
To keep the English navy in good form, Navigation Acts were issued
directed at stopping the practice of English merchants transporting their cargoes
in foreign ships. Corn exporters were encouraged since they contributed both
to the development of agriculture and to the growth of the country's stock of gold;
in this period of merchant capital money was the measure of the country's
wealth. The predominant doctrine of the time was the theory of Mercantilism
according to which the object to be aimed at was treasure, i.e. gold and silver,
and markets for English cloth.
Ten years after Elizabeth's accession Francis Drake and John Hawkins, two
young adventurous daredevils were sailing to the newly discovered world and
John Hawkins was thinking of a profitable trade in black flesh: the Spanish
colonizers of the West Indies had exterminated the native population and wanted
hands for their plantations, so, why not catch defenceless African savages and
sell them to the Spaniards? Wouldn't that bring in gold? It did r and later on,
when slave trade became an important asset, the queen herself bought a share in
the enterprise that brought above three hundred percent interest.
For this was a period of healthy capitalistic development, and its health was
manifested by candid dealing. As soon as England's horizons widened (and in
1577-1580) Francis Drake made his first voyage circumnavigating the world, in
1586-1588. Thomas Cavendish made another, plunder and piracy became the
normal state of things, and there was no disguise, no mincing matters. Just a
healthy business proposition. So frank were they in those blessed healthy times
that the queen seeing how immensely profitable slave trade proved to be,
knighted Hawjkins for organizing the traffic and the coat-of-arms she bestowed
on him was quite eloquent: a black slave in chains.
Piracy was greatly detrimental to Spanish commerce and was encouraged by
the British government. The Anglo-Spanish war lasted from 1587 to 1604. The
Spanish king developed subversive activities aimed at placing Mary Stuart on
the throne and getting rid of Elizabeth; so Mary, implicated in a plot
against the queen's life, was finally executed in 1587.
Spain, however, was still a feudal country, and its fleet, boastfully called the
Invincible Armada, a collection of a hundred and thirty lumbering gall eons. In
1588 the Spaniards attempted an invasion placing great hopes on their Armada
and on the weakness of the English fleet.
But the English businessmen had made it their business to strengthen the
fleet; the newly built English ships could manoeuvre adroitly, the sailors knew
their home waters to perfection, they were led by the patriotic pirate navigators,
Drake, Hawkins, Frawbisher who applied the new tactics of broadside
(formerly the ships were used only to transport the troops while the fighting
was done the land way with sword and arrow).
Fireships were sent at night to disorganize the Spanish fleet, which was
routed in the morning. The experienced English navigators saw an approaching
storm in. time to take refuge in a harbour leaving the terrific Channel storm to
finish the job, so that only half of the hundred and thirty Spanish ships
returned crawling to Spain. The sea power of Spain was gravely undermined.
After this convincing victory the English considered Spain as an easy prey
so that the rest of the war bore the nature of a plundering enterprise, raiding the
nearly defenceless ports and towns, returning richly laden with booty,
accumulating wealth. The weakness of Spain witnessed to the backwardness
of its feudal structure, that doomed it to failure in the clash with England's
young capitalism. England was emerging as a nation, with new strength and
resourcefulness characteristic of the growing bourgeoisie.
The peak of English absolutism had its own specific features. It showed the
first signs of struggle between absolute monarchy on the one hand and the new
nobles and bourgeoisie on the other. Thus, for instance, the Parliament openly
opposed the queen on the issue of monopolies, and what's more, she was too
clever not to pretend to yield. Though the concession never amounted to
anything tangible, it was an omen of new relations between the sovereign
and the bourgeoisie.
English Renaissance
The 16th century was the time when under the influence of radical
changes in the basis of English society, i.e. in the production of material
values and in human relations in the process of production, in other words, with
the advent of capitalism, radical changes occurred in the spiritual life of the
newly-arising nation and its new-born culture that was taking an unmistakably
national shape. The process can be referred to as English Renaissance.
Renaissance, the epoch of Humanism and the Revival of Learning, born and
nursed in Italy, after revolutionizing the culture and science of Italy and the whole
Western world, finally penetrated the insular detachment of England and came
soffened by the distance with less shock to bring new learning, new religious
issues and new art. The human being, the beauty and the joy of his life were
now the centre of attention.
In England one easily distinguishes three main phases of the process: the
early phase of the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th century and the
later phase coinciding with the reign of Queen Elizabeth and the life-span of
Shakespeare. The period after Shakespeare's death and to the beginning of the
puritan revolution was the time marked by a decline of the Renaissance and
crisis of Humanism.
The earlier Tudor period was a time of transition from late medieval to
Renaissance culture. The new architecture imported from Italy had little in
common with the Gothic pointed type. With the revival of classical interest in all
of the art there came a tendency to return to the ancient models in building.
It was only early in the 16th century that the influence of the Italian
Renaissance architecture was really felt in England in the pure classical lines of
Inigo Jones (the Whitehall palace is an example) and in the prodigious fertility,
talent and inventiveness of Sir Christopher Wren who used the classic forms with
great purity and correctness.
After the Great fire of London he rebuilt a great number of churches and
dwellings of the wealthy citizens. St. Paul's which according to art specialists is
the finest protestant cathedral in the world, is a good example of it, as well as the
west towers of Westminster Abbey. Both the outstanding architects managed to
profit by the new movement in architecture leaving the national foundation of
English architecture intact.
Most of the English early Renaissance structures are hybrid in style often
retaining Norman or Gothic features. The buildings of Oxford show this quite
clearly: they are to a large extent Gothic but the gateways and parts of the
building themselves abound in Renaissance decoration.
Architects and painters were invited from Italy and other western countries.
Many of them, though foreigners, were allowed to enrich British culture and are
generally treated by historians as the founders of the English school of painting,
as for instance Hans Holbein Junior, an outstanding German painter. In his
realistic portraits he does not stop at the detailed depiction of his sitter's
appearance: his portraits speak volumes about the inner life, the character of the
man, the inner springs that move him.
In this respect his portrait of Henry VIII at the peak of his power is so
eloquent, it is a manual of history in itself. English portrait painting begins here.
The wealthy houses were soon filled with portraits of ancestors often painted by
provincial painters unsuccessfully imitating Holbein. Rubens and Van Dyck, the
great Dutchmen, are also revered as creators of English painting for they were
attracted by the English titles and honours that were heaped on them and agreed
to be treated as English painters.
Henry VIII had to attract the nobility to his court where he himself reigned as
arbiter elegantarium to ensure the support of those who mattered for his
reformation activities. Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542) and Henry Howard the
Earl of Surrey (1517-1547) were poets strongly influenced by the Italians,
especially by Petrarch (1304-1374); they did not slavishly follow their
original, but experimented on the English sonnet.
But the giant of the Renaissance was Thomas More, a typical Renaissance
giant, lawyer, scholar, writer, statesman, a man for all times. His great work was
"Utopia" published in Latin in 1516, a scathing satire on feudalism and the
emerging capitalism, on the government and society of England.
The description of contemporary England with all the evils of poverty for the
many and luxury for the few is made in striking contrast to the island of "Utopia"
where there is no private ownership of land and industrial tools, where community
of goods, a national system of education, the rule of work for all (a realization of
John Ball's 14th century motto), and a philosophy under which the good of the
individual is subordinate to the common good make an ideal state.
There are no wars in "Utopia"; bellicosity is considered a vice as well as
greed, hatred, and desire to oppress others. The approach is naive and imperfect in
many ways, but the importance of the book is hard to overestimate. For the first
time in history the dream of a way of life based on justice was combined with an
extensive and rational system of proposals about its realization: communal ownership and collective work.
More does not only condemn the feudal system but he also expresses the
sad assurance that the new system, based on money relations, is no smaller evil.
He looks far ahead into the bright future of nations foreseeing many of its traits.
Queen Elizabeth surrounded herself with a brilliant constellation of statesmen, seafarers, warriors, all of them typical Renaissance figures, people like
Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) author of the beautiful "Faerie Queene", a combination of chivalric romance and didactic allegory that originated the
Spensentrian stanza later used by Byron for his "Childe Harold", Philip Sidney
(1554-1586), statesman, poet, critic, traveller, soldier, author of the "Apology
for Poetry", Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), leader of a circle of humanists and
author of "World History", and others.
This second phase of Renaissance in England, the second half of the 16th с
is, among other things, an age of the theatre art. In the first period it was the time
of the "morality play" and the "mystery play", though with a new, political
significance. The conventional images of the plays represented the antagonistic
forces of the new society. There were also plays by classical Greek and Roman
tragedians staged by university students, plays into which the "morality" characters
had been shifted to produce a quaint combination of the classical and popular
trends; there were also "masques," plays written on biblical subjects.
The professional actors played them in taverns and roadside inns. The actors
had to have protectors in order to exist for the law persecuted them for
vagabondism. In 1576 the first theatre was built in London by a group of actors
and soon theatres appeared everywhere—rough and primitive structures,
roofless for the most part and curtainless too, seating (or rather "standing", for
there were no seats for ordinary public) some thousand people. Immediate
contact with the audience of craftsmen, sailors, pedlers and the like was
established. Women did not act, female parts were played by young boys, nor
were women supposed to attend unless wearing a mask for some of the passages
in the plays were obscene.
