Download Historical Investigation: Assess why the Roman army was so

Historical Investigation:
Assess why the Roman army was so successful at conquering and defending
neighbouring territories.
One of the most famous armies of the ancient world, if not the most, the Roman military was a
force to be reckoned with. This essay focuses on the land army deployed by the Empire postMarian Reforms (107 BC)1, which transformed their military into a professional fighting force. At
the Roman Empire’s peak, it covered a massive area of Europe, approximately 5,900,000 square
kilometres2, with their military as the main propagator of their conquests.
The Roman army was highly disciplined, trained and organised, and their men were led by great
leaders, which were perhaps the greatest factors contributing to their effectiveness in battle.
Their military also had other significant advantages, such as high-quality equipment, financial
power and effective logistics.
The core of the army was formed by the famous Roman legions. A legion consisted of
approximately 5000 - 6000 men, who were divided into 10 cohorts. A cohort consisted of 6
centuries (average of 80 men each), then split into Contubernium (a tent party of sorts), which
consisted of 8 men. This was done so to ensure a clear chain of command. 3The number of
legions that were usually available was 28.4
An extremely significant factor that contributed to the Roman army’s success in their conquests
was the fact that they were one of the first standing professional armies. This was a great
advantage over the various states that they had fought, as the army no longer consisted of
citizens called up to fight during an emergency, but rather free people who would enlist in the
army as a career path, their service lasting 25 years as a minimum5. This was an advantage
because possession of dedicated soldiers who would train day in and day out regardless of
peace or war would have meant a more effective fighting force.
To ensure loyalty among the soldiers, they were paid regularly and generously. This was
occasionally supplemented with bonuses, which could be up to 5 years pay. When their term
was completed, they would also receive an even larger retirement grant of 13 – 17 years worth
1
Wikipedia.org, Marian reforms, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius_reforms, accessed 04/09/08
Wikipedia.org, Roman Empire, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_empire, accessed 03/09/08
3 Historylink102.com, Structure of the Roman Army, http://historylink102.com/Rome/roman-army-structure.htm, accessed
20/08/08
4 Roman-empire.net, Army of Augustus, http://www.roman-empire.net/army/army.html#ageaugustus, accessed 20/08/08
5 BBC.co.uk, The Roman Army, http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/romans/army.shtml, accessed 20/08/08
2
of pay. They were also granted multiple legal privileges6. Good pay and the bonuses were
something were something that lured men to volunteer, and to stay.
Another important factor was the high discipline instilled among the Roman forces. This was
something that separated the Roman army from the others. The philosophy of the Roman army
was that highly disciplined and well trained troops would perform better than a mass of
disorganized and inexperienced troops. This ideology was enforced throughout the army.
Soldiers would follow routines throughout the day, to the letter and to the time, like clockwork.
Severe punishment was a threat used against soldiers to keep order in the ranks, and
punishment was commonplace for even the minutest of insubordinations. Many punishments
were available, such as monetary fines, corporal punishment (a beating from a centurion’s
staff)7, execution, dishonorable discharge or reduction of rations. One of the more notable, yet
extremely rare punishments was decimation. If a unit displayed mutiny or extreme cowardice,
then every 10th man of a century, cohort or even a whole legion would be beaten to death by his
comrades, after being drawn by lot.8 The purpose of such discipline was to ensure obedience
and loyalty throughout the legion as a positive effect during battles; however the more extreme
punishments such as decimation or disbandment were rarely used.
Training of the legionnaires was carried out every day, and was physically and mentally taxing.
Fitness was a large part of training. The first thing soldiers were taught was marching. It was of
great importance that soldiers could march at speed9, as people who fell behind or people
moving at different speeds would mean disunity. Hence they were taught to stay in line and to
move as a compact unit. Legionnaires were practiced in running, jumping, fencing and javelin
throwing every day.10 20 mile long (18.4) pack marches, while carrying a full kit including shield,
armor and other personal items, expected to completed within 5 hours, was another part of the
training endured by a legionnaire.11 This built up stamina, endurance and strength within
soldiers, a big plus when it came to battle.
