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Pirogov National Medical Univercity of Vinnitsa
Biological and General Chemistry Department
Medical chemistry cource
SYSTEMATIC COURCE
practical lessons of inorganic chemistry for foreign students
Vinnitsa 2010
1
Systematic course is approved by academic council of Pirogov National Medical University
of Vinnitsa (minutes № from 2010)
Authors:
Assist. Znamerovskaya E. M.
Assist. Shunkov V.S.
Reviewer - Assist. Znamerovskaya E. M.
Assist. Shunkov V.S.
Printing group VNMU:
Editor – Shunkov V.S.
Secretary Korolejva N.D.
2
Introduction
Guidelines are intended for self-training and to conduct practical task in inorganic chemistry
for students of I year pharmaceutical departments of pharmaceutical and medical educational
institutions III-IV accreditation levels.
Content guidelines consistent with the program in inorganic chemistry, approved by the
Ministry of Health of Ukraine.
The main purpose of teaching of inorganic chemistry is the formation of the initial level of
students' knowledge necessary for successful study of these chemicals and special disciplines, to
inculcate students with skills of chemical thinking, the ability to pre-see the possibility of
interaction between substances and the nature of the products of their chemical transformations.
Performing laboratory course contributes to the deepening and the assimilation of the
theoretical course material and the formation of experimental skills for independent work. These
methodological guidelines presented in the form of workbooks (module 1, module 2) and
correspond to the curriculum subjects, as well as program requirements for inorganic is to try
students of pharmaceutical faculties of higher medical and pharmaceutical optical education.
Instructions correspond to the volume number of hours devoted to study this discipline in the
curriculum.
Organization of educational process is carried out on credit-modular system in accordance
with the terms of the Bolonce process.
Program in chemistry has 2 modules, which in turn are divided into 9 content modules.
Structuring of the discipline exercised in a way that each one of us through each scheme
module consists of interconnected components of the content discipline
Module 1. General Chemistry: Energetics of chemical reactions. Structure of Matter. The
doctrine of the solutions meaningful modules
1. Introduction to the Study of General and Inorganic Chemistry. Basic concepts and laws of
chemistry. Classes and the nomenclature of inorganic compounds
2. Energetics of chemical and phase transformations. The direction of chemical reactions
3. The structure of compounds
4. The doctrine of the solutions
Module 2. Redox and complexing properties of substances. Chemistry d-elements
Content modules
5. Redox reactions
6. Complex compound
7. Physical and chemical properties of simple substances and compounds of d-elements
8. Physical and chemical properties of simple substances and compounds of s-elements
9. Physical and chemical properties of simple substances and compounds of p-elements.
Methods of teaching material complies with design methodology indicated, the predictions of
approved methodological soviet Vinnitsa National Medical Board of the University of N.I.
Pirogov.
Each class is considered on the following plan: the relevance of the topic, general purpose,
the concrete goal to be able to; literature (Basis, Additional); issues to be studied; questions for
extracurricular self-study, standards of problem solving, task to consolidate the material, the
algorithm of the laboratory work, laboratory work.
Recommended reading is presented in sufficient volume and covers the source of both the
main and additional literature in this area.
Laboratory workshop contains mostly qualitative tests for respective classes of inorganic
compounds, which make it possible to analyze these compounds, and in the future to use the
knowledge gained in the study of organic, analytical, critical, toxicology, pharmaceutical,
chemical, and other relevant disciplines. Based laboratory course laid half micromethod, which
has certain advantages: reduced time of experimentation, economical consumption of reagents.
3
RULES AND SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY FOR INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
General rules
1. To fulfill laboratory course is permitted only after students are closely acquainted with the
subject of work, will learn theoretical material with the help of textbooks, manuals and lecture
notes, record the equations of respective reactions in the laboratory magazine.
2. Duty student receives the necessary work for the group equipment and reagents, and
places them in the workplace.
3. In the chemical laboratory, it is permitted to work only when there is a white robe and cap.
Each student is given a permanent job, which he should keep clean, do not clutter up his foreign
objects that are unrelated to this study. Disorder and carelessness in carrying out experiments
often lead to a necessary repetition of the experiment.
4. When heated and boiling solution in the tube must be used pinchcock and keep the tube so
that its opening was directed in the opposite direction from those who work random.
5. You can not lean over the test tube, which is heated or heated fluid to spray so it does not
hit in the face.
6. In those cases, if there is a need to check the smell of substances in the tubes there should
be a slight movement of the palm of hand to direct the flow of air from the tube to him/her and
gently sniff.
7. Reagents, distilled water, electrical energy in the laboratory should be used sparingly.
8. All the work with substances which are obtained during the interaction are harmful to the
mechanism of organic gases or substances with an unpleasant smell, should be carried out in a
specially reserved for this purpose rooms with forced ventilation, or under the hood.
Categorically prohibits work with these substances at the work place.
9. Solutions of hydrogen sulfide, acids, alkalis, etc. should be poured into a special MSRPcontrol to prevent the destruction of sewage systems in the laboratory. Solutions, which
compounds contain silver, mercury, lead and iodide ions should be poured into a separate bowl
for further regeneration.
10. Categorical forbidden to perform experiments that are not related to the laboratory work.
11. After completion of work, clean the tubes, to show their duty, to clean your desk, turn off
heaters, electric lights, water, and you wash your hands.
Rules for the Treatment with reagents
- for experience solutions and solids are taken in such amounts as required by the
experimental method;
- reagents remain in closed beakers with lids to prevent contamination;
- solid reagents are selected carefully with a spatula; liquid reagents, which are in the
droppers, measure drops;
- the excess reagent does not spill and poured into dishes, from which it was taken to prevent
contamination of reagents
- concentrated solutions of acids and alkalis, toxic substances are in reserved closet, where
they are worked with.
Work with acids and base
1. While working with concentrated acids and alkalis, one needs to be cautious and to ensure
that they do not get on skin and clothes.
2. At the dilution of concentrated sulfuric acid it should be careful and gradual but the surge
acid to water, not vice versa. This is due to the fact that the dilution of sulfuric acid-slots, causes
a large amount of heat. Therefore, when water is added to the acid of the solution it can be
sprayed, and can get on skin and clothing.
4
Work with harmful and poisonous substance
At work with harmful and toxic substances (cyanide, salts of barium, mercury, lead, arsenic,
mercury metal, sulfide, etc.) is necessary to ensure that hazardous or toxic substances are not
included in the body through the gastrointestinal tract. In the bond with the food consumed in the
laboratory is strictly prohibited. After working in the laboratory one must have a good wash of
their hands. Cylinders filled with mercury or its devices, it is necessary to put on a special stand
that in case of damage to the device main mass of mercury got on the stand, rather than on a
desktop or floor. If the mercury is still differ-las, it must be very quickly assembled with copper
wire or plates, and then a gray-rattling. Work with mercury is allowed only in special rooms.
Working with flammable substance
1. While working with diethyl ether, alcohols, benzene and other combustible matter, or
properties, their heat is carried out in a water bath in a flask with a reverse refrigerator.
2. In the laboratory, these substances should be stored in tightly sealed jars a small capacity.
3. Test tubes and beakers with combustible substances should be kept at a sufficient distance
from the burners. After finishing work with them to replace the burner, and only then, you wash
the dishes, which contained these substance.
4. Combustible, flammable and volatile substances can not be stored close to the flame or
very hot electric devices (thermostats, electronic, etc.) .
5. Alkali metals should always be kept in a layer of inert against water and moisture
kerosene. Alkali metals and crystalline alkali should be taken only with tweezers or a special
forceps. Should wear goggles or a mask. After the end of the remark the remnants of these
metals should be moved to a special dish.
Working with substances which form explosive mixture
1. It must be remembered that some gases (hydrogen, carbon disulfide, acetylene, carbon
oxide) (II, etc.), as well as volatile compounds (benzene, alcohols, hexane, etc.), vapourazies to
form a air and explosive mixtures with oxygen. To their pair does not accumulate in dangerous
quantities in the laboratory, to work with these substances is necessary for a strong extractor
ventilation.
2. Without the permission and the relevant instructions of the teachers do not heat, do not put
in shock substances which form explosive mixtures (chlorates, perchlorates, per-sulfate, etc.).
Rules of conduct in case of fire in laboratory
1. In the event of a fire, all electric appliances and gas must be shut down or closed. The fire
in the laboratory should be filled up with sand or on-cover fire blanket and use a fire
extinguisher.
2. Water must be carefuly used to extinguish fire.
5
FIRST AID IN ACCIDENTS
Early beginning of each semester the teacher must instruct a group of students on policy
compliance rules work in the chemical laboratory and safety equipment. Students must confirm
the knowledge of safety rules in their own signatures in a magazine. Accidents (burns, wounds,
poisoning) in the laboratory are caused by not doing enough to acquaint students with the
relevant instructions for the Protection of works and safety or as a result of negligence in work.
In each laboratory there should be a first aid kit.
If the accident happens, first aid must be provided for victim:
1. By skin acids, this place should be intensively washed with water and then 1% solution of
(NaHCO3). In case of contact with concentrated sulfuric acid before flushing the damaged skin
should be wiped with dry swab.
2. If skin solutions of alkali damaged area, washed with water, but in fact dilute acetic acid,
citric acid, or a saturated solution of boric acid.
3. If skin phenol, bromine, and similar substances should immediately wash the damaged
area relevant organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.).