By and by, thanks to the combined efforts of the "University Wits" as the
pre-Shakespearean dramatists were called and the genius of Shakespeare,
England developed the finest drama the world had ever known.
People like Thomas More and William Shakespeare justify the well-known
words of Engels who said the Renaissance epoch was an age that demanded
giants and created them. Though Shakespeare, being an enemy of feudal
brawls, approved of royal power, with an enlightened monarch as an ideal
figure in the centre, his poetry is an embodyment of a free spirit. He hates
oppression and chains binding body and soul.
He managed to convey through his works the Renaissance spirit of optimistic
hopefulness, of joy, of the ultimate triumph of love and freedom over the dark
feudal forces of hatred and lust for power. He also managed to reflect the historical
changes of colossal importance and scale and the deep contradictions of his
epoch. Like his great predecessor Christopher Marlowe he makes a study of
passions.
But with Marlowe the bearers of those passions were somewhat like the
morality play figures, made to represent one particular passion and nothing more
(Tamburlaine the Great — titanic desire of power over the whole world, Doctor
Faustus — desire of unlimited knowledge as a way to unlimited power, the Jew of
Malta, a maniacal desire of enrichment, etc.)
Shakespeare's mastery of realism gives him the power to create characters of
human beings. They are real and lifelike, they embody the passions and ideas
of his contemporaries, and are typical characters, acting in typical
circumstances; good and evil forces may be fighting in the same bosom as they
do in the heart of Macbeth, the killer.
The third period of the Renaissance epoch in England was characterised by
increasing decay of the Renaissance drama. Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and
John Fletcher (1579-1629) for instance bring in an aristocratic strain of
superficiality and shallow attractiveness based not on the deep study of human
behaviour and its social background,but on desire to merely entertain.
The Renaissance epoch brought in a flood of scientific discoveries. The
development of natural sciences made a gigantic leap. William Gilbert (15401603), a physicist, wrote his epoch-making work "De Magnete", John Gale, a
physician, wrote a treatise on rifle wounds and Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
ushered in the revival of research as a philosopher of science. Like Shakespeare,
Francis Bacon believed human potentialities to be limitless.
In his treatise "Advancement of Learning" he outlined the methods of
scientific research: facts must be collected and passed through an automatic logical
process from which correct judgements would emerge. The mind should be cleared
of church dogmatism. Like his 13th-century namesake, Roger Bacon, he
believed in fresh observation rather than authority as a basis for knowledge.
Bacon's appeal to study nature through experiment gave impetus to natural
sciences and led to the emergence of a number of scientific societies, the Royal
Society being one of them.
Besides being a humanist and philosopher the forefather of English materialism and experimental science, Bacon acted as an ideologist of the new nobility
and bourgeoisie of the epoch of primary accumulation.
He was a great believer in technical innovations and his program of England's
economic development through technical advancement answered the interests of
the growing bourgeoisie and new nobility whose aspirations Bacon managed to
clothe in the attractive garment of the ideals of humanity.
The sculpture in the early 17th century was less inventive than architecture
and was almost exclusively confined to tombs. The tomb makers' trade was mainly
in the hands of native mason sculptors, whose work fell behind the continental
standards. By the end of the 17th century post-Restoration sculpture became
varied and was no longer entirely the domain of masons.
Though tomb design became more lively often with standing figures in
semiclassical dress, the cutting was still pretty dull. Edward Pierce a mason
sculptor of the second half of the 17th century however showed in his few busts
true artistic spirit and his bust portrait of Sir Christopher Wren with its wide
Baroque pattern is considered to be the finest English sculpture of the centurv.
As a whole and viewed in its historical perspective, the period made a prelude
to the bourgeois revolution of the 17th century. It was also an influence, an
approach, a school that prepared the ground, fertilized it and vitalized the already
cleaned sowing material that made modern English art and literature possible.
4-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
ENGLAND IN THE LATTER PART OF THE
XVIth CENTURY
(English Renaissance)
2 – СОАТ
1.1. АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Амалий машғулот режа
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар Ренессанс даври маданияти
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
3. Socio-political ground of the epoch.
4. English Renaissance.
1. The Renaissance in England.
2. English folk books In Renaissance
period.
3. Creation of William Shakespeare
and his life.
4. Art, music, architecture in
Renaissance.
5. Painting, sculpturing, theatre in
Renaissance.
6. Religion during Renaissance.
• Хар бир савол буйича янги
билимларни мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан
уринли фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар,
адабиётлар ва маълумотлар банки
билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича
олаётган билим ва кўникмаларини
ривожлантириш.
•
Ренессанс даври маданияти
(халқ оғзаки ижоди, санъат, мусиқа,
театр, рассомлик, хайкалтарошлик ва
х.к.) ҳақида тўлиқ маълумот бериш.
Socio-Political Ground, the Epoch,
peasants, Edward VI, protestants,
Catholicism
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар Ренессанс даври маданияти
(халқ оғзаки ижоди, санъат, мусиқа,
театр, рассомлик, хайкалтарошлик ва
х.к.) билан таништирилади
Талабаларга Ренессанс даври диний
қарашлари
ҳақида
маълумот
берилади.
Ренессанс даври халқ оғзаки ижоди
намуналари мисоллар ёрдамида
тушунтириб берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
(халқ оғзаки ижоди, санъат, мусиқа,
театр, рассомлик, хайкалтарошлик ва
х.к.) ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
Ренессанс даври диний қарашлари
ҳақида маълумотга эга бўладилар.
Ренессанс даври халқ оғзаки ижоди
намуналарини мисоллар ёрдамида
тушунтириб бера оладилар.
Амалий
машғулот,
намойиш,
блиц
сўров, кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий
машғулот,
компьютер
технологияси, слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Тинглайди
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Мавзу буйича
умумий хулоса
килади.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Режа буйича
тайёрлаб келган
маълумотларни
асосли тарзда
етказиб беради.
Мустақил
ишлаш учун
топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Докладлар
мавзусига
тайёрланади
Slides
In 1497, five years after Columbus's
ships touched one of the Bahama
islands (San Salvador he called it) near
the North American coast, and then Cuba
and Haiti of the Antilles Greater (he called
the whole thing West Indies thinking he
was near the coast of Asia near India),
John Cabot, a Genoese sailor employed
by England' discovered Canadian
Labrador and Newfoundland.
 THE ANGLO-SPANISH WAR
1587 to 1604.
The Renaissance.
The Literature and Culture of Tudor England
The culture, science and philosophy of the ancient world, and especially of
Greece, was known to the feudal society of Western Europe in a very distorted
form. The great model of Western European literature of the Middle Ages was
Virgil, whose works were considered to he sacred, and even to have foretold the
coming of Christianity. From the deification of Virgil, a romantically inclined
poet who idealized the past and deliberately fostered archaism in his poetry,
comes one of the literary influences which helped to shape the chivalrous romance
of the Middle Ages.
The very much limited world of the chivalrous romances, however, did not
suffice to express the great changes which had occurred within European society
during the 14th and 15th centuries. New methods of production, new relations of
production, new concepts and ideas about the world had to be expressed in
literature and art. The discovery of the beauty of ancient Greek art, the spreading of
direct knowledge of Greek classical literature, the acquaintance with Greek
philosophy and scientific method, the acceptance of man as the new measure of life
and of art — all that we mean when we speak of the Renaissance — arose first in
Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries and gave a great impulse to the
development of the fine and decorative arts, architecture, literature, philosophy,
scientific studies and medical and technical experiment. This great development,
which spread from Italy to all over Europe, playing a decisive part in the
development of English culture in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, was caused not
only by the spread of the knowledge of antiquity; the newly discovered learning
and art of the ancient world provided a form suitable for the new content given to
art and literature by changes in society.
England, where the new class relationships developed very rapidly offered a
very favourable soil for the thinking of Renaissance scholars.
In England we may distinguish three periods within the Renaissance: the first
period of the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th century, the second
period coinciding with the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558—1603) and the
activities of William Shakespeare (1564—1616) and the final period after
Shakespeare's death, which ended with the beginning of the puritan revolution.
The earlier Tudor period was a time of transition from late medieval to
Renaissance culture. The characteristic feature of the mansions, halls and manors
built during the Tudor (late Gothic) and Jacobean (early 17th century) periods is on
the one hand the mingling of Renaissance elements with Gothic tradition and on
the other a greater attention paid to comfortable, peaceful living. Firesides,
chimneys, windows, tables, chairs, cabinets show a greater elegance and lightness
and a deliberate striving for comfort and adaptation to their purpose. Typical in this
respect is Hampton Court, which was built under the supervision of cardinal
Wolsey and later presented to Henry VIII.
Henry VIII enlarged and remodelled the earlier Tudor buildings and made~Hampton Court
his favourtie home. Through more than two centuries the English sovereigns kept state here.
The architecture and the furnishing of the palace in Tudor times showed the foreign
influence of the Renaissance. The heavy wood of seats, tire-places and cup-boards was cut
with rich patterns. Greek-shaped posts stood at the four corners of huge beds; and many such
beds even had a roof, and curtains down the four sides.
The greatest changes at Hampton Court followed the accession of William III in the 17th
century who decided that the old palace of the Tudors should be so reconstructed as to rival
the French Versailles. Accordingly, Sir Christopher Wren was commissioned to add the
large Renaissance wing, and Dutch gardeners were imported to lay out the grounds anew.