Swimming was also a part of training during summer, and if a camp was near a water source
such as a lake or river, then every recruit had to swim. This was so that they could cross rivers
6
S. Van dorst, The Roman Army Page, http://members.tripod.com/~S_van_Dorst/legio.html, accessed 21/08/08
Milism.net, Discipline and punishment of the Roman legions, http://www.milism.net/romanarmy.htm , accessed
25/08/08
8
Unrv.com, Legionary discipline, http://www.unrv.com/military/discipline.php, accessed 25/08/08
9 Unrv.com, Training, http://www.roman-empire.net/army/training.html, accessed 26/08/08
10 Wikipedia.org, Roman army, http://www.roman-empire.net/army/training.html, accessed 26/08/08
11 Woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk, Roman army training, www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk, accessed 26/08/08
7
without the aid of a bridge, and were also sometimes made to swim in armor, so that they could
continue fighting after exiting water.1213 As evident above, the physical training soldiers endured
would have benefited them greatly during battle.
Drill and weapons training was carried out everyday also. For this, swords, shields and other
weapons were made wooden. They were also made deliberately heavier (twice as heavy)14 to
strengthen the men and increase their effectiveness when wielding the actual, lighter weapons.
At first the soldiers perfected their skill with the sword on wooden stakes and dummies, and
then moved onto training in pairs.15 Soldiers learnt the use of the javelin (Pilum) which was
important in battle, and approx 1/3 or ¼ of the younger and fitter soldiers learnt the bow and
sling, which were equally essential. As shown, weapons training was comprehensive, and the
Roman soldiers possessed great skill with their weaponry, a large advantage during battle.
Legionnaires were rigorously trained in drill, formations and maneuvers. Soldiers were required
to be able to instantly recognize and carry out commands that had been called out to them by
their leaders, mainly changes in formation.16 Drills and formations were learnt on both foot and
horseback, and trained in all types of weather. Soldiers also learnt how to construct and fortify
campsites, which were almost city-like in their quality. Coordination and intelligence were also
requirements of a soldier in training, as they spent many hours perfecting their battle
formations.17 It is evident that legionnaires had an advantage over their enemies, as they were
so well-trained in real strategic warfare.
The Roman army’s tactics and strategies were planned to be of the highest efficiency. Tactics
were focused unit-wide, rather than on the individual, which was unlike the barbarian tribes.
Roman soldiers were required to be tactically flexible and adaptable depending on the different
enemies that they encountered, and other factors such as terrain, weather, positioning, and
availability of high ground etc. One of the more famous and commonly used formations the
Romans used was the “testudo” formation – where the soldier’s shields would be locked
12
Wikipedia.org, Roman army, op. cit.
Unrv.com, Training, op. cit.
14 Ibid
15 Ibid
16 Wikipedia.org, Roman army, op. cit.
17 Abacus.bates.edu.au, Training A Roman Soldier, http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv02/training/TRAINING.HTM,
accessed 27/08/08
13
together side by side, and also above their heads – like a tortoise.18 This provided protection
from missiles, and also was a barrier that could not be broken through easily without casualties.
When soldiers were deployed they used the standard “triplex acies”, consisting of the Hastati
(younger soldiers heavy infantry with short swords and javelin) as the first line, Principes (prime
men with battle experience) as the second line, and the third line consisted of the Triarii
(veteran soldiers who were the backbone, and may have had longer spears).19
It also had the advantage of flexibility, as there were gaps between each man, meaning they
could flow around obstacles with greater control of maneuverability.20 Also, each man did not
continually fight, as troops would slowly be substituted, while maintaining a continuous front.
They were arranged in a checkerboard-like formation, so that soldiers could fall back, while
others moved forward without disrupting the line.21 A soldier would only be on the frontline
fighting for approximately 15 minutes.22
When engaging the enemy, at 30 meters apart, each legionnaire would throw his 2 javelins at
the enemy, causing the enemy to become afraid and stop their advance, causing confusion.
Then the Romans would close ranks, locking shields together, and advance with as much noise
as possible into close quarters combat. Sometimes this would be enough to make the enemy
route. They would bash the shields into their enemy, disrupting their balance, and then proceed
to thrust their sword into the enemy’s vital areas.23 Short swords were effective in this close
combat, unlike many of the enemies they faced who possessed axes and longswords.