4. In poisoning by chlorine, bromine, oxides of nitrogen victim must breathe in fumes of
dilute solution of ammonia and drink milk.
5. When the body burns with flame, rinse the place immediately with 1% solution of
potassium permanganate and apply on the damaged area compress alcohol solution of tannin.
6. For cuts (a wound), it must be treated with alcoholic solution of iodine and tied.
7. After giving first aid, there is an urgent need to send to the hospital.
6
CALENDAR PLAN
Practical and seminars of inorganic chemistry
For 1-st year Foreign Students of the Pharmocology Faculty
2010-2011 year, Semester 1
#
1.
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3.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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11.
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13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
The theme and content of training
Control work, the definition of the initial level of students knowledge of chemistry. Rules
for working in the chemical laboratory and safety regulations safety. The main ways to
clean inorganic substances.
Classes and the nomenclature of inorganic compounds.
Basic laws of chemistry. The law of equivalents. Determination of the equivalent mass of
the metal by displacement.
Calculations for chemical equations.
Basic theoretical propositions about the structure of the atom.
Contemporary interpretation of the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev on the basis of
electronic theory of the atom.
Theory of chemical bond.
Structure of molecule.
Energy and direction of chemical reactions.
Chemical kinetics and equilibrium of chemical reactions. Catalysis.
Solutions. Methods of expressing concentration of solutions.
Preparation of solutions with a given mass fraction.
Colligative properties of solutions. Osmosis.
Theory of electrolytic dissociation. Equilibrium in solutions of weak electrolytes.
Solubility product.
The theory of strong electrolytes. Dissociation of water. Acidity.
pH of the solutions.
The buffer system.
Hydrolysis of salts.
Control work sessions on topics 11-18.
Computer poll on "Krok 1".
7
Topic 1: The main ways to clean inorganic substances.
1. Actuality of the topic: In the chemical practice it is of great importance the degree of
purification of substances as the work with contaminated reagents may lead to error in results.
Clean substances that are used as medicinal products, determined by the State Pharmacopoeia of
Ukraine and, therefore, pharmacists need to know basic purification and methods of identifying
substances.
2. Key questions of the theme: In the chemical practice it is of great importance degree of
purification of substances as the work with contaminated reagents may lead to error in results.
Purity of substances used as medicines, determined by the State Pharmacopoeia of Ukraine and,
therefore, pharmacists need to know the basic cleaning methods and means for identifying the
purity of substances.
3. General aim: The main purpose of teaching of inorganic chemistry in the pharmaceutical
institute is to form a baseline knowledge of students required for the further successful teachings
of chemical and specialty disciplines and the implementation of the objectives of professional
activity, inculcating students with skills of thinking and chemical synthesis of experiments, the
ability to analyze the properties of substances and provide for their interaction, the products of
chemical reactions and offer their storage and possible methods of analysis.
4. Actual aims and abilities: to know the main methods of purification and identification
means purity substances.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. Clean chemical substances for the qualification of cleanliness: "clear" (c), and "pure for
analysis (analytical grade), chemically pure (reagent grade)," especially pure "(purity grade ).
5.2. Basic methods of purification and separation of substances and their theoretical
foundation: precrystalization, distillation, sublimation, chemical deposition, transport of the
reaction, extraction, zone melting, ion exchange, adsorption.
5.3. Physical constants for identification of purity: the color, taste, smell, density, melting
and boiling points, viscosity, and solubility, etc.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Physical constants for identification of purity: the color, taste, smell, density, melting
boiling points, viscosity and solubility, etc.
7. The theoretical material:
Chemical reagents known substances that are used for chemical reactions, and used for
analysis and synthesis substance. Chemical reagents depending on the degree of purity is
classified on the technical clear" (c), and "pure for analysis (analytical grade), chemically pure
(reagent grade)," highstandart (h.s.), Especially pure (purity grade). The amount of impurities is
regulated state standards (GOST), technical conditions (TC) or articles of the State
Pharmacopoeia (GF). Is finite, in practice, chemical analysis using analytical grade reagents
qualification and reagent grade r.g and p.g.
In the laboratory, using solutions of certain concentration of chemicals (most often 0,1-0,2
g), at least - the indicator paper. To dissolve the use distilled water or organic solvents. At work
half mikromethod use reagents mass from 0,01 to 0,10 g of solid substances and the volume
from 0,5 to 5,0 cm3 of the solution.
8
8. Literature:
8.1. Lecture notes.
8.2. Sukhomlinov A.K., Borovskaya N.V., P.Y. Pustovarov etc. Inorganic Chemistry
(workshop), 1983, p. 5-31.
8.3. Workshop of Inorganic Chemistry, ed. N.A. Ostapkevich, 1987, p. 4-13.
8.4. Workshop General and Inorganic Chemistry. E. J. Levitin and others - H.: "Base", 1998.
with.
9. Test control examples:
The technique of execution and the theoretical foundations of one of the following methods
of purified and separation of substances: recrystallization, distillation, sublimation, chemical
deposition, transport reactions, extraction, zone melting, ion exchange, adsorption.
10. The task to consolidate the material:
10.1. Make a short synopsis, description of methods of separation and purification of
substances given in section 5.
Precrystallization –
_____________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
Distillation –
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Sublimation –
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Chemical deposition –
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_____________________________________________________________________________
Transport reactions –
_____________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
Extraction –
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9
Zone melting –
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Ion exchange –
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Adsorption –
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_____________________________________________________________________________
10.2. Briefly describe the methodology for establishing the melting and boiling points of
substances.
The simplest device for determining the melting temperature:
1 - rubber tube with a slit
2 - thermometer;
4 - a vessel with oil;
3-5 - a reservoir for a thermometer with capillary (tube),
6 - gas supply to the burner,
7 - the metal (or asbestos) mesh,
8 - capillary with the substance;
9 - a ring of plastic or rubber for attaching the capillary to
the thermometer,
10 - ring to a tripod that holds a vessel with warmed. oil.
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10
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11. Algorithm for laboratory work:
Experiment 1. Purification of tap water by distillation (distillation) and determination
of the temperature of its boiling.
Gather apparatus for distillation, pour into a flask Wurtz tap water 1/2 volume, bring the
water in the fridge and turn on the heater. Once the water boils over, note on the thermometer the
boiling point, add a few drops of distillate evaporated on a clean glass. The same is done with tap
water and draw conclusions about the presence of salts in distilled water and normal water. Sign
elements of a laboratory setup for the distillation.
1
2
3
5
4
HO
2
5
4
6
2
1
5
7
3
11
4
8
3
9
2
6
HO
2
7
8
7
9
1
10
6
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________
6. _____________________________
7. _____________________________
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
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11
Experiment 2. Cleaning substances sublimation.
Weigh 0,2 g of substance (ammonium chloride or iodine), place at the bottom of the
chemical beaker. Cover the glass cup to evaporate or temporary glass of cold water and heat to
electric. The crystals were collected to calculate the yield of pure substance (%).
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
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Experiment 3. Cleaning substances perecrystallization.
Take a substance to purify, to calculate the required amount of water-proof to recrystallized
to obtain 2g of pure substance. Water heated to boiling and dissolve the substance. The hot
solution was filtered through a folded filter and refrigerate. The crystals that precipitated, filtered
through a Buchner funnel, dried, weighed and calculated for yield of pure substance (in%) to
determine the temperature melting. Opportunistically funnel with folded filter.
Opportunistically funnel with
folded filter
A device for filtering under vacuum:
1.__________________
2.__________________
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
12
Topic 2: Basic classes of inorganic compounds.
1. The actuality of the topic: Representatives of the basic classes of inorganic compounds
are widely used in medicine as medicinal products and chemicals. The study and knowledge of
chemical properties is essential for further possible use of them for therapeutic purposes.
2. Key questions of the theme: Representatives of the basic classes of inorganic compounds
are widely used in medicine as drugs and chemicals. Study and knowledge of chemical
properties is essential for further possible use of them for therapeutic purposes.
3. General aim: Classify simple and complex matter, depending on their composition and
the presence of functional groups. Explain the chemical properties of substances with a certain
class of chemical reactions.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Demonstrate knowledge of nomenclature of inorganic
compounds with specific examples.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. Simple matter: metals and nonmetals.
5.2. Complex substances: binary, tertiary, complex.
5.3. Oxides of: single, double, polymer. Peroxides and nadperoxide. Nomenclature of use.
5.4. Hydroxides: basic, acidic, amphoteric. Nomenclature. Application.
5.5. Acid. Ortho-, iso-and polyforms acids. Application.
5.6. Salt.Classification. Nomenclature. Application.
5.7. The dependence of acid-base forms and properties of oxides and hydroxides of the
position of the elements that they constitute in the periodic table Mendeleev.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. The dependence of acid-base forms and properties of oxides and bases from the position
of elements, which form in the periodic table Mendeleev.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G. General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. Give examples of oxides: a) acid b) basic c) amphoteric d) indifferent.
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_____________________________________________________________________________
8.2. Write international name of such substances:
a) acids: H2SO4, H3BO3, H2SO3, H2S.
b) the grounds of: Fe(OH)3, Fe(OH)2, Cr (OH)3.
c) oxides: N2O, NO, Mn2O7, N2O3.
d) salts: Al2(SO4)3, FeOHCl2, Na3PO4, Ca (HCO3)2.