Today it is opened to the public and its treasures of art are seen by hundreds of thousands of
visitors every year.
However, the Renaissance was more than a development in the work of artists and
craftsmen. The spirit of the Renaissance flowed north across Europe and entered
England as the New Learning. Its adventurous ideas soon began to affect most levels of
English society. The man mainly responsible for causing people to become critics of
the church was a Catholic priest. His name was Erasmus (1460—1536) and he was a
Dutchman who visited England several times and taught as professor at Cambridge. It
was Erasmus, with friends in high places, who had most influence in spreading the
New Learning throughout England.
Both men and women of the middle class became affected by the Renaissance.
More and more learned to read and write. However, the poor continued to be illiterate
because education was beyond their means. A new kind of education which included
schooling in arithmetic, history, geography together with Greek and Latin was found in
the grammar schools, attended mainly by the sons of the local gentry and the local
merchants.
Followers of the New Learning suggested that government should introduce
reforms to cure the evils of society. The chief believer in this view was Erasmus's
supporter and friend, Sir Thomas More (1478—1535) — the giant of the Renaissance.
More was a lawyer who was interested in politics. He believed that reform was required
in the state. His famous book called Utopia (1516) shows, as though in a dream, the
way to a world of peace and plenty, ridiculed both declining feudalism and emerging
capitalism. Although the enclosures were one of the worst evils affecting the poor
people of his time, More pointed to other, more general evils also. For the first time in
history the dream of a way of life based on justice was combined with an extensive and
rational system of reforms.
Thomas More.
Sir Walter Raleigh.
The reign of Henry VIII was a period of great flourishing of music, art and architecture. Henry
himself seeking to acquire a reputation as the patron of learning and being himself an active
participant in literature, art, music encouraged architects and painters to come from Italy and
other European countries. Many of them enriched English culture and today are considered to be
the founders of the English school of painting, as for instance, Hans Holbein Junior (1497—
1543), the famous master of the portrait. Most eloquent is his portrait of Henry VIII in the prime
of power and life. Rubens and Van Dyck, though Dutchmen by origin, seriously influenced
English painting too.
The reign of Queen Elizabeth saw the development of the English language to the
height of its power as an instrument of prose and especially of poetry. In poetry,
Elizabethan literature is especially rich in lyric forms, which are often closely related to
folk traditional forms. In this respect outstanding were Edmund Spenser (1552 —99),
author of the beautiful The Faerie Queene, which is a combination of chivalric romance
and allegory, Philip Sidney (1554—86), poet, critic, statesman and soldier, author of
the Apology for Poetry and others. Sir Walter Raleigh, an outstanding explorer of his
time was also a fine lyric poet, though he is better known for his History of the World.
The drama, and that not only the drama of Shakespeare, is the crowning glory of
the Elizabethan age. It was the time of the morality play and the 'mystery' though with
new political implications. There were classical Greek and Roman plays staged by
university students, there were plays written on subjects from the Bible. The sites
chosen for these plays were usually taverns and inns.
In 1576 the first theatre was built in London by a group of actors and soon
theatres appeared everywhere. The actual structure of the Elizabethan theatre. with its
resemblance to the inn courtyard where the first companies of actors performed, well
expresses the relation of the theatre to the audience. Immediate contact with the
audience of craftsmen, peddlers — the populace was well maintained. Women did not
act on stage, their roles were played by young boys. They were neither supposed to
attend unless wearing a mask because many plays were obscene.
It was due to the talents of the 'University Wits', as the pre-Shakespearean dramatists were called, of
Christopher Marlowe (1564—1593) and the genius of Shakespeare himself, that England developed
the finest drama the world had ever known.
William Shakespeare (1564—1616), Thomas More (1478 — 1535) justify Engels'
evaluation who said the Renaissance was an age that demanded giants and created them.
Thanks to his great poetic gift and powers of observation and generalization,
Shakespeare was able to use the contemporary traditional forms, to enlarge and transform
them, and thus to express the new content given by a changing society in vivid,
passionate and convincing images. Like his great predecessor, Christopher Marlowe, he
makes a study of passions. But with Marlowe the bearers of those passions resembled the
morality play characters, who were supposed to represent one particular passion (Doctor
Faustus — a desire of unlimited knowledge as a tool to gain unlimited power).
Shakespeare's characters are real, lifelike, typical of his time and of the passions of his
time. Despite Shakespeare's close acquaintance with the royal court and the brilliant
courtiers of his time he regarded the ruling class critically, clearly, dispassionately.
The third period of the Renaissance associated with the names Francis Beaumont
(1584—1616) and John Fletcher (1579—1625) was a period of increasing decline of the
drama due to the superficiality and shallowness of the plays, devoid of a profound study
of human behaviour and created merely for entertainment.
The Renaissance gave a powerful fillip to the development of science. William
Gilbert (1540—1603), a physicist, wrote his famous work De Magnete, John Gale, a
physician, wrote a treatise on rifle wounds and Francis Bacon (1561 — 1626), who
indicated the necessity for experimental science rather than purely speculative reasoning.
In his work Advancement of Learning he outlined the methods of scientific research. The
development of science and philosophy in England, especially the formation of the Royal
Society (1662), owe very much to Bacon's initiative.
Though Bacon by birth belonged to the new bourgeois-aristocracy, and was a high state official in
the royal service, he in his intellectual life was serious, single-minded, wholly devoted to the
search for scientific truth.
Song, lute music played an important part in the everyday life of the wealthier and educated
classes; organ music in the life of the church. Of composers of the period best known is William
Byrd, who contributed to English secular and church music. The most typical form of Tudor
composition is the madrigal, the words of which consist of an elaborate love lyric full of
metaphors.
The half-timbered building in Henley Street where William Shakespeare was born.
As a whole the historical period under review may be regarded as a prelude to the
bourgeois revolution of the 17th century. This was reflected in all fields of life and
human thought.
In England we
may
distinguish
three periods
within
the Renaissance:
the first period
of the end of the
15th and the
first half of the
16th century
the second period
coinciding with the
reign of Queen
Elizabeth
(1558—1603)
and the activities
of William Shakespeare
(1564—1616)
and the final
period
after Shakespeare's
death, which ended
with the beginning
of the puritan
revolution.
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. Who was called Bloody Mary?
2. When Scotland was free from French domination?
3. What did Francis Drake make as soon as England's horizons
widened?
4. How long did the Anglo-Spanish war last?
5. Speak about the peculiar features of the English Renaissance?
6. Why the Renaissance period is considered to be the epoch of
Humanism and the Revival of Learning?
7. What period is marked by a decline of the Renaissance and
crisis of Humanism?
8. What is the definition of the earlier Tudor period?
9. Who was Thomas More and what is his great work?
10. When the first theatre in London was built?
SEMINAR – V
MODERN ENGLAND.
ENGLAND IN THE 1st HALF OF THE 17th CENTURY.
Key words: bourgeois revolution, civil wars, industrialism, industrial
enterprises, clothiers, period of transition.
Discussion points:
1. Economic and social development
2. The Bourgeois revolution
3. The Civil wars
4. Military dictatorship and the end of the republic.
The 17th century went down in the history of England as the century of the
bourgeois revolution, one of the earliest in the history of Europe. It established the
bourgeois system in the country, for the capitalist way of production triumphed, and it
influenced the capitalist development of the countries of Europe and North America.
True, it looked like an event in the religious life of the country. But this was only
its outer aspect. Its causes lay deep in the social and economic conditions, in the
political life of the country, and the form it took was dictated by the level of England's
economic, political and cultural development.
1. Economic and social development
Elizabeth Tudor died in an agrarian country. But the 17th was a century of
rapid change, industrialism was in the air, industrial development was coming to the
fore working changes in the country's economic life and in the people's minds.
England was no longer a wool-producing country, it had an established reputation as
a manufacturer of woolen cloth.
Furthermore, it was not only wool-processing industry alone, supplying
foreign markets with first-rate woolen cloth, that had developed; new industries were
developing and old ones growing in scope.
Shipbuilding, metallurgy, coal-mining, mentioned above, were assuming
unprecedented proportions. Economic historians estimating England's share in the
European industrial production of the time say that by 1640 England mined four fifths
of all European coal. The new branches of industry included production of cotton
prints, silk, glass, soap, etc. Skilled artisans from other countries were encouraged to
immigrate; new manufacturing centres were springing up hourly, quickly growing to
be a typical feature of the country's economic development.
The new industries were mostly created in the advanced form of centralized
capitalist manufacture while the old ones, like the production of woolen cloth,
might be carried on in scattered shops and craftsmen's homes, though the cloth
industry as such developed along capitalist lines for it involved the control of the
merchant over the individual weavers who could not alone command the necessary
supplies of raw materials on the one hand and market contacts on the other. The
clothiers, or wool capitalists might possibly be considered the fathers of English
capitalists in general.
The royal charters allowing the manufacture and sale, or only the sale, of a
certain product, were granted to individuals or companies, "for a consideration" or as a
cheap way of recompense for service and contributions. The monopoly right thus
obtained, immensely enriched the person enjoying it since any price could be got for a
product that no one else was allowed to produce and sell, and it was h ugely
detrimental both to the buyers' purse and the country's industry. This medieval
system was also an obstacle in the development of capitalist commercial contacts with
other countries.