Legionnaires had the advantage of their strong discipline, and the strong shield and armour they
possessed, as well as skills learnt from training.
The Romans were also backed by some their brilliant siege machines and artillery. An example
of this is the carroballistae, which was basically a giant crossbow. It fired a 100cm bolt with a
range of 275 – 500m, with a speed of up to 184 kph.24 This weapon could be devastatingly
effective against enemy troops. Another example is the Onager, a type of catapult, which could
18
Richeast.org, Roman Weapons and Tactics, http://www.richeast.org/htwm/Greeks/Romans/weapons/weapons.html,
accessed 28/08/08
19 Romans.estrusia.co.uk, An Introduction to the Roman Army, http://romans.etrusia.co.uk/roman_army_intro.php,
accessed 29/08/08
20 Wikipedia.org, Roman infantry tactics, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics, accessed 29/08/08
21 Ibid
22 Richeast.org, Roman Weapons and Tactics, op. cit.
23 Romans-in-britain.org, Roman Battle Tactics, http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/mil_roman_battle_tactics.htm,
accessed 29/08/08
24 Unrv.com, Roman artillery, http://www.unrv.com/military/artillery.php, accessed 30/08/08
fire rocks up to 70kg in weight. It could also be loaded with combustible substances or smaller
stones to bombard enemies with.25 This weapon had a terrible impact on the enemy.
Logistics and organisation of the army was excellent. The network of roads and naval superiority
of the seas in the Roman Empire meant that transportation of soldiers was not difficult. The use
of ‘modern’ techniques such as paperwork in managing of the army was greatly efficient.26 The
overall structuring of the army into legions, and cohorts and so forth made keeping such a large
force possible logistically.
Another significant factor of Rome’s success was the fact that they would adapt techniques and
technologies from enemies, if found superior. In fact, the famous Gladius was actually adopted
from the Spaniards after being impressed by its effectiveness against Roman troops.27 Adoption
of capable foreign soldiers into the Roman army as auxiliaries also bolstered its effectiveness.
They served for 25 years, and gained citizenship as a reward.28 Hence, the more the Romans
fought, the better they became.
Roman leadership via their centurions and generals was always of a high standard. Centurions
were promoted from ranks of ordinary soldiers, and needed the requirements of being over 30
years old, good social status and education, and recommendation letters from people of
importance.29 They were tasked with the training of a century, and often did so brutally.
However this allowed the legions in battle to succeed against superior numbers, when discipline
and order was needed. Possessing real soldiers as leaders would have helped morale among
legionnaires, and inspired loyalty. Rome also had produced many great generals like Caesar,
renowned for his strategic prowess in many battles, and Scipio Africanus, one of the finest
commanders in history, who defeated Hannibal.30 Strong leadership was a key component to
the Romans’ success.
Another important factor is the persistence of the Romans. They unyieldingly kept on the attack
until an enemy could no longer fight or was neutralised. If the army ever had to retreat, they
would soon be back on the enemy’s doorstep with a fresh new army. The Roman culture was
25
Ibid
Romarchgroup.com, Roman Army, http://www.romarchgroup.humanities.uwa.edu.au/roman_army, accessed 31/08/08
27 Strongblade.com, Sword Lore: The Roman Gladius, http://www.strongblade.com/history/romangladius.html, accessed
31/08/08
28 Caerleon.net, Auxiliaries in the Roman Army, http://www.caerleon.net/history/army/page7.html, accessed 31/08/08
29 Hfmodeling.com, Roman Centurion I.Cent.AD,
http://www.hfmodeling.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Reviews&file=index&req=showcontent&id=2951,
accessed 31/08/08
30 Wikipedia.org, Scipio Africanus, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus, accessed 31/08/08
26
embodied in the legions of the Roman army; at the time it was honorable to be a soldier. As the
army was not made up of called up citizens, mercenaries or slaves, but volunteers, they had
loyalty to Rome, and to their general. Marching into battle they were the glory of the Roman
Empire.
It is evident from my points above that the Roman army was a highly effective fighting machine,
due to a number of different reasons, such as discipline and leadership. The Roman army has
been remembered throughout the years because of its innovations and success in conquering
and holding so many surrounding nations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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31/08/08
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