13
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8.3. Complete reaction equation:
K2O + ZnO = _________________________________________________________
CaО + Cl2O7 = _________________________________________________________
Ca (H2PO4)2 + Al2(SO4)3 =___________________________________________________
8.4. Write the equation of dissociation of electrolytes: H2SO4, Al2(SO4)3, K2H2P2O7,
Cr(OH)2Cl.
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8.5. Make the reactions by which to make such transformations of:
а) Ba→ BaО→ BaCl2→ Ba3(PO4)2→ BaSO4;
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б) Zn → K2ZnО2→ ZnCl2→ Zn(OH)2→ Na2[Zn(OH)4] → ZnSO4
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в) C → CO→ CO2→ Na2CO3→ NaHCO3 → Na2CO3→ CaCO3→ Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3.
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14
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"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
15
Topic 3: Basic laws of chemistry. The law of equivalents. Determination of the
equivalent mass of the metal by displacement.
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge and possession of the basic laws of chemistry will
enable students dispensing chemists to understand and master the techniques of quantitative
research of chemical reactions, stoichiometric calculations the weight and volume ratios
between the reactants, calculations of chemical formulas and equations, the derivation of
substances and the reactions that are needed to study these disciplines and in practical activities.
2. Key questions of the theme: Knowledge and possession of the basic laws of chemistry
allow students dispensing chemists to understand and master the quantitative methods of
investigation of chemical reactions, stoichiometric calculations the weight and volume ratios
between the reactants, calculations of chemical formulas and equations, the derivation of
substances and the reactions needed to study these disciplines and in practical activities.
3. General aim: Learn basic concepts and laws of chemistry and apply them to solve
relevant problems.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Do stoichiometric calculations of weight and volume ratios
between the reactants, the calculations of chemical formulas and equations, the derivation of
substance and complete the reactions.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. The law of conservation of mass and energy as a quantitative mapping of constant
motion of matter.
5.2. The law of constancy of composition and its modern interpretations.
5.3. Law of multiple relationships.
5.4. Avogadro's law and its consequences.
5.5. Application of the equation of state of ideal gas Mendeleev-Clapeyron to determine the
molecular weights of substances.
5.6. Equivalent and the equivalent weight of the elements of simple and complex substances.
Equivalent volume.
5.7. Equivalent and the equivalent weight of simple and complex substances in a chemical
reaction. The law of equivalents.
5.8. Equivalent and the equivalent weight of the oxidant and reductant.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Application of the equation of state of ideal gases Mendeleev - Clapeyron equation to
estimate the molecular weight substances.
6.2. Equivalent and the equivalent weight of the oxidant and reductant.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G. General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
16
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. What data should be to establish the molar mass of substances in a gaseous state? A: You
need to know the mass (m) a certain volume (V) gas under certain conditions, at room
temperature (T) and pressure (P):
1. From the Clapeyron-Mendeleev:
Mx
mRT
PV
=
where:
R - universal gas constant (8,31 J/mol • K)
2. If we know the relative density of the gas, the molecular mass can be calculated for the
formula:
Mx = D × M
where:
Mx - molar mass of unknown gas;
D - relative density of the unknown gas;
M - molar mass of the known gas (usually M (H2) = 2 g/mol or M (air) = 29 g/mol).
3. If a known mass (m) a certain volume (Vo) of gas under normal conditions:
Mx
=
mo
×
Vm
Vo
where:
Vm - molar volume of any gas under normal conditions (22.4 L / mol).
8.2. What is the relationship between equivalent and molar mass of complex substances?
Answer: To calculate the equivalent mass of acids, hydroxides, oxides, salts and use the formula:
Э
=
M
n×B
where:
M - molar mass (g / mol)
n - the number of atoms of metal (for salts), hydrogen, which can replace the metal (for acids),
and hydroxogroup (for hydroxide);
B - valence (or oxidation) of metal (for salts and oxides).
8.3. What is the essence of an electrochemical method of establishing an equivalent weight
of electrolyte
Answer: First find the mass of a simple substance, which is deposited on the electrode for
electrolysis, for example, salts of a specific item. Next, the equivalent is calculated according to
equation Faraday:
Э
=
m×F
Q
17
where:
m - mass of the oxidized or reduced substance;
E - the equivalent of a chemical substance;
Q - the number of Coulomb electric current that passed through the solution;
F - Faraday constant (96,500 Kd)
9. Task to consolidate the material:
9.1. Under normal conditions, 500 ml of gas weighs 1,806, the find it in the air density and
molar mass.
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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9.2. 0,111 g of gas occupies a volume of 25 ml at 17°C and 101,463 kPa. Calculate the molar
mass of gas.
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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9. 3. Calculate the equivalent weight of CaO, H3PO4, Ba(OH)2, Al2(SO4)3.
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9.4. 1,6 g calcium and 2,65 g of zinc ousted from the acid the same quantity of hydrogen.
Find the equivalent of zinc, if the equivalent of calcium is 20.
Data:
Decision:
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18
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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9.5. Calculate the equivalent weight of KMnO4 as an oxidant, which in acidic medium is
converted into a salt of manganese (II)?
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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10. Algorithm for laboratory work:
Defining the equivalent mass of the metal by the displacement method is based on the
reaction of metal dissolution in an excess of acid and measuring the volume of hydrogen, which
is highlighted. Instrument for establishing the
equivalent of the metal consists of a burette and
the glass tube (2), filled with distilled water and
connected to one another rubber tube. By burette
attached tube Ostwald (3). The tubes are fixed in
the clamps stand.
In one of the tribes of the tube Ostwald pour a
sample of metal, and in itself a test tube to pour
3-5 ml HCl. Check the seal on the device. To do
this, attach the tube to the burette, unturn its
lower or raise a glass tube 2.
If the device is sealed, the water level in the
burette should not be changed. Write in a
notebook the position of the liquid in the burette,
air pressure and temperature.
19
Test conditions
Hitch, gm
(Me)
Temperature, °С,
t
The position of the fluid
Pressure Pа,
P
Before
experiment
after
experiment
Volume
displaced by
hydrogen, ml V
Calculations of the equivalent of:
PV P0V0
1. Using the formula
to find the volume of hydrogen under standard conditions

T
T0
(Vo). In the experiment, the hydrogen is going above the water surface and, thus, contains waterlimited pairs. Total gas pressure in the burette, which is equal to atmospheric pressure, consists
of a pressure of hydrogen and water vapor (PH2O).
V × ( P – PH O ) × 273
( 273 + t ) × 101,325
2
V0 =
=
2. Calculates the equivalent of the metal for the formula:
m(Me) × Veq(H2)
m(Me),g × 11,2, l/mol
Э(Ме)pract.
V0
=
The resulting value compared with the theoretical.
=
=
3. Calculate the relative error of experience:
О =
Эteor. – Эprac.
Эteor
× 100 %
=
With the right performance relative error should not exceed 5%.
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
20
Topic 4: Calculations for chemical equations.
1. Actuality of the topic: Ability to make calculations based on chemical equations needed
to study the following disciplines of organic, analytical, physical, colloid chemistry, etc.
2. Key questions to the theme: Ability to make calculations based on chemical equations
needed to study the following disciplines of organic, analytical, physical, colloid chemistry, etc.
3. General aim: To be able to complete the reactions, to pick the stoichiometric coefficients
and do stoichiometric calculations of mass and volume of the reactants with the reactions using
the law of conservation of mass substances.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Do stoichiometric calculations of weight and volume ratios
between the reactants, the calculations of chemical formulas and equations.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. That shows the chemical formula?
5.2. Structure of the chemical equation. Show the stoichiometric coefficients?
5.3. Calculating the number, masses and volumes of reagents for chemical equations.
5.4. The concept of: - the output of products of the reaction - the mass fraction (the main
substance, a component in the mixture; dissolve substance in solution; element in the molecule) volumetric particle - density.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Equivalent and the equivalent weight of the oxidant and reductant.
6.2. Equivalent and the equivalent weight of simple and complex substances in the chemical
reaction. The law of equivalents.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003, p.4-14.
7.3. Khomchenko G.P. Collection of problems in chemistry, 1993.
8. Examples of test control:
Task 8.1. A solution that contains silver nitrate weighing 25,5 g was added a solution that
contains sodium sulfide, the mass of 7,8g. What mass of sediment formed at the same time?
Solution. Write the reaction equation:
2AgNO3 + Na2S = Ag2S↓ + 2NaNO3
Determine the amount of the substance of silver nitrate and sodium sulfide:
m( AgNO3 )
25,5
ν (AgNO3 )=
; (AgNO3)=
mol = 0,15 mol;
170
M ( AgNO3 )
m( Na 2 S )
7,8
;
ν (Na2S) =
mol = 0,1 mol.
78
M ( Na 2 S )
From the reaction equation follows: for the reaction of silver nitrate with the amount of
material needed 2 mol 1 mol of sodium sulfide. Accordingly:
1
If ν΄ (AgNO3) = ν (AgNO3); ν΄ (AgNO3) = 0,15 mol, then ν΄( Na2S ) =
ν΄ (AgNO3);
2
0,15
ν΄( Na2S) =
mol = 0,075 mol ;
2
ν (Na2S)=
21
where: 0,075 mole - the amount of matter of sodium sulfide required for the reaction is taken
in excess. Calculation of amount of substance and weight to the starting material to manufacture,
using the mass and the amount of substance that is taken in the lack of, that is, nitrate silver.