The trade companies organized late in the 15th and early in the 16th с.
monopolized foreign trade privileges: the Merchant Adventurers exported cloth to
Northern Europe, the Staple Merchants had an ancient monopoly for wool trade, etc.
In the 17th c, as well as at the end of the 16th, so-called chartered companies were
springing up, mostly of London merchants and they were bitterly fighting for prior
rights, concentrating the foreign trade of the country predominantly in London and
contributing to an increase in the political weight and power of the big London
merchants.
There was also the first Joint Stock Company, organized to trade with the East,
the East India Company (1600) soon to become a great power in its own right, with
its own army, staff of lawyers, experts, etc. The members invested capital which
was pooled and used in the trade turnover, while profits were distributed in
proportion to the share of capital invested.
The survivals of feudal relations in agriculture also retarded the development of
industry and kept England within the limiting status of an agrarian country though
capitalism was developing in the countryside as well changing the whole system of
agriculture. The common open field was becoming a thing of the past. The enclosures
of the Tudor times helped to create the crowds of wage labourers, ready for capitalist
exploitation, on the field of a capitalistic fanner.
The crowd of potential wage slaves was augmented when Henry VII
disallowed the nobles to keep huge fallowings of retainers, when Henry VIII
dissolved the monasteries and great numbers of monastic servants were left to their own
devices. Later on many of them were absorbed by the growing industries of the towns
— and what a lot of bread, meat, vegetables had to be produced to feed them. Land
was becoming a source of profit.
The social structure of the 17th century England was topped after the king by the
feudal nobility and the highest clergy, bishops and the like. The lowest and poorest
layers of the peasantry were the cotters, landless hired men exploited by the capitalist
farmers, the gentry and the top layers of the yeomanry. The gentry were a sort of link
between landowner and merchant.
The first Stuart king directed persecution against the puritans who were
bearers of bourgeois-revolutionary ideology. The persecution was, religious in form,
in fact a method of repression against political opponents. They wanted the Anglican
Church to be purified of all remnants of Catholicism. They were Calvinist
protestants dissatisfied with the incompleteness of the Reformation that took the form
of Anglicanism. They wanted it to reach completion.
At the beginning of the Stuart reign Puritanism was no more than religious trend.
There was another aspect of Puritanism: its bearers were aware of their historical
significance as a class destined to triumph over the decaying feudal figures of the
past. There were several sects, the two most prominent ones being the Presbyterians
who wanted the church to be governed by church aldermen, presbyters, instead of
bishops, and the independents who wanted no centralization whatever and a complete
independence of religious organizations.
But all the puritans had common political and constitutional theories that were to
play an important role in the bourgeois revolution. When absolute monarchy was
established by the first of the Tudors, it was welcomed by the merchants and the
landed gentry as a rescue from the boolgy feudal conflicts deadlocking the country,
precluding any chance of bourgeois development. So, the bourgeoisie supported
monarchy s long as they wanted the crown's protection. Elizabeth knew the value of
support offered by the merchants' class and spared no efforts to promote their
interests. When she died and James I (1603-1625) was crowned the situation was quite
different.
James proved to be obtuse paying no attention to the suppression of Spanish
marine power, doing little or nothing to uphold thre power of the English fleet so that
English merchant ships suffered from piracy. Thus neglecting the interests of the
historically progressive classes of the period, James Stuart had a Parliament opposition
formed against him, growing during his reign and culminating to a head during the
reign of his son Charles I (1625-1649).
In 1628 the Parliament opposition scored a victory: the king was made to sign a
document limiting his power, the so-called Petition of Right. It formulated their
demands that no one should be arrested or kept in prison without being charged with
a definite crime, that no one should be compelled to yield any property without
common consent to confiscate it by an act of Parliament.
Charles I never meant to be governed by the petition and he dismissed the
Parliament and did not summon it again during eleven years (1629-1640). The king's
archbishop Laud organized a high church party, small and isolated at first but quite
influential later. During the eleven years of no Parliament, Laud thrust his high church,
a sort of axaggerated Anglican church, on everyone, and puritans were fiercely
persecuted. Many of them emigrated to America founding colonies in whajk is New
England now, Massachusetts, Connecticut and other New England colonies later.
5. The bourgeois revolution
In April 1640 Charles summoned Parliament only to find the opposition grown to
frightening dimentions. He bore it for three weeks after which the Short Parliament
was dissolved. The revolutionary situation in the country was glaringly apparent. The
wide masses of the people resemted the persecution of the puritants. The ever
increasing taxes fell heavily upon the people's shoulders. The fact was that production
had been cut and mass unemployment was the result. The people sent petitions
demanding that Parliament should be convened to meet their needs.
The election campaign, during the elections to the Long Parliament, was quite
tense. The leaders of the puritan opposition were the first canvassers in English
Parliament history: Pym, a popular London merchant leader, Hampden the
beginner of the anti-ship-money movement and other popular city figures traveled over
the country propagandizing, organizing the big bourgeoisie securing majority in
Parliament for the puritans.
The puritans' moral norms were made uppermost, the Presbyterian church was
declared obligatory all over England. When in May 1641 a Bill was passed fixing the
Long Parliament as a State Institution not to be dissolved in general, with the sittings
sacred, not to be cancelled or postponed without the concent of the members'
majority, the constitutional monarchy in England was officially established.
3. The Civil Wars
So the second period of the bourgeois revolution (1642-1649) was a period of civil
wars. The whole of England was divided into hostile camps. The distribution of forces
was characteristic: the royalists were popular in the industrially backward areas of the
North, the West and South-West while the determined puritans were ideological and
economic masters of the industrial South, the industrial centres of the North and
Midlands.
This was the geographical distribution of the forces, the political distribution was
in accordance: the new nobles, bourgeoisie and the gentry supported by the yeomanry
constituted the bulk of the puritans while the feudal aristocracy and the high Anglican
clergy rallied round the king. The Parliament opposition had the support of the wide
masses and the plebian layers of the towns.
Thus the Parliament army had great advantages: enjoying the support of the most
wealthy regions of the country and the virtually unlimited financial backing of the
wealthiest part of English society. Besides, the Parliament army enjoyed the support of
the navy and the ports so that no help from outside could reach the royalists while the
roundheads were well supplied. The whole of London was on the side of the
Parliament army.
Historians mention 10 bettles fought by the two armies. The first Parliament
success was the battle at Marston Моr (1644) when the king's army was defeated by
Oliyer Cromwell. He came of a gentry family, was brought up as a strict puritan,
first elected to Parliament in 1628, then to the Long Parliament in 1640. As soon as
military action, began, he became well known ad a talented military organizer. In June
1645 Cromwell's army defeated the royalists at Naseby.
By this time the division of the Parliament into two parties, the Presbyterians and
independents, was evident. The independents expressed the interests of the radical
wing of the bourgeoisie and of the new commercially-minded nobility headed by
Oliver Cromwell. As a religious trend they formed an opposition to anflicanism. They
werev against any church that was sponsored by the state, they were in favour of
complete autonomy of every congregation. As a political party the independents made
the radical wing in the Parliament camp and headed the movement against Stuart
monarchy.
After the king was defeated (1646), there came a division in the independents'
ranks. The bourgeois-aristocratic elements headed by Cromwell considered the
revolution finished. The democratic elements fought against Cromwell and his
adherents; they created their own separate party of levelers.
The levelers were a radical petty bourgeois democratic group that sprang up in
1645-1646 with the deterioration in the living standard of the ordinary, mostly poor
people when the wide masses expressed deep dissatisfaction with both the policy of
the Presbyterians and the programme of the power-crazy independents.
The first leveler groupd sprang up in London and then in other cities and
counties. By 1647 they became a wide self-sufficient nation-wide group. Their
programme was expressed in pamphlets and manifestoes and it was a program of
wide and radical political reforms. They were in favour of abolition of monarchy, of
the House of Lords and aristocratic privileges: they were in favour of making England
a republic with a one-chamber Parliament elected on the basis of universal suffrage.
They also advocated a radical reform in the domain of law and justice, they were in
favour of everyone's equality before the law.
The levellers were headed by John Lilburn. They fought against the growing taxes,
their social-economic program was quite moderate from the very beginning of their
existence as a party group. However, in their project of the desired social structure of
England they spoke of universal suffrage and of the equality of all Englishmen, and in
1649 Lilburn and other leaders of the levelers were arrested. Meamwhile Cromwell
suppressed the rebellion in the army and by and by the movement ended.
Cromwell suppressed another democratic movement, a small group that called
themselves "diggers", or "true levelers" who made a practice of occupying
common lands and digging then to sow grain. The diggers represented the extreme left
wing of the revolutionary democratic masses in the English bourgeois revolution.
They were originally part of the levelers movement. By the way, the term itself,
"diggers", first appeared during the peasant rebellion in central England in 1607 which
was directed against enclosures; as an ideological and social-political trend the
diggers formed their ranks in the course of the bourgeois revolution, during the its
bourgeois-democratic stage (1647-1649).
They proclaimed their credo and their ideal of a free commonwealth. Both the
levelers and diggers had no idea of a real political force that could help them to
realize their programs. Cromwell was not going to stand any dangerous radicalism, and
he suppressed the democratic movement. In February 1649 the House of Lords was
abolished and England became a Republic ruled by Parliament. This was the highest
point of the English bourgeois revolution.
4. Military Dictatorship and the End of the Republic
In the 3rd period (1649-1653) the independents' republic triumphed over the feudal
absolute monarchy, but at the same time it suppressed all movements aimed at further
deepening of the revolution. The protective function of the independents' republic in
their home policy was combined with expansionist colonial policy in foreign affairs.
Cromwell's Irish expedition of 1649-52 was in fact massacre exterminating thousands
of Irishmen. It was then that the new landed aristocracy was created to encourage
counterrevolution in England.
Scotland also attempted to strike for independence and they made use of the names
of Charles II whom they invited to lead them. They were defeated and Scotland was
made a part of England (1651).
After all these victories the Commonwealth felt strong enough to secure the
interests of the bourgeoisie whose chief rival in trade was Holland. So, the
Dutchmen were not allowed to use their fleet for trade with England and its
colonies in America. The war with Holland lasted two years (1652-1654).
Cromwell's authority in the army was immense. The bourgeoisie was
frightened by the growth of the people's activity and the Parliament was dissolved.
England was to be ruled by a council of officers who established military
dictatorship and Cromwell was solemnly declared its Protector. Actually that meant
the abolition of the republic and the end of the bourgeois revolution in England.
Thus, the 3rd period of the revolution saw the victory of the bourgeoisie and
gentry bloc over the system of feudal absolutism, on the one hand, and over the
democratic forces, on the other.
5-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
MODERN ENGLAND.
ENGLAND IN THE 1st HALF OF THE 17th CENTURY.
2 – СОАТ
1.1. АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Амалий машғулот режа
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар 17 асрнинг 1-ярмидаги
иқтисодий-ижтимоий тараққиёт билан
таништирилади
Талабаларга Буржуазия кураши ҳақида
маълумот берилади.
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
5. Economic and social
development
6. The Bourgeois revolution
7. The Civil wars
8. Military dictatorship and the end
of the republic.
• Хар бир савол буйича янги
билимларни мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан
уринли фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар,
адабиётлар ва маълумотлар банки
билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича
олаётган билим ва кўникмаларини
ривожлантириш.
•
17 асрнинг 1-ярмидаги
иқтисодий-ижтимоий тараққиёт
ҳақида тўлиқ маълумот бериш.
bourgeois revolution, civil wars,
industrialism, industrial enterprises,
clothiers, period of transition.
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар 17 асрнинг 1-ярмидаги
иқтисодий-ижтимоий тараққиёт ҳақида
айтиб бера оладилар.
Ренессанс Буржуазия кураши ҳақида
маълумотга эга бўладилар.
17 аср сиёсий манзараси тарихий
мисоллар ёрдамида тушунтириб
берилади.
Ўқитиш усуллари
17 аср сиёсий манзараси тарихий
мисоллар ёрдамида тушунтириб бера
оладилар.
Амалий
машғулот,
намойиш,
блиц
сўров, кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий
машғулот,
компьютер
технологияси, слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Тинглайди
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Мавзу буйича
умумий хулоса
килади.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Режа буйича
тайёрлаб келган
маълумотларни
асосли тарзда
етказиб беради.
Мустақил
ишлаш учун
топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Докладлар
мавзусига
тайёрланади
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What century went down in the history of England as the
century of the bourgeois revolution?
2. What economic historians estimating England's share in
the European industrial production of the time say?
3. What did monopolize the trade companies organized late
in the 15th and early in the 16th сenturies?
4. When Puritanism was no more than religious trend?
5. When the Parliament opposition scored a victory?
6. What was the first Parliament success?
7. How do we call the second period of the bourgeois
revolution (1642-1649)?
8. What can you tell us about the division of the Parliament
into two parties?
9. When the House of Lords was abolished and England
became a Republic ruled by Parliament?
10. How long did the war with Holland last?
SEMINAR – VI
The Restoration
Key words: bourgeois revolution, civil wars, industrialism, industrial
enterprises, clothiers, period of transition.
Discussion points:
1. The Whigs and the Tories.
2. The So-Called "Gloriuos Revolution"
The Restoration and the So-Called "Gloriuos Revolution"
In 1658 Cromwell died. By that time some of the traits that characterized
monarchy had been restored in England. The peasant moving in the country-side
was growing. In the face of the growing democratic movement both pey
independents and the Presbyterians were inclined to see eye by eye with the
emboldened royalists when it came to debating whether monarchy should be
restored. The army was no longer the monolithic organization it used to have been;
the Parliament of 1660 that was convened to settle the issue had the royalists and
royalist-minded Presbyterians in the majority so it decided that popwer was to
belong to the king, the lorda and the commons. In May 1660 Charles II was
crowned.
The Restoration showed that the nobles and the upper layers of the bourgeoisie
could not do without monarchy in the face of the growing democratic movement. It also
showed that the democratic forces, demoralized in the years of Cromwell's
"Protectorate", were too weak and disorganized to resist the restoration of
monarchy.
The Restoration period (1660-1688) was a scene of struggle for privileged
position between the feudal and bourgeoisie elements. The lands that had been
confiscated from the church as well as the crown lands were restored. The
landowners were no longer expected to owe any feudal dues to the crown. From then
on landowners enjoyed the right of modern private property in estates to which they
used to have only a feudal title. The lands that had been confiscated from the
royalists during the second period of the bourgeois revolution were restored but
those which were in the possession of the Presbyterians were left as they were.
In 1665 the hostilities between Holland and England were resumed, and some of
the Dutch settlements in America were seized by the English troops among them New
Amsterdam renamed New York in honour of James, the brother and heir of Charles II,
who had the title of the Duke of York. Holand in fact seased to be a danger by that
time, it was France which was becoming more and more dangerous due to its growing
power. The French king Louis XIY was anxious to have Catholicism restored in
England which would enhance French influence in the country immeasurably. Charles
II`s idea was to secure toleration for catholics.
Charles was made to go further in his concession and accept a minister from the
party which had a majority in Parliament. It was then, in the 70-ies of the 17th century,
that the two parties were formed which were to struggle for power with alternating
success for two centuries under the nicknames of the toriea and the whigs, and after
two centuries - under the appellations of conservatives and liberals with somewhat
modified programs, membership and role.
The tories, the biggest landowners and Anglican clergy, stood for strong royal
power. The nickname seems to have been derived from the Celtic word meaning "thief
a term of abuse used by English colonizers for those Irish guerilla fighters who went
on fighting after the Irish rebellion of the 50-ies of the 17th century suppressed and
since the tories supported the idea of tolerance for catholics, the nickname stuck.
The whigs, the City financiers, merchants and landowners turned bourgeoisie, were
for limiting the power of the crown and extending that of Parliament. They were
opposed to Catholicism; hence the nickname, the Celtic word for "cabman, hackney
driver", formerly used for the rebellious Highland Scotchmen who resented the loss
of independence by Scotland under Cromwell and fought against England.
The whigs of the end of the 17th century represented the growing finance capital and
rherchants.The tory squires whose wealth and influence restored with the restoration
of the Stuarts, .depended on the latter, found support in the Anglican church which
helped them to keep in check the rural population.
In 1685 Charles II died. After he was crowned as James II, the Duke of York
appointed catholics to the highest posts in the state. To the whigs and part of the tyories
the necessity for a radical change in the system of government became apparent. In
June 1688 an invitation was sent by the whig-and-tory alliance which the leading lords
signed, to William if Orange, the Netherland ruler, son-in-law to James, known as a
persistent defender of the Nitherlands against Louis XIY.This is how William and Mary
were offered the throne in February 1689.
The easy and comparatively bloodless change was called "The Glorious
Revolution". Now the British property owner got what he wanted: the supreme popwer
belonged to Parliament where the House of Lords was important again; the democratic
movement was suppressed and the king was obedient. This was indeed a glorious
victory scored by the profit-crazy big landowners and capitalists.
The so-called "Glorious Revolution" was actually a culmination of the
compromise between the top layers of the bourgeoisie and the landed aristocracy. The
old seemingly preserved institutions of monarchy, the royal court, the House of Lords,
and other feudal-born and feudal-shaped affairs had a new substance in them. It was no
longer feudal monarchy, it was bourgeois monarchy.
In the bourgeois revolution of the 17 century the bloc of bourgeoisie and the new
nobility used the revolutionary energy of the masses but avoided deep social-economic
transformations which could benefit the ordinary people. The revolution was to be as
conservative as possible. It led to a consolidation of capitalism in Britain. The
bourgeois revolution in England, the first of such magnitude on the European scale,
meant a collapse of the feudal method of production which yielded its place to the
capitalist method.
6-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
THE RESTORATION
2 – СОАТ
1.1. АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
Амалий машғулот режа
3. The Whigs and the Tories.
4. The So-Called "Gloriuos Revolution"
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар иқтисодий-ижтимоий
ва сиёсий манзара билан
таништирилади
Талабаларга Виг ва Торилар
ҳақида маълумот берилади.
• Хар бир савол буйича янги билимларни
мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан уринли
фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар, адабиётлар
ва маълумотлар банки билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича олаётган
билим ва кўникмаларини ривожлантириш.
•
Виг ва Торилар ҳақида тўлиқ
маълумот бериш.
bourgeois revolution, civil wars, industrialism,
industrial enterprises, clothiers, period of
transition.