From reaction equation follows:
( AgNO3 ) 2

1
( Na 2 S )
Hence:
( Ag 2 S )
0,15
(Ag2S) =
mol;
(Ag2S) =
mol = 0,075 mol
2
2
Determine the mass of silver sulfide:
m(Ag2S) = ν (Ag2S) × M (Ag2S ); m(Ag2S) = 0,075 × 248g = 18,6g.
Task 8.2. A mixture of copper and magnesium сhips weighing 1,5 g was treated with excess
of hydrochloric acid. The reaction released hydrogen volume of 560 ml (normal conditions).
Identify the mass of copper particles in mixture.
Decision. Of the two metals with hydrochloric acid reacts only magnesium:
Mg + 2HCl = MgCl2 + H2
Determine the amount of hydrogen, which include:
ν (H2) =V/Vm ; ν (H2) = 0,56l/22,4 l/ mol = 0,025 mol.
From the reaction equation follows:
ν (Mg) = ν (Н2) ; ν (Mg) = 0,025 mol
We find a weight of magnesium:
m(Mg) = ν (Mg) × М(Mg) ; Mg ; m(Mg) = 0,025 × 24g = 0,6g.
The mass of copper in the mixture will be:
m(Cu) = m(mixture) - m(Mg);
m(Cu) = (1,5 - 0 ,6) g = 0,9 g.
We expect the mass fraction of copper in the mixture:
ω(Cu)
=
m(Cu).
m(mixture )
=
0,9
1,5
=
0,6 or 60 %
Task 8.3. Determine the mass of salt that is gotten by mixing 40 ml of solution with mass
fraction of nitric acid, 0,2 and density 1,12 g/ml with a solution volume of 36 ml of mass fraction
of sodium hydroxide and 0,15 plotnostyu1, 17 g/ml.
Decision . We introduce the notation: m1 - mass; V1 - volume; ρ1 - density of a solution of
nitric acid-slots; m2 - mass; V2 - volume; ρ2 - density of sodium hydroxide; m3 - density of
sodium hydroxide; m3 - density of sodium hydroxide; m3 - mass produced solution. We write the
reaction equation:
HNO3 + NaOH = NaNO3 + H2O
Determine the mass and the amount of substance in a solution of HNO3:
m1 = V1 ρ1 = 40 × 1,12g = 44,8g;
m (HNO3) = m1 ω (HNO3) ; m (HNO3) = 44,8 × 0,2 g = 8,96 g;
22
8,96
mol = 0,142 mol.
63
Similarly, we can find the mass and the amount of the substance in a solution of sodium
hydroxide:
ν (HNO3) = m (HNO3)/M(HNO3) ;
ν (HNO3) =
m2 = V2 ρ 2 = 36 × 1,12 g = 42,1 g;
m (NaOH) = m2 ω (NaOH); m (NaOH) = 42,1 × 0,15g = 6,32 g;
m( NaOH )
6,32
ν (NaOH) =
;
ν (NaOH) =
mol = 0,158 mol.
40
M ( NaOH )
From the reaction equation it follows that the nitric acid of 0,142 mole of a substance will
react with sodium hydroxide, the amount of material 0,142 mol, respectively, NaOH taken in
excess.
From the reaction equation it follows that:
ν (NaNO3) = ν (HNO3); ν (NaNO3) = 0,142 mol .
To determine the mass of salt, which was formed:
m (NaNO3) = ν (NaNO3) × M (NaNO3);
m (NaNO3) = 0,142 × 85 g = 12,1
The mass of the solution obtained is:
m3 = m1 + m2;
m3 = (44,8 + 42,1) r = 86,9 g.
Define mass fraction of salt in the resulting solution:
m( NaOH )
ω (NaNO3) =
;
m3
ω (NaNO3) = = 0,139 or 13,9%.
Task 8.4. A reaction of a sample of technical sodium sulphate spent weighing 9 g solution
weight of 40 grams of mass part of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) 7,9%. Determine the
mass-equivalent fraction of Na2SO3 in the technical sulfite. The reaction between potassium
permanganate and sodium sulfite takes place in the presence of sulfuric acid.
Solution. Equation of to the reaction:
5Na2SO3 + 2KMnО4 + 3H2SO4 = 5Na2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 3H2O
Mn+7 + 5е  Mn+2
S+4 - 2e  S+6
│10│ 2
5
Determine the weight and the amount of matter of potassium permanganate:
m(KMnО4) = m(sol) × ω(KMnО4); m = 40 × 0,079g = 3,16 g;
m( KMnO4 )
3,16
ν (KMnО4) =
; ν (KMnО4) =
mol = 0,02 mol.
158
M ( KMnO4 )
From the reaction equation it follows that:
v( KMnO4 ) 2
 ,
v( Na 2 SO3 ) 5
23
Location: ν (Na2SO3) =
5
ν (KMnО4);
2
ν (Na2SO3) =
5 * 0,02
mol = 0,05 mol.
2
The mass of Na2SO3, which is placed in the sample is:
m(Na2SO3) = ν (Na2SO3) × M(Na2SO3); m(Na2SO3) = 0,05×126 g = 6,3 g.
We expect a mass of Na2SO3 in the technical sulfite:
m( Na2 SO3 )
6,6
ω (Na 2SO3) =
; ω (Na2SO3) =
= 0,7 or 70 %.
9
m
Task 8. 5. To a solution in which the aluminum nitrate weighing 42,6g was added of the
solution that contains sodium carbonate, the precipitate mass of 37,2g calcined. Determine the
mass of residue after calcined. Solution. Aluminum nitrate - the salt of weak base and strong
acid, sodium carbonate - the salt of strong base and weak acid, respectively, two salts in solution
are subject to hydrolysis. When mixing the solutions are mutually enhanced hydrolysis, which in
this case proceeds in full.
2Al(NO3)3 + 3Na2CO3 + 3H2O = 2Al(OH)3 + 6NaNO3 + 3CO2
(а)
When calcined alumina precipitate obtained:
2Al(OH)3 = Al2O3 + 3H2O
Quantities of materials:
m( Al ( NO3 ) 3 )
M ( Al ( NO3 ) 3 )
m( Na 2 CO3 )
 (Na2CO3) =
;
M ( Na 2 CO3 )
 (Al(NO3)3) =
;  (Al(NO3)3) =
42,6
mol = 0,2 mol;
213
 (Na2CO3) = 37,2/106 mol = 0,35 mol.
From (a) shows that for the reaction with 0,2 mol of aluminum nitrate to 0,3 mole of sodium
carbonate, sodium carbonate, respectively, taken in excess.
From equations we have (a)
 ( Al ( NO3 ) 3 )
1
=
1
 ( Al (OH ) 3
From equations we have (b)
 ( Al (OH ) 3 ) 2
=
1
 ( Al 2 O3 )
so:
 ( Al ( NO3 ) 3 ) 2
= .
1
 ( Al 2 O3 )
Hence:
 (Al2O3) =
 ( Al ( NO3 ) 3 )
2
;
 (Al2O3) =
0,2
mol = 0,1 mol.
2
Determine the mass of aluminum oxide obtained after calcination:
m (Al2O3) =  (Al2O3) ×M (Al2O3) ;
m (Al2O3) = 0,1 × 102 g = 10,2 g.
24
9. Task to consolidate the material:
9.1. In the steel cylinder volume of 5 liters is ammonia at 22oC and 620 kPa. What mass of
ammonium sulphate can be extracted if all ammonia to miss four-cut excess of sulfuric acid?
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
9.2. A mixture of hydrogen and hydrogen chloride volume of 7 liters (standard conditions)
was passed through silver nitrate solution, taken in excess, and received sediment mass was
28,7g Determine the volume fraction of hydrogen in the mixture.
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
9.3. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide (IV), which can be extracted from the interaction
of calcium carbonate weighing 7 g of hydrochloric acid, weight 30 grams, in which the mass
fraction of chlorine-hydrogen is 20%.
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
9.4. Calculate the mass of base formation interactions 34 silver nitrate and 21 g barium
chloride.
Data:
Decision:
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25
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Answer:____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
____________(Signature of the teacher)
26
Topic 5: Basic theoretical concepts about the structure of the atom.
1. Actuality of the topic: Electronic theory of atomic structure explain the physical content
of the periodic law of Mendeleev. Knowledge of the topic enables students to find any elements
his valency, oxidation state and to characterize the properties of that element.
2. Key questions of the theme: Electron theory of atomic structure explain the physical
meaning of the periodic law of Mendeleev. Knowledge of the topic enables students to find any
elements valency, oxidation states and to characterize the properties of this element.
3. General aim: values of quantum numbers and the rules and principles governing the
sequence of filling of atomic orbitals for the electronic image and general: learn the basic of
modern quantum-mechanical theory of atomic structure. Electron apply the formula of atoms and
ions of elements.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Learn examples of radiopharmaceuticals used for healing and
disease diagnosis.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. The planetary model of the atom and its contradiction. Experimental studies confirm the
complex structure of the atom. Bohr's postulates. The absorption spectra of atoms as a source of
information about their structure. Quantum nature of the absorption and emission of energy
(Planck).
5.2.Wave-corpuscle duality of the electron, the equation of de-Broglie, Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle. Motion of electrons in an atom. Electron varnish. Atomic orbitals. Wave
function, its calculation on the basis of Schrodinger equation.
5.3. Quantization of energy in the microparticles. Electronic energy levels. Quantum
numbers: characteristics, importance (important, the orbital shape of s, p, d, f - orbitals,
magnetic). The orientation of atomic orbitals, the spin quantum number.