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар иқтисодий-ижтимоий ва сиёсий
манзара ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
Виг ва Торилар ҳақида маълумотга эга
бўладилар.
"Gloriuos Revolution"
"Gloriuos Revolution"ни
тарихий мисоллар ёрдамида тарихий мисоллар ёрдамида тушунтириб
тушунтириб берилади.
бера оладилар.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Амалий машғулот, намойиш, блиц сўров,
кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий машғулот, компьютер технологияси,
слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш усулларини қўллаш мумкин бўлган
ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат, ўқув
топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Тинглайди
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Мавзу буйича
умумий хулоса
килади.
Саволларга
жавоб беради.
Режа буйича
тайёрлаб келган
маълумотларни
асосли тарзда
етказиб беради.
Мустақил
ишлаш учун
топшириқларни
ёзиб олади.
Докладлар
мавзусига
тайёрланади
Slides
The Restoration period
(1660-1688) was a scene
of struggle for privileged
position between the
feudal and bourgeoisie
elements.
In 1665 the hostilities
between Holland and England were
resumed, and some of the Dutch
settlements in America were seized
by the English troops among
them New Amsterdam renamed New
York in honour of James, the brother
and heir of Charles II, who
had the title of the Duke of York.
The
The so-called
so-called
"Glorious
"Glorious Revolution"
Revolution"
was
was actually
actually a
a
culmination
culmination of
of the
the
compromise
compromise between
between
the
the top
top layers
layers of
of the
the
bourgeoisie
bourgeoisie and
and the
the
landed
landed aristocracy.
aristocracy.
In the bourgeois revolution of
the 17 century the bloc of
bourgeoisie and the new
nobility used the
revolutionary energy of the
masses but avoided deep
social-economic
transformations which
could benefit the ordinary
people.
1-ўқув топшириқ.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. When did Cromwell die?
2. What happened in May 1660?
3. What did the Restoration show?
4. What was was a scene of struggle for privileged position
between the feudal and bourgeoisie elements?
5. When the hostilities between Holland and England were
resumed?
6. Why the French king Louis XIY was anxious to have
Catholicism restored in England?
7. What was Charles II`s idea and define it?
8. Give the definition of the tories.
9. Give the definition of the whigs.
10. How was "The Glorious Revolution" called?
SEMINAR - VII
ENGLAND IN THE 18TH CENTURY.
Key words: expansion, bourgeoisie, nationwide rebellion, Industrial revolution,
social relations, Bank of England
Discussion points:
1. Colonial expansion.
2. Social relations after the Industrial revolution.
3. England and the French bourgeois revolution of 1789.
Colonial Expansion and the Formation
of the Colonial Empire
The English bourgeoisie having achieved its main aim in the revolution —
having secured political and economic domination in the country and consolidated
its rule over the masses became deeply interested in promoting its interests abroad.
The 18th century saw the actual making of the British colonial empire. This
process was closely associated with the numerous wars waged by England against
its main rivals and colonial conquests made by the state in different parts of the
world. Moreover, Scotland and Ireland became fully subjugated by the English
crown in this period.
Ireland became the first target of the English colonialists. In 1689 the
deposed king of England, James II, took advantage of a nationwide rebellion which
broke out in Ireland against English rule.
In 1689 the deposed
king of England, James
II, took advantage of a
nationwide rebellion
which broke out in
Ireland against English
rule.
With French aid he led the Irish army against the English forces quartered in
the country. The combined forces of the Irish Catholics would have captured the
Protestant stronghold of Londonderry had not an English force come to its aid.
William III hurried to Ireland, defeated the Irish forces at the battle on the river
Boyne in 1690, occupied Dublin, and captured Limerick after a long siege. James
fled to France, and Ireland was conquered.
To pacify the Irish William concluded the Treaty of Limerick (1692) in
which he promised to respect the rights of the Irish Catholics. The Irish were
allowed to retain their parliament. It soon became evident however, that the
English Parliament did not intend to observe the treaty. Irish Catholics could not
rent more than two acres of land, nor could they get employment in industry either.
At the insistence of English traders, the English Parliament also restricted Irish
trade. Already it had prohibited the export of Irish livestock to England. Parliament
now forced the Irish to import staple colonial products by way of England. Irish
goods were in fact barred from the English market. Irish industry and trade was as
a result of these measures Crippled. 'Starvation or emigration were the only
remaining options which the Irish could choose. A growing feeling of bitterness of
the Irish against the English became overwhelmingly widespread in the country
and this later led to new revolts which revealed that the Irish had never been
subdued.
In 1689 William started a war against France. It is known as the War of the
League of Augsburg (1689—97).
In 1689 William
started a war against
France. It is known
as the War of the
League of Augsburg
(1689—97).
The war had serious consequences for England itself: an indirect result of
the conflict was the formation of the Bank of England (1694). The war had meant
fresh taxes, including a window tax and a land tax. Both were passed by
Parliament, although the land tax was especially unpopular with the squires.
One of the Whig ministers thought of a new way of getting money for the
government: by loan. If the government was lent money on a long-term basis, it
could pay interest on the amount received. Several Whig ministers formed a
company, the Bank of England, to organize the collection of the loans. The Bank
borrowed money from the bourgeoisie at a low rate of interest and lent it to the
government at a higher rate. Soon the Bank of England was allowed to make its
own paper money banknotes. The first loan or the first National debt was one
million and two hundred thousand pounds. After two wars at the beginning of the
18th century the National debt reached 54 million pounds and by 1816 (the end of
the wars against Napoleon) it increased to 876 millions. Now taxes were formally
levied by the government not for wars but to allegedly pay the national debt. In
other words the ruling classes undertook a tremendous swindle — they put the
brunt of hardship on the shoulders of the taxpayer, at the same time these financial
speculations offered golden opportunities for the rich to become richer. The
emergence of the Bank of England and of the National debt clearly manifested the
level of capitalist development in the country.
In this keeping two other important developments occurred. The
coffee-shops in eighteenth century England were not only places
of leisure, but also good places for talking business. A coffeeshop keeper named Edward Lloyd started selling insurance, to
ship-owners who gathered in his shop. Ships and cargoes had
been lost not only in storms at sea and to the enemy, but also to
pirates. Ship-owners in Lloyd's coffee-shop were glad to have
insurance. Other customers agreed to share the risk, and the
business developed. The Society of Lloyds became the largest
insurer of ships and cargoes in the world.
Merchants also sold shares in their business while at the coffeehouse. The habit developed too, and a London 'stock exchange'
was started. Here, in the City of London, merchant bankers began
to buy and sell stocks and shares in commercial companies on a
regular basis.
In her greed to secure new overseas possessions Britain actively participated
in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 — 14). The king of Spain had died
childless and Louis XIV decided to use this opportunity to have his grandson on
the Spanish throne. Such a turn of events would pose a direct threat to English
colonial and commercial interests, because England had made serious commercial
inroads in the Spanish colonies. Now, if France gained control of the Spanish
colonies Britain would lose these benefits. So England formed a coalition consisting of the Netherlands, Austria, and some of the German states against France.
The English commander, Marlborough, won an important victory at a village
called Blenheim in Bavaria. In the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) England seriously
expanded her colonial possessions: she acquired Gibraltar, the western key to the
Mediterranean sea, the island of Minorca, in North America Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia and the Hudson Bay territory were taken over from France. She also
received freedom of trade with the Spanish colonies. Moreover, England secured
the monopoly right to supply the Spanish colonies with slaves from Africa. The
shameful slave trade which flourished all throughout the eighteenth century gave
the merchants of London, Liverpool and Bristol tremendous profits. The War of
the Spanish Succession increased England's colonial, commercial, and naval
power, exhausted her rivals, and greatly stimulated British sea trade.
Important developments took place on the British Isles, in particular regarding
Anglo-Scotch relations. In 1707 after a period of serious hostilities Scotland agreed
to a union with England losing its independence. In order to pacify the Scotch
England made some concessions: Scotland was to have sixteen peers in the English
House of Lords and fifty-five members in the House of Commons. Scotland also
secured free trade with England, and kept her own law courts, system of private
law, educational system, and Presbyterian church. The union with Scotland greatly
increased the power of the ruling oligarchy in Britain.
The growth of English trade on an international scale in the 18th century
enhanced the importance of the English colonies in North America which had
already made considerable progress. They became an important market for the
goods of English industry and a source of supply of necessary raw materials.
The first English settlements in North America were made at the beginning of the 17th
century, but it was not until the twenties of the century that those settlements were founded
which formed the permanent basis of the English colonies. From the very beginning there
were considerable differences between the colonies in the south and in the north of North
America. On the north-eastern coast, due to the presence of necessary mineral resources
industry developed on capitalist lines. The south-eastern colonies due to favourable
climatic and soil conditions remained mainly agricultural. Here large-scale plantation
cultivation of rice, cotton, tobacco based on slave lalour developed on a wide scale.
In their greed to seize as much land as possible the colonists were ruthless to
the local Indian population whom they gradually exterminated.
By the middle of the 18th century the population of the colonies reached
about 2 million. The colonies were a motley assembly of people of different
origins: Puritan refugees from England, the Catholic Irish, immigrants from other
European countries. There were also several thousand criminals who had been
transported there from English prisons.
In the period when the English were settling along the coast, French fur
traders had already penetrated into the interior from the St Lawrence river down
the Ohio and Mississippi, and were attempting to unite as a whole the French
trading settlements from Canada along the rivers to the Gulf of Mexico. Trade
rivalry between British and French colonists in North America led to the outbreak
of open hostilities. In spite of the vast territories the greed of the colonizers was
unlimited.
English and French interests clashed in India too. The forerunner of English
colonial encroachments in India was the East India company (founded in 1600).
Early in the 17th century the first English trading stations were established, which
were followed by fortified outposts with English army units. Howe the French
were neither idle. There also a French East Indian company which acted in
similar fashion as the English. Pondicherry became the main French
stronghold in India.
William Pitt the Elder.
When Robert Walpole was in power (1721—42), much of the growing
discord between the two rivals was settled peacefully. However, this conciliatory
attitude of Walpole was most unpopular among the militant Whig faction headed
by William Pitt the Elder. This faction known as the Younger Whigs was blatantly
aggressive in colonial foreign policy. It advocated open war with France which
was regarded as Britain's most dangerous age-long rival. Eventually the Younger
Whigs gained political supremacy, Walpole was defeated (1742) and England
participated in two successive wars against France: the War of Austrian Succession
(1740—8), and the Seven Years War (1756 — 63). English colonial conquest of
this period and the wars waged by the country are closely associated with the name
of William Pitt the Elder (1708—78), an active protagonist of British colonial
supremacy. He is regarded by English historians as Britain's greatest empirebuilder. He believed that the country should expand commercially and colonially
and to do both was ready to use British might to the limit. He openly declared
France to be Britain's main enemy and that French trading places all over the world
must be captured. He also insisted that the French in Canada must be conquered. It
was Pitt's policy to buy allies in Europe who would fight the French. Hence, in the
War of Austrian Succession it was Austria who was to do all the fighting, and in
the Seven Years War it was Prussia while Austria, a former ally, became an enemy
siding with France. Having a free hand on the continent, Britain with her army and
fleet could secure her main aim — seize new colonial possessions and oust the
French from the territories where they threatened British colonial interests.
The odds of the wars waged by Britain were not always favourable for
Britain. However, as a result of most of the fighting which occurred mainly in
India and North America the British gained victory.
The hero in Canada was General Wolfe, who was the man chosen by Pitt to
regain Britain's position there.
In the Peace of Paris (1763) Britain consolidated her colonial gains: the
British empire became the world's largest. It included Canada, parts of America,
the West Indies and India, together with bits of the West African coast. Britain's
victory made her indisputed mistress of the seas, bankrupted France, and deprived
her of her navy and many of her colonies.
Britain's colonial greed led her further to the remotest parts of the world. In
1769 Captain Cook discovered Australia. However, only in 1788 did Britain begin
to make a settlement there. In that year a special fleet transported 1350 people
(mainly convicts) to the new territory. The party stepped ashore in Sydney Cove on
26 January 1788 which marks the beginning of the Australian colony. The
Aboriginals in Australia experienced the same fate as the Red Indians in America.
The natives were very friendly towards the first settlers showing them fresh water
streams, good anchorages, sharing fish and fire. However, having offered the hand
of friendship to the whites, they were eventually betrayed, driven off their lands
into the desert and eventually exterminated. Today they form a tiny minority of the
population and are on the brink of extinction.
The colonial victories of Great Britain in the 18th century gave her new
opportunities to enhance the shameful slave trade. Millions of African slaves were
transported from West Africa to the South American colonies, or the cotton and
tobacco plantations of the southern colonies in North America giving the English
slave traders tremendous fortunes.
The Industrial Revolution of the 18th — 19th Centuries
and Its Consequences
By the middle of the 18th century England became ripe for a turnover in
industry known as the Industrial Revolution. Colonial warfare and expansion
meant an accumulation of tremendous wealth in the country. For example, the
profits of only the East India company immediately after the Seven Years War
were 21 million pounds. Britain's monopoly position in international trade led to
the accumulation of capital in the City of London. The Bank of England had
become a banker's bank, providing support for people wanting to lend or borrow
money for business purposes. Private banks were started even in small towns.
Manufacturers were now in an advantageous position. They had capital or the
means to borrow it. The capital thus gained went to finance inventions. It was also
used to build machines, foundries, roads, canals, etc.
The enclosure movement in the 18th century which was the gist of the agricultural revolution created an abundant labour supply. Thousands of peasants
became landless and ruined and were forced to migrate to the growing towns
where they were consumed by the growing industry. The transformation in
agriculture also meant an increase of the profits of the landlords. A big part of their
profits went into industry, either through banks or directly through the stock
market. Thus the agricultural revolution in England contributed to the financing of
the Industrial Revolution.
The expansion of international trade, the growth of the home market made it
imperative to revolutionize industry on a new basis. The manufactories of the
previous centuries could no longer satisfy the new demands. Large-scale machine
production became an urgent necessity and the factory was to become the main
new economic unit of production. Everything which the economists say is
necessary for 'take off’ was present: scientific and technical 'know-how', capital, an
increasing amount of suitable labour, an expanding home and world market.
In industrial life, the changes first affected textiles, but presently they spread
to mining, power development communications, and other fields. Before the
Industrial Revolution began, the domestic system prevailed in textile making, with
many families securing thread from nearby villages and weaving it into cloth on a
piecework basis. At first, cotton cloth was imported from India; then the English
mixed cotton and wool threads to produce a new type of cloth. A series of
remarkable textile inventions, however, soon caused England to become a world
leader in producing cotton goods.
The first of these major inventions in textiles was John Kay's flying shuttle, perfected in
1733 and widely adopted in cotton by the 1760s. It enabled the weaver to produce both
more and broader cloth, thus increasing still further the imbalance between the spinning
and weaving sectors of the trade. Consequently, the next inventions were in spinning:
James Hargreaves's 'spinning jenny' could spin many threads at once — at first it had
eight, later 120 spindles; Richard Arkwright's waterframe (patented in 1769), to produce
stronger cotton yarn suitable for warp (hitherto linen had been used); and Samuel
Crompton's mule (1779), which combined the jenny and the waterframe. His machine
could now turn out very good thread both fine and strong. In 1785 Cartwright invented a
power loom that made weaving a speedy operation. By 1820 there were 14,000 power
looms in Britain, and by 1833—100,000. Yet it was not the new technology alone, but the
new industrial system which it implied, that was revolutionary.
The new machines required power to drive them, and so could not be housed
in the homes of the people but only in what contemporaries called 'manufactories'.
Water provided the motive power, and the early cotton factories or mills of the
1770s and 1780s were therefore located in remote areas of the Pennines, in
Lancashire and Yorkshire where there was a plentiful supply of swift-flowing
water. The new industry was initially based in country factories.
However, soon the situation changed. In 1769 James Watt, a laboratory
assistant from Scotland, developed a new type of steam engine which improved
greatly the old Newcomen engine. At first the steam engine was used only for
stationary work, but later on it was modified by George Stephenson to drive
locomotives. In 1825 the first railway was built, the Stockton — Darlington line.
The steam engine perfected was immediately applied to driving textile
machinery. Cotton spinners were thus freed from their dependence on water power,
and further development of factories thence took place in urban areas where labour
was more plentiful and coal supplies not far away. The basic elements in the
pattern of modern British industrialism had begun to emerge: steam-powered
machine production in urban factories. Manchester, which more than any other city
was the symbol of the new industrial age, accurately reflected these changes. In
1773, with a population of 27,000, Manchester had not a single spinning mill; by
1802 the population was 95,000 and there were fifty-two cotton mills.
The social consequences of the Industrial Revolution were dramatic and farreaching. The expanding factories and industrial centres attracted the newlyformed class of industrial workers, or 'operatives' as they were called. The owners
of the factories, or capitalists were assuming political and economic importance.
English society was breaking up into two basic classes — the proletarians and the
capitalists.
The Industrial Revolution brought about the absolute and relative impoverishment of the proletariat. Tremendous profits were gained by the capitalists by
ruthless exploitation of the toilers who lived and worked in nightmarish conditions.
The Industrial Revolution was gaining strength all the time. But with it the
situation of the workers became worse. For example, the average age of death
among operatives at the beginning of the nineteenth century was
nineteen!
Hand-workers were losing their jobs to the new mechanics and machines. It
was quite natural that the operatives at this stage of their development could not
realize the nature of their hardships. They attributed them to the machines. Thus a
movement emerged in the latter half of the eighteenth century which was
associated with the destruction of the hateful machines. The weavers of
Manchester, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire gathered in great numbers and began to
destroy the looms. The movement known as Luddism (after the name of a certain
apprentice (General) Ned Lud) began in 1779, in Nottingham and Sheffield. It
spread quickly all throughout the industrial centres of England involving not
only handloom weavers, but colliers and other workers. The movement reached its
peak in the years between 1811 and 1816.
In the history of the working class the Yorkshire Luddites especially have a legendary
place. The midnight drillings, raids for arms, and the plotting in local inns were recounted
in many a story later. Careful planning and a high degree of organization were apparent
in the Luddites' nightly forays. The attacking party was divided into armed guards and
smashers, the latter carrying heavy sledgehammers called 'Enochs'. The rebels, who
formed themselves together in secret groups, sent out public letters stating their demands.
(They signed these with the name Ned Lud.)