5.4. Principles and rules of filling of atomic orbitals by electrons: the principle of lowest
energy, the Pauli principle, Hund's rule and Klechkovskogo. Electric and electronic graphic
formula of atoms and ions.
5.5. Natural and artificial radioactivity. Toxic effect of radionuclides, radiopharmaceuticals
in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Natural and artificial radioactivity. Toxic effect of radionuclides, radiopharmaceutical
drugs for the treatment and diagnosis of diseases.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G. General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
8. Standards of solving tasks:
Task 1. Write an expression of iron (Fe, z = 26).
Answer: 26Fe 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d6 4s2
27
Task 2. Write electro-graphical formula of chlorine in the normal and excited states, to
establish equivalency, the degree of oxidation and provide examples of compounds with data
degrees of oxidation.
Answer: 17Cl 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p5
Valency = І
Level of oxidation = + 1
-1
HCl
Valency = ІІІ
Level of oxidation = +3
+1
Сl2O
+3
(Сl2O3)
Valency = V
Level of oxidation = +5
+5
(Cl2O5)
Valency = VІІ
Level of oxidation = +7
+7
Cl2O7
9. Task to consolidate the material:
9.1. Leave e-formula elements with atomic numbers 15, 34 and 53, determined to divide the
family, to emphasize the valence electrons and for the latter to represent the electro-graphical
formula in the normal and excited states, determine the valency, the degree of oxidation and
provide examples of compounds with given degrees of oxidation.
_____________________________________________________________________________
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28
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_____________________________________________________________________________
9.2. Why in the formation of the first electronic layer, is s-orbital full?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
9.3. What determines the spin quantum number?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9.4. How many entries is the magnetic quantum number, if l = 1?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
29
Topic 6: Contemporary interpretation of the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev on the
basis of electronic theory of the atom.
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge of the periodic law and the structure of the periodic
system is of great importance in the study of general chemistry and chemistry of elements.
Ability to use the laws of the periodic system in periods and in groups to allow students to
characterize the properties of elements and their compounds.
2. Key questions of the theme: Knowledge of the periodic law and the structure of the
periodic system is of great importance in the study of general chemistry and chemistry of the
elements. Ability to use the laws of the periodic system the periods and in groups will allow
students to characterize the properties of elements and their compounds.
3. General aim: Assimilate modern definition of periodic law and the physical meaning of
the law of periodicity.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Interpret the frequency change of the atomic radius, ionization
energy, electron affinity, electronegativity and chemical properties of simple substances and
compounds of elements based on the electronic structure of atoms.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. Formulation of the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev and the modern-formula of the
periodic law. Law Moseley.
5.2. The structure of the periodic table of elements: time, group, subgroup, s, p, d, f - a family
of elements.
5.3.Periodic behavior of the atomic properties of elements in a gaseous state as a function of
changes in their electronic structure: the atomic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, the
relative electronegativity.
5.4. Metallic, nonmetallic and redox properties.
5.5. Internal and secondary periodicity.
5.6. Periodicity of chemical properties of elements and their compounds. The physical
content of the periodic law.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Periodicity of chemical properties of elements and their compounds. The physical
meaning of the periodic law.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. For the elements of the III period lead in ascending serial number form higher oxides
and indicate their acid-base character.
Na2O; CaO; Al2O3; SіO2; P2O5; Cl2O7
base base amf. acid acid. acid
8.2. What kind of connection with hydrogenated and oxygenic form elements of the main
sub-VI group?
Э-2Н2; Э+4О2; Э+6О3.
30
9. Task to consolidate the material:
9.1. Using the periodic law, consider the formula of phosphorus compounds with hydrogene
and oxygenic and give a general characterization of these compounds.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
9.2. Using the periodic law, give answers to questions such as:
a) some of the elements has a greater electronegativity of P and Cl? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b) specify the nature of these chromium oxides: CrO, Cr2O3, CrO3, and confirm the
corresponding equations of reactions.
_____________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
c) for the elements of the formula II period, what causes higher oxides and specify their
nature.
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_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
31
Topic 7: Theory of Chemical bond.
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge of the topic will allow students to provide the type and
the strength of bonds in chemical compounds and their reactivity. This knowledge can help
students better understand the issue of spatial structure and reactivity of chemical compounds in
the study of inorganic, organic, biological, and analytic chemistry, and other discipline.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. Modern ideas about the nature of chemical bonds. Bond characteristics: energy, length,
bond angle.
2.2. Covalent bond. The method of valence bond (VB). Two electronic chemical bond on
Geytleru-London (on the example of education H2).
2.3. Exchange and donor-acceptor mechanism of formation of a covalent bond.
2.4. Properties of covalent bond: saturation, direction, polarization ability.
2.5. Education  and  bonds, bonds in accordance with the method of OT.
2.6. Formation of the covalent bond in the excited atoms. Hybridization of atomic orbitals
and the spatial structure of molecules.
2.7. Determination of the valence of the OT method.
3. General aim: Learn the basic concepts of modern theory of chemical bonding.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Classify the types of chemical bonds, to explain the properties
of substances, depending on the type of bond in the molecule.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. Modern ideas about the nature of chemical bonds. Bond characteristics: energy, length,
bond angle.
5.2. Covalent bond. The method of valence bond (VB). Two-electron chemical bond on
Geytleru-London (on the example of education H2).
5.3. Exchange and donor-acceptor mechanism of formation of a covalent bond.
5.4. Properties of covalent bond: saturation, direction, polarization ability.
5.5. Education  and  bonds, of bonds in accordance with the method of OT.
5.6. Formation of the covalent bond in the excited atoms. Hybridization of atomic orbitals
and the spatial structure of molecules.
5.7. Determination of valence on the method of OT.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Formation of the covalent bond in the excited atoms. Hybridization of atomic orbitals
and the spatial structure of molecules.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G. General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. How many electron pairs involved in the formation of a bond in a molecule of water?
Show e-formula. Answer: 2 (two).
32
8.2. Leave scheme for the formation of the cation hydroxal.
Answer:
donor
is a molecule H2O
acceptor
proton
hydronium ion
H3O+
8.3. Determine the type of hybridization of atomic orbitals, the spatial structure and valence
limited angle in the following molecules: H2O, NH3, CH4, BeCl2, BCl3.
Answer:
H2O: atom oxygenation in sp3-hybridization state, the angular shape of the molecule, the
angle of 104.5 D;
NH3: Nitrogen atom in a state of sp3-hybridization, pyramidal shape of the molecule, the
angle of 107.3 D;
CH4: carbon atom in a state of sp3-hybridization, the tetrahedral shape of the molecule, the
angle 109°28 ;
BeCl2: beryllium atom in a state of sp-hybridization, the shape of the molecule is linear,
angle 180°;
BCl3: boron atom in a state of sp2-hybridization, the shape of the molecule plane, the angle
120°.
9. Task to consolidate the material:
9.1. Determine the type of hybridization of atomic orbitals, the spatial structure and valence
limited angle in the following molecules: H2S, PH3, SіCl4, MgCl2, AlCl3. For these molecules
boundary crystallographically depict the overlap of atomic orbitals with the formation of the bonds.
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9.2. In what compounds there is only a -bond (the answer motivate):
a) carbon dioxide,
b) in hydrogen chloride
c) oxygen
d) fluorine
d) hydrogen
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34
9.3. If there are bond rotation of carbon atoms relative to each other but impossible?
Examples.
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"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
35
Topic 8: Structure of molecule.
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge of this topic will allow students to provide the type and
the strength of bonds in chemical compounds and their reactivity. This knowledge can help
students better understand the issue of spatial structure and reactivity of chemical compounds in
the study of inorganic, organic, biological, an analytic chemistry and other disciplines.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. Modern ideas about the nature of chemical bonds. Bond characteristics: energy, length,
bond angle.
2.2. Covalent bond. The method of valence bond (VB). Two-electron chemical bond on
Geytleru-London (on the example of education H2).
2.3. Exchange and donor-acceptor mechanism of formation of a covalent bond.
2.4. Properties of covalent bond: saturation, direction, polarization ability.
2.5. Education  and  bonds, of bonds in accordance with the method of OT.
2.6. Formation of the covalent bond in the excited atoms. Hybridization of atomic orbitals
and the spatial structure of molecules.
2.7. Determination of the valence of the OT method.
3. General aim: Apply the method of valence bonds to determine the shapes of molecules
and their polarity and molecular orbital method for determining the magnetic properties and
staining substances. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Depending on the type of intermolecular interaction to explain
the properties of substances in liquid, gaseous or liquid state.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. Fundamentals of the method of molecular orbitals (MOs). Binding, the gap-board and
nonbonding molecular orbitals. Their energy and shape.
5.2. Energy diagrams of molecules that the formation of atoms of elements I and II periods of
the periodic table of elements. Multiplicity of communications for the MO method.
5.3. Ionic bond and its properties: unsaturated, non-directional. Structure and properties of
compounds with ionic bonds.
5.4. Metallic bond.
5.5. Intermolecular interaction and its nature. Orientation, induction and dispersion
interaction.
5.6. Hydrogen bond and its types. The role of hydrogen bonding in biological systems.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Intermolecular interaction and its nature. Orientation, induction and the dispersion
interaction.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin EY and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G.General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
36
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. Write to the energy diagram filling of the MO in the hydrogen molecule.
Decision:
8.2. Show the hydrogen bond between molecules of hydrogen fluoride.
Decision:
9. The task to consolidate the material:
9.1. Draw energy diagrams of the following molecules: F2, N2, NO, CO.
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37
9.2. By the example of water molecules show schematically the formation of hydrogen
bonds. What is the biological role of hydrogen bonding?
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"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
38
Topic 9: Energy and direction of chemical reactions.
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge of the fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics
necessary to understand the basic energy of biochemical and biological processes that are used to
studied biochemistry, biophysics and physiology. Ability to calculate and practically determine
the thermal effects of chemical reactions necessary for understanding and determining the energy
characteristics of the biochemical processes of the human body.
2. Key questions of the theme: Knowledge of the fundamentals of chemical
thermodynamics necessary to understand the basic energy of biochemical and biological
processes that are studied used to biochemistry, biophysics and physiology. Ability to calculate
and practically determine the thermal effects of chemical reactions necessary for understanding
and determining the energy characteristics of the biochemical processes of the human body.
3. General aim: Calculate using Hess's law enthalpies of chemical reactions, processes of
dissolution of substances, dissociation of acids and bases. Treat the possibility of unauthorized
chemical reactions and explain the thermodynamic stability of chemical compounds, using the
values of entropy and Gibbs energy
4. Actual aims and abilities: Explain the possibility of chemical reactions, depending on the
nature of the reactants and the presence of a catalyst.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. The subject of chemical thermodynamics. Characterization of thermodynamic systems
and their condition.
5.2. The first law of thermodynamics. Absorption and emission of different types of energy
in chemical changes. Internal energy and enthalpy. Thermal effect of the isobaric and isochoric
processes. Thermochemical equations and their features.
5.3. Hess's Law and its consequences. Standard conditions and standard enthalpy of
formation and combustion of substances. Calculations of the thermal effects of chemical
reactions, processes of dissolution of substances, dissociation of acids and bases.
5.4. The second law of thermodynamics. Entropy - a measure without order system
(Boltzmann equation).
5.5.Gibbs energy as a criterion of spontaneous chemical reactions and the characteristics of
the thermodynamic stability of chemical compounds.
5.6. The value of thermochemical calculations for the energy characteristics of biochemical
processes. Subordination of living organisms laws of thermodynamics.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. The value of thermochemical calculations for the energy characteristics of biochemical
processes. Subordination of living organisms laws of thermodynamics.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G. General chemistry L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, GN Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
39
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. Calculate the heat of reaction: 2NaOH(b.) + CO2(g.)  Na2CO3(s.) + H2O, if:
 Но form(NaOH) = -426,6 kJ / mol,
 Но form ( (CO2) = -393,6 kJ / mol,
 Но form ((Na2CO3) = -1129,3 kJ / mol,
 Но form ((H2O) = -285,8 kJ / mol,
Decision: The thermal effect of chemical reaction is calculated from the standard heats of
education according to the formula:
Но = ∑ Но form ( (p-function) - ∑  Но form ( (Ref.a-c) for the appropriate stechiometric
factors, that is:
 Но = ( Но form ( (Na2CO3) +  Но form ( (H2O)) - (2 Но form ( (NaOH) +  Но form ( (CO2)) =
(-1129,3 - 285,8) - (-2 426,6 - 393,6) = -168,3 kJ. That is, it is an exothermic reaction.
8.2. Is there any possible reaction: SіО2(o.) + 2NaOH(b.) Na2SіО3(s.) + H2O, if:
 Gо(SіО2(o.)) = -803,75 kJ / mol,
 Gо(NaOH(b.)) = -419,5 kJ / mol,
 Gо(Na2SіО3(s.)) = -1427,8 kJ / mol,
 Gо(H2O) = -237,5 kJ / mol?
Solution: To answer the question of the problem there is need to calculate the Gibbs energy
change in the reaction of the formula: Но = ∑ Но form( (p-function) - ∑  Но form ( (Ref.a-c) for
the appropriate stochiometric factors, that is:
 Но = ( Но form ( (Na2CO3) +  Но Noobr.( (H2O)) - (2 Но form ( (NaOH) +  Но form ( (CO2))
= (-1129,3 - 285,8) - (-2 426,6 - 393,6) = -168,3 kJ. That is, it is an exothermic reaction.
Thus the reaction of alkaline solution is possible and can not evaporate in a glass container.
8. 3. Specific heat of heating of lead ( H) is 23,04 kJ/kg. The temperature of fuel-Lead
327,4 °. Find the entropy change when heating 250 g lead.
Decision:: Using the specific heat of heating,
1kg Pb - 23040 J х = 5760 J
0,25kg Pb
- х
о
Formula for  G =  Н - Т S. Heating is an equilibrium process, so there go playlist Gо =
0, then:
5760
 Н = T S;  S =
= 9,59 J/К.
273  327,4
9. Tasks to consolidate the material:
9.1. When you save the wheat flour carbohydrates, which are placed in it, slowly oxidized
separate to produce heat. Find the heat of reaction if the heat of formation of substances are
equal to:
Но form ( (CO2) = -393,6 kJ/mol,
Но form ((H2O) = -285,8 kJ/mol,
Но form (C6H12O6) = - 1272,45 kJ/mol.
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40
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9.2. The oxidation of carbon oxide (II) proceeds according to the equation:
CO(g)+ 1/2O2(g) → CO2(g); Ho = -264,7 kJ. How many liters of carbon oxide (II) need to
burn to form a 4,187 kJ of heat?
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9.3. Is there any possible reaction: NO(g) + 1/2O2(g) = NO2(g), if Gform. NO = 126,8 kJ / mol;
Gform.NO2 = 51,8 kJ / mol?
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9.4. Calculate the entropy change on melting 3 M acetic acid (CH3COOH), if the melting
temperature of 16.6 ° C, and melting heat ( H) -194 J / g.
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10. Algorithm for laboratory work:
Defining the thermal effect of the neutralization reaction. Determination of the thermal effect
of reaction neutralization reaction. Thermale effects of chemical reactions is determined in a
special device - colorimeter, or a Dewar vessel. In the pre-weighted glass calorimeter (Dewar)
pour 150 ml of alkali solution (NaOH) with CH = 1 mol/L and to measure its temperature. Then,
with constant stirring to a solution of alkali pour 150 ml of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with C H = 1
mol/liter. Measure the highest temperature that the thermometer will show after-discharge of
fluids.
The experimental data written in the form:
Mass colorimetric cup, g, m2 (Dewar) = ____________
Concentration, CH = 1 mol/L
Volume of solution ml, Vb = Va = 150 ml
Temperature alkali solution, tb = ____________
Temperature acid solution, ta = ____________
Initial temperature,
Temperature after neutralization, t2 = ____________
Total mass of solution, m = 2 × Vl = 2 × 150 ml × 1 g/ml = 300 g
Experimental result is calculated heat of neutralization of the formula:
Q = t × C / Vl × CH =
where: t = t2 - t1;
41
C = m1C1 + m2C2
C1 (specific heat of glass) = 0,753 J/g grad
C2 (specific heat of solution) = 4,184 J/g × grad (equal to the heat capacity of water)
ρ (density of solution) = ρ (H2O) 1 g/ml.
Q = - H
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
H = _________ kJ / mol
Arrange relative error (in %) if the theoretical value of thermal effect for the neutralization of
1 mole of hydrochloric acid with alkali is equal to 57,3 kJ.
Conclusion:
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"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
42
Topic 10: The rate of chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium. Catalysis.
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge of the basic laws of chemical equilibrium and kinetics
required for students to study a number of the following disciplines: Bioorganic Chemistry (rate
and mechanism of metal-organic reactions) Biochemistry (the rate of enzymatic processes,
kinetics and mechanism of formation of metabolites and end products of biochemical processes),
pharma-oncology (the definition of rate of penetration of the medicinal product in the human
body, its distribution, the conversion speed and separation from the body) and others.
2. Relevance of the topic: Knowledge of the basic laws of chemical equilibrium and kinetics
required for students to study a number of the following disciplines: Bioorganic Chemistry (rate
and mechanism of metal-organic reactions) Biochemistry (the rate of enzymatic processes,
kinetics and mechanism of formation of metabolites and end products of biochemical processes),
pharma-oncology (the definition of rate of penetration of the medicinal product in the human
body, its distribution, the conversion speed and separation from the body) and other.
3. General aim: Apply the law of mass action, the Arrhenius equation and the rule of thumb
is the van't Hoff to calculate the rate of homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions.
4. Actual aims and abilities: Apply the law of mass action in equilibrium processes.
Interpret the direction of equilibrium shift to chemical reaction on the principle of Le Chatelier.
5. The main question of the seminar:
5.1. The rate of homogeneous and heteronym reactions dependent on the concentration
(mass action law), temperature (Arrhenius equation and the rule of Van't Hof).
5.2. Arrhenius theory of active collisions. Activation energy. The order and molecular
reactions.
5.3. Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. Enzymatic catalysis.
5.4. Irreversible and reversible chemical reaction. Chemical equilibrium.
5.5. Constant chemical equilibrium. Factors that affect the shift of chemical equilibrium.
The principle of Le Chatelier.
6. The questions for individual learning:
6.1. Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. Enzymatic catalysis.
7. Literature:
7.1. Lecture notes.
7.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 61-98.
7.3. Glinka L.G. General chemistry. L.A.: 1986.
7.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry. G.: 1979. p.68-72, 76-80, 83-85, 91-93.
7.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 62-85.