The extent of the movement may be judged by the fact that during the
summer of 1812 the government stationed more than 12,000 troops in the disturbed
districts. The English government took severe measures against the Luddites: many
of the leaders were executed, the others received long prison sentences or were
deported for semi-slave labour to the colonies. Eventually the movement was
crushed. However, it was never forgotten: the seed of protest found later
expression in the Chartist movement.
The age of the Industrial Revolution saw the origins of working-class organizations when the operatives began to form united groups to defend their
economic rights. Such groups and societies emerged initially among operatives
involved in wool processing, later they were formed among spinners and workers
of other trades. These were the first organizations of the emerging working-class
which later in the nineteenth century formed the basis of the trade union movement
in the country.
In 1760 George III (1760—1820) became king of England. His reign is
associated with serious developments in England which were closely connected
with the loss of the American colonies and the impact of the French bourgeois
revolution of 1789.
England and the French Bourgeois Revolution of 1789
The French monarchy in 1789 crumbled down under the blows of the
revolutionary movement of the French people.
The hatred against the corrupt regime found expression in the storming of
The
genitive
case
the century
old prison
— the Bastille
on July 14, 1789 which marked the beginning
of the French bourgeois revolution of the eighteenth century.
A. The Dependent Genitive.
 The hatred against the corrupt
B. The Absolute Genitive
regime found expression in the
storming of the century old
prison — the Bastille on July 14,
1789 which marked the beginning
of the French bourgeois
revolution of the eighteenth
century.
The Tories and right Whigs in Britain were hostile to the revolution because
they understood that the popular masses in England could take similar action
against the privileged classes. Moreover, the ruling elite feared that revolutionary
France could enhance its international position which was detrimental to British
interests. This explains why William Pitt the Younger entered the first coalition
against France in 1792 together with Austria, Prussia and Spain.
The left Whigs who represented the middle class were initially sympathetic
to the revolutionary events in France and their leader Fox hailed the storming of
the Bastille as 'the greatest event in the world'. However, with the spread of the
revolutionary developments they became scared by their scope and confined their
agitation to parliamentary reform as a means of preventing a revolution in England.
The popular masses of England wholeheartedly sympathized with the French
Revolution. The social upheaval in France galvanized groups of working men to
organize political Corresponding Societies in London in 1792 and the main
provincial towns. The London Society was headed by Thomas Hardy, a former
cobbler and its radical programme was for full political reform: universal male
suffrage, annual parliaments, secret ballot, as well as freedom of speech, unions,
press, meetings and a single income tax. Some societies went as far as to proclaim
England a republic.
In 1795 in connection with the war against France and the difficulties in
transporting products, there was a famine in England. In a number of places food
riots broke out. William Pitt took harsh measures. England was divided into
military areas headed by generals. Habeas Corpus Act was suspended. This gave
the authorities a free hand to arrest and detain anyone they found necessary.
However, revolutionary events continued to spread. Most dangerous of all
for the government and the ruling oligarchy was the mutiny in the fleet in 1797.
The events in England at the end of the 18th century vividly show the degree
of social tension in the country. The French Revolution galvanized the struggle of
the popular masses in the country. However, no revolution took place. This can be
accounted for three reasons. In the first place, a bourgeois revolution had already
taken place in England in the 17th century, which on the whole removed the most
serious obstacles on the way of capitalist development. Secondly, the ruling classes
in England held the power firmly in their hands, because of the close alliance
between the bourgeoisie and the gentry. Thirdly, the independent peasantry had
been destroyed almost entirely as a result of the enclosures, and it could not be a
fighting force in a revolution. The working class on the other hand was just
emerging as a basic class of capitalist society. It was still weak and politically
immature.
7-АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТ:
ENGLAND IN THE 18th CENTURY.
2 – СОАТ
1.2АМАЛИЙ МАШҒУЛОТЛАРНИ олиб бориш технологияси
Машғулот шакли
Кириш-мавзу бўйича маъруза
Амалий машғулот режа
4. Colonial expansion.
5. Social relations after the Industrial
revolution.
6. England and the French bourgeois
revolution of 1789.
Ўқув машғулотининг мақсади
Таянч тушунча ва иборалар
Педагогик вазифалар
Талабалар Англия ва Франция
буржуазия уруши билан
таништирилади
Талабаларга урушдан кейинги
даврдаги ижтимоий тараққиёт
ҳақида маълумот берилади.
• Хар бир савол буйича янги
билимларни мукаммал урганиш
• Ахборот манбалари ва улардан уринли
фойдалана олиш
• Электрон дарсликлар, адабиётлар
ва маълумотлар банки билан ишлаш
• Уқувчиларнинг лексика бўйича
олаётган билим ва кўникмаларини
ривожлантириш.
• Англия ва Франция буржуазия уруши
ҳақида тўлиқ маълумот бериш.
• Урушдан кейинги даврдаги ижтимоий
тараққиёт ҳақида ахборот бериш.
expansion, bourgeoisie, nationwide rebellion,
Industrial revolution, social relations, Bank of
England
Ўқув фаолияти вазифалари
Талабалар Англия ва Франция буржуазия
уруши ҳақида айтиб бера оладилар.
Урушдан кейинги даврдаги ижтимоий
тараққиёт ҳақида маълумотга эга
бўладилар.
Ўқитиш усуллари
Амалий машғулот, намойиш, блиц сўров,
кластер, ақлий ҳужум.
Ўқитиш воситалари
Амалий
машғулот,
компьютер
технологияси, слайдлар.
Ўқитиш шакллари
Фронтал, коллектив иш.
Техник воситалар билан таъминланган,
Ўқитиш шароити
ўқитиш
усулларини
қўллаш
мумкин
бўлган ўқув хона.
Мониторинг ва баҳолаш
Кузатиш, оғзаки назорат, ёзма назорат,
ўқув топшириқ
Амалий машғулотнинг технологик харитаси
Иш жараёни
боскичлари
вақти
1-босқич.
Кириш
(15 дақиқа)
2 босқич
Асосий жарён
(55 дақиқа)
3 босқич
Якуний босқич
(10 дақиқа)
Фаолиятнинг мазмуни
Ўқитувчи
Талаба
1.1.
Машгулотнинг
номини
айтади, талабалар билимини синаш
учун бир неча саволлар беради.
1.2.
Дарснинг максади ва укув
фаолияти натижаларини
айтади.
Талабаларни аклий хужум,
саволжавобга
тортиш
учун
жонлантирувчи саволлар беради.
1.3. Талабаларни ақлий ҳужумга
тортиш учун жонлантирувчи саволлар
беради.
2.1. Мавзунинг талаба томонидан
тайёрлаб келингани асосий кисмини
сурайди.
Фаоллаштирувчи савол-жавоб
утказади.
3.1. Мавзу бўйича умумий хулоса
қилади.
3.2. Талабаларнинг
билим
ва кўникмаларини баҳолайди.
3.3. Навбатдаги машғулотга
кўриладиган масалани эълон
қилади ва мустақил тайёргарлик
кўришни сўрайди.
3.4. Талабаларга уйга вазифа қилиб:
1. Келгуси мавзу эълон қилинади ва
унга тайёрланиб келиш айтилади.
2. Ўзини-ўзи назорат қилиш учун
саволлар берилади.
3. Тавсия қилинган адабиётларни
ўрганишга беради.
Тинглайди
Саволларга
беради.
жавоб
Режа буйича тайёрлаб
келган маълумотларни
асосли тарзда етказиб
беради.
Саволларга
беради.
жавоб
Мавзу буйича умумий
хулоса килади.
Мустақил
ишлаш
учун топшириқларни
ёзиб олади. Докладлар
мавзусига тайёрланади
Slides
 In 1689 the deposed
king of England, James
II, took advantage of a
nationwide rebellion
which broke out in
Ireland against English
rule.
In 1689 William
started a war against
France. It is known
as the War of the
League of Augsburg
(1689—97).
In this keeping two other important developments occurred. The
coffee-shops in eighteenth century England were not only places
of leisure, but also good places for talking business. A coffeeshop keeper named Edward Lloyd started selling insurance, to
ship-owners who gathered in his shop. Ships and cargoes had
been lost not only in storms at sea and to the enemy, but also to
pirates. Ship-owners in Lloyd's coffee-shop were glad to have
insurance. Other customers agreed to share the risk, and the
business developed. The Society of Lloyds became the largest
insurer of ships and cargoes in the world.
Merchants also sold shares in their business while at the coffeehouse. The habit developed too, and a London 'stock exchange'
was started. Here, in the City of London, merchant bankers began
to buy and sell stocks and shares in commercial companies on a
regular basis.
The genitive case
A. The Dependent Genitive.
 The hatred against the corrupt
B. The Absolute Genitive
regime found expression in the
storming of the century old
prison — the Bastille on July 14,
1789 which marked the beginning
of the French bourgeois
revolution of the eighteenth
century.
Билимни текшириш учун саволлар:
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What did William do to pacify the Irish?
2. What was is known as the War of the League of
Augsburg?
3. What were the consequences of the War of the League
of Augsburg?
4. What period is called a period of serious hostilities?
5. When the first English settlements in North America
were made?
6. When the first English trading stations were
established?
7. What was the main French stronghold in India?
8. Who was the man chosen by Pitt to regain Britain's
position?
9. What was the first major inventions in textiles?
10. Why the Tories and right Whigs in Britain were
hostile to the revolution and define it?