8. Standards of solving tasks:
8.1. In the synthesis of ammonia (N2 + 3H2 ↔ 2NH3) equilibrium established at the
following concentrations: [N2] = 2,5 mol / l, [H2] = 1,8 mol / l, [NH3] = 3,6 mol / l . Calculate the
equilibrium constant of this reaction and the initial concentration of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Decision: chemical equilibrium constant for the equilibrium concentrations calculated by the
formula:
3,62
[NН3]2
=
= 0,89
2,5 × 1,83
[N2] × [Н2]3
43
According to the reaction equation:
2 moles NH3 is formed from 1 mole N2
3,6 mol NH3 - x mol N2
X=
3,6 × 1
= 1,8 mol (N2(reacted) - С(reacted ))
2
С(original) = С(reacted ) + [С(reacted)] = 1,8 + 2,5 = 4,3 mol / l
According to the reaction equation:
2 moles of NH3 is formed from 3 mol H2
3.6 mol NH3 - x mol N2
X=
3,6 × 3
= 5,4 mol (Н2(reacted) - С(reacted ))
2
С(original) = 1,8 + 5,4 = 7,2 mol / l
8.2. Reaction goes the equation: 4HCl + O2 = 2H2O + 2Cl2. In what direction will change the
chemical balance, if the concentrations of the reactants increased in 2 times?
Decision: According to the law of mass action rate of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal:
V direct.=Кdirect × С4HCl × CO2 ; Vreverse.=Кreverse × С2Н2О × С2Cl2 ;
When the concentration of all substances in 2 times?
Vdirect=Кdirect × (2СHCl)4 × 2CO2 = 32 Кdirect × С4HCl × CO2 ;
Vreverse=Кreverse × (2СН2О) 2 × (2СCl2) 2=16 Кreverse × С2Н2О × С2Cl2
Rate of direct reaction increased 32-fold and the rate of return - only 16 times, thus the
chemical balance shifted in the direction of the direct reaction.
8.3. Equilibrium chemical reaction: 2NO + O2 = 2NO2 established at the following
concentrations of reactants: [NO] = 0,5 mol/l, [O2] = 0,7 mol/l, [NO2] = 2,1 mol/l . How will the
rate of both reactions, if the system pressure is reduced by a factor of 2? To shift the chemical
equilibrium?
Decision: To reduce the pressure:
V direct = К direct [NO]2 × [O2] = К direct × 0,52 × 0,7=0,175 К direct
Vreverse = Кreverse [NO]2 = Кreverse × 2,12=4,41 Кreverse
When the pressure is reduced by 2 times the concentration of all substances be reduced in 2
times and then:
V/ direct =К direct × (
0,5
2
)
0,7
= 0,0219 К
2
direct
 2,1 
V/reverse =Кreverse×   =1,101 Кreverse
 2 
rate of direct reaction decreased:
44
n = V direct / V/ direct = 0,175 K direct / 0,0219 K direct = 8
and feedback to:
n = V reverse / V/ reverse = 4,41K reverse / 1,10 K reverse = 4
Rate of the reverse reaction will be greater, so the chemical reaction equilibrium will shift
towards the reverse reaction.
8.4. At 80° C the reaction ends in 8 minutes. After some time it ends at 100° C if the
temperature coefficient (γ) is 2?
Decision: By the rule of van't Hoff temperature increases the reaction rate will increase to:
Vbeg.
n =
= 
t end – t beg.
10
Vend
=
2
100 – 80
10
= 22 = 4
at the same time interval of the reaction (τ concentration.) decreased by 4 times:
end
=

beg/n
=
8 min/4
= 2 min
9. Task to consolidate the material:
9.1. The equilibrium constant for thermal dissociation of N2O4 ↔ 2NO2, K = 0,26.
Equilibrium concentration of NO2 is equal to 0,28 moles per liter. Calculate the equilibrium and
initial concentration N2O4.
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:______________________________________________________________________
9.2. In what direction will shift equilibrium reaction: CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2 with a decrease
in unit volume 3 times?
Data:
Decision:
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Answer:______________________________________________________________________
9.3. Reaction at 20° C passes for 40 seconds. The temperature coefficient of reaction rate is
equal to 2. For how long will this reaction at 50° C?
Data:
Decision:
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45
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Answer:______________________________________________________________________
10 Algorithm for the laboratory:
Influence of the concentration of the reactants in the displacement of equilibrium.
Laboratory work
Experiment 1. Effect of concentration of the reactants to shift equilibrium.
In the flask with 50 ml of water was added one drop of saturated solutions of ferric chloride
(III) and ammonium thiocyanate.The solution is stirred and poured into four test tubes. In the
first test tube add 2 drops of ferric chloride (III), second - 2 drops of radonide ammonium in the
third - the crystals of ammonium chloride (at the tip of a spatula), the fourth pro-tag is left for
comparison. How to change color in the tubes? The experimental results write in the table and
draw conclusions. Write the reactions and the expression for the constant a chemical equilibrium.
№
Added reagent
Change in the
color
Conclusion
1
.
2
.
3
.
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Answer:
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Experiment 2. Effect of temperature on the offset balance.
In the interaction of iodine with starch is obtained Iodstarch blue.
Iodine + Starch ↔ Iodstarch
2 tubes poured on a 4-5ml of starch solution and add 1 drop of iodine solution (C = 0.1 mol /
l). One of the tubes is heated and then cooled. The second tube is left for comparison. Record the
results of the experiment. On the basis of experimental data and the principle of Le Chatelier
determine the types of irreversible and reverse reactions (some of them have exo and some are
endothermic).
Answer:
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46
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Experiment 3. Dependence of reaction rate on the concentration of the reactants.
Prepare the three solutions of different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate. To do this, first
make a test tube 5 drops of sodium thiosulfate solution (C = 0,5 mol/l) and 10 drops of water,
and the second - 10 drops of sodium thiosulfate and 5 drops of water, a third - 15 drops of
sodium thiosulfate. Then for each concentration determine the time course of the reaction from
the moment of adding 1 drop of sulfuric acid solution (C = 0,5 mol/l) before the strip upequation solution.The experimental given into a table, then build a graph of the velocity of the
reaction on the concentration of the reactants, laying on the axis abstsis concentration (number of
drops), and on the vertical axis - the relative speed of reaction. Write the responses and
conclusions.
№
Concentration of solution
thiosulfate (number of drop.)
Time course of the
reaction, с
The relative rate
1
.
2
.
3
.
υ (rate)
С
(concentration)
Reaction:
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Conclusion:
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47
Experience 4. Dependence of reaction rate on temperature.
Three tubes count the 10 drops of sodium thiosulfate solution (C = 0,5 mol/l). Determine the
air temperature in the laboratory.
In the first test tube add 1 drop of sulfuric acid solution (C = 0,5 mol/l) and define the timecourse of the reaction in the seconds after adding sulfuric acid, until the turbidity of solutions of
RA.
A second tube in a water bath temperatures, which at 10° C is higher than the room
temperature (watch the temperature on the thermometer, immersed in a water bath), in fact add 1
drop of sulfuric acid solution and determine the reaction time.
In the third test tube determine the reaction time at a temperature which is at 20° C higher
than room temperature. The results of the record to the table and make findings confirmed
whether a rule of Van't Hof in practice?
№
Concentration of solution
thiosulfate (number of drop.)
Time course of the
reaction, с
The relative rate
1
.
2
.
3
.
Conclusion:
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"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
48
Topic 11,12: Solutions. Methods of expressing concentration of solutions.
Preparation of solutions with a given mass fraction.
1. Actuality of the topic: An example of solutions, these are some biological systems: blood
plasma, lymph, intracellular fluid, gastric juice and so on, in the form of solutions is used in a lot
of medicinal products. Knowledge of preparing the solutions, given concentration and analysis
required in the practice of a pharmacist.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. Mass fraction (in %).
2.2. Molar concentration. Mole fraction.
2.3. Equivalence factor (acids, bases, salts, oxidants).
2.4. Molar mass of equivalent.
2.5. Molar concentration equivalent to (normal).
2.6. Molality concentration;
2.7. Titer solutions;
2.8. Recalculations of different ways of expressing solution concentration.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture notes.
3.2. Levitin EY and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 157-169.
3.3. Grigorieva V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 165-167.
3.4. Workshop on Inorganic Chemistry, edited by N.A. Ostapkevicha, 1987, p. 25-31.
3.5. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N. Inorganic Chemistry, 1979, p.107-110.
3.6. Akhmetov, NSTotal Inorganic Chemistry, 1988.
4. Standards of solving problems:
4.1. The calculation of the mass fraction of substances in solution.
Task. How many grams of boric acid and water is needed for cooking 250g of solution with
mass fraction of 3% boric acid?
Solution: The formula for calculating the mass fraction: = mx/ms ∙100%
 * mp
3 * 250
Hence: mx=
; mH3BO3=
=7,5g
100
100
water you need to take: 250 - 7,5 = 242,5g
4.2. Calculation of the molar concentration of the solution.
Task. How many grams of sodium chloride is necessary for the preparation of 1L solution
with CM = 2 mol/l?
Solution: The formula for calculating the molar concentration:
Cx=
m
, from: m = CМ·Mx·Vp = 2·58,5·1 = 117g
Mx * Vp
4.3. Calculation of the molar concentration equivalent.
Task. How many grams of KMnO4 is required to prepare a solution with 2n CH = 0,5 mol/l,
if the analysis is performed in an acidic environment?
m
1* 2
Solution: Cm=
from: m = Cm Mx fequiv.х Vp = 0,5·158·
= 31,6g.
5
Mx * fеек.х. * Vp
Ех = Мх · fequiv.х
4.4. Calculation of the molality concentration.
49
Task. Calculate the molality concentration of the solution prepared with 2g of KOH and 200
g of water.
mx
Solution: The formula for calculating molality concentration: bx=
;
M x * m H 2O
from:
bKOH =
2
=0,18 mol/kg.
56 * 0,2
4.5. Calculation of titer.
Task. Calculate the titer of sulfuric acid, cw = 50% and ρ = 1,4 g/ml.
*
Solution: The formula for calculating the titer of the solution Tx=
100
50 * 1,4
 0,7 g/ml.
from: TH2SO4=
100
4.6. Relationship of different ways of expressing concentration.
Task. Find the molar concentration equivalent of sulfuric acid solution with mass fraction of
10% (density 1,22, fekv. = 1/2).
Solution: The formula for the transition from the mass of the particle to a molar
concentration equivalent to:
 *  * 10 10 * 1,22 * 10
Сх =
=
 2,38(mol/l)
Mx * fеек.
98 * 0,5
5. Task to consolidate the material:
5.1. Calculate the mass of water that needs to be added to 50g of sodium chloride solution
with mass fraction NaCl 2% for solution with mass fraction of NaCl 0,9%.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.2. Mass fraction of sulfuric acid in solution 3,2%. Calculate the molar concentration
equivalent of sulfuric acid in the solution (ρ = 1,02 g / ml).
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
50
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.3. For the introduction of the patient in general anesthesia using sodium oxybutyrate that
comes in 10 ml vials in a mass fraction of substance 20%, weight 60 kg patient. The drug must
enter the rate of 70 mg/kg. How many ml must enter the patient?
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Table regard the expression of different methods of concentration
Method of
assessing the
content of the
solute
Mass fraction,

Molar
concentration,
См
Normality, CN
Тiter, Тх

—
Cм 
См,
Сн,
Т,
mol/ l
mol/ l
g/ml
ω
10  ω(%)  ρ
Mx
10  ω(%)  ρ
Ex
ωρ
Tx 
100
Cн 
Cм  M x
10  ρ
ω
Cм  E x
10  ρ
ω
100  T
ρ
Сн
Z
Cм 
1000  T
Мx
Сн 
1000  T
Ex
Cм 
—
Сн  Z  C м
Tx 
Cм  M x
1000
—
Tx 
Сн  E x
1000
—
6. Laboratory work.
General rules for preparation of solutions.
Calculate the mass of material (which) is weighed on an hour-glass on the scale. Solvent
measure of on dimensional glass. Suspended matter is transferred to a volumetric flask. Remains
of the substance of the hour glass wash away solvent from the measuring cup.
íàâàæêà
\
or
1
/
2
H2O
1._____________________
2.____________________
3
3. _____________________
51
Experiment 1. Preparation of solutions with a given mass fraction.
At 135g water 15g salt is dissolved. What is the mass fraction of salt (in %) in the solution?
Calculations:
=
m(соли )
* 100% ;
m( раствора)
1)msolution=mH2O+msalt ; msolution=135g+15g=150g ;
2)=
15
* 100  10%
150
Make on the above mentioned methods.
Experiment 2. Preparation of solutions with a given mass fraction for mixing the two
solutions.
Calculate the volume of solution with mass fraction of sulfuric acid 56% (ρ = 1,460 g/ml)
and water volumewhich are necessary for the preparation of 100 ml with a mass fraction of
sulfuric acid 20% (ρ = 1,143 g/ml)
Solution: When mixing solutions, using the "rule of the cross" (diagonal scheme "). In the
center of the cross record the mass fraction of solution (w3), which must be prepared. From left
record the concentration of w1 and w2. Right record the difference between w3 and w2, w3 and
w1.
The scheme has the general form:
In the example above:
According to the scheme by 20 solution with w = 56%, you must take 36 water and the
weight of the solution is:
m= ρ·V=1,143·100=114,3g,
that according to the scheme is 20+36 = 56
Mass sulfuric acid, which is necessary to prepare the solution can be found in the proportion
of:
114,3 g of 20% of solution is 56
Xg
20
Xg = 114,3 · 20/56 = 40,82 g
and the volume of the resulting solution: V=
m


40,82
 28 (ml)
1,460
To prepare the solution to water:
m(H2O) = V(H2O) = 114,30-40 ,82 = 73,48 g (ml)
Reliability of calculations and preparation of sulfuric acid test by
determining the density of this solution, which is set by using a hydrometer.
The tabulated data for the density to determine the concentration.
Volumetric flask
52
Experiment 3. Prepare 0,1 M solution of calcium chloride
dissolving crystalogydrate.
Calculate the mass CaC12 · 6H2O, which is necessary for the
preparation of 50 ml of 0,1 M solution.
Calculations: М(CaCl2)=111 g/mol
М(CaCl2 · 6Н2О)=219 g/mol
m(CaCl2) = CM · V(l) · М = 0,1 mol/l · 0,05l · 111 g/mol = 0,555g
111 g/mol CaCl2
219 g/mol CaCl2 · 6H2O
0,555g
Х
X = 1,095g
To prepare 50 ml of 0,1 M solution of calcium chloride it is
necessary to take 1,095 g crystalohydrate.
Hydrometers
Experience 4. Preparation of solution cultivation of a more concentrated solution.
How much salt solution with mass fraction of 18% is to be added to 46g of water to form a
15% solution.
Calculations: Let m (solution salt 18%) = xg , then:
0,18х =(46 + х) · 0,15
х=
230
To prepare the 15% solution with w = 18% should take 230g of 18% solution and 46g water.
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
53
Topic 13: Colligative properties of solutions. Osmos.
1. Actuality of the topic: Osmosis and osmotic pressure plays an important role in
osmoregulation - the aggregate of physical, chemical and biological processes that ensure
constancy of the osmotic pressure of interstitial fluid, blood, lymph and distribution of water
between the tissues and cells. Calculation of osmotic pressure used in the manufacture of
solutions for intravenous medications and eye drops.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. The phenomenon of diffusion in solution. Semipermeable membrane. Osmosis.
2.2. Osmotic law Van't Hof equation for nonelectrolytes and electrolytes.
2.3. Isotonic coefficient, its relation with the degree of dissociation. Solutions: isotonic,
hypotonic, hypertonic.
2.4.The biological significance of osmosis: izoosmiya, hemolysis, plasmolysis, turgor.
2.5. Raoult's law. Using methods ebulioskopii and cryoscopes to determine the molar mass
substances.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture notes.
3.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK 2003 .- with. 170-176.
3.3. L.P. Gardening, V.G. Huhryansky, A.J. Tsyganenko, Biophysical Chemistry, 1985, p.
49-56.
3.4. M.I. Ravitch-Scherbo, Vladimir Novikov, Physical and Colloid Chemistry, 1975, p. 3744, 224-226.
3.5. Vladimir Grigoryev and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 167-174.
4. Standard test solution control.
Task: Calculate Posm. sodium chloride solution with mass fraction 5,85% at 0° C. The degree
of dissociation of sodium chloride 0,96, and ρ = 1,04 g / ml.
Solution: We translate the mass fraction in the molar concentration.
10 *  (%) *  10 * 5,85 * 1,04
С=

 1 mol/l
M
58,5
Let’s calculate the isotonic coefficient:
і = 1 +  ( n – 1) = 0,96(2-1) = 1,96
Osmotic pressure is calculated using the formula for the electrolytes:
Роsm. = іCRT = 1,96 ·1mol/l · 0,082atm/mol · К · 273К = 4,36atm
5. Task to consolidate the material:
5.1. How many moles of nonelectrolyte placed in 1 liter of solution at 0° C if it Posm. =
1atm?
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
54
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.2. Is there an isotonic solution of urea and acetic acid, by mass 0,6%, if the degree of
dissociation of acetic acid is equal to 0,01, while the density of solutions - 1 g/ml.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.3. Determine the molar concentration of sucrose solution, which is isotonic relative to blood.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.4. Calculate the isotonic coefficient of calcium chloride solution, if the degree of
dissociation of calcium chloride is equal to 68%.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
55
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Laboratory work.
Experiment 1. Observation osmosis.
Osmometer is filled with sugar, which is colored magenta and is immersed in a vessel with
water. Mark entry-level solution in osmometers, and then the level of solution in 0,5 hours to
explain the phenomenon that you observe.
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
Conclusion: h - ________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
Experiment 2. Getting inorganic semipermeable membrane. In the test tube is poured 2 ml
of copper sulfate crystals were added yellow blood salt (not stirred). After 20 min. note the result
of experience. Write the reaction equation and explain what connection there is a semipermeable
membrane and why is growing "cell".
Equation:___________________________________________
_______________________________________
___________________________________________
Conclusion: ________________________________________
before:
after:
Experiment 3. Arborization.
In a glass poured into 5 ml of sodium silicate solution and make crystals NіCl2, CaCl2 and
MnCl2 (not stirred). Write the reactions and indicate what compounds are semi-permeable
membrane.
Equation:__________________________________________
_________________________________________
__________________________________________
Conclusion: ________________________________________
56
Experience 4. Hemolysis and plasmolysis eritrotsitov.
In three vials pour:
1 tube 3 ml of 0.2%
solution NaCl three
great drops of blood
tube 2 ml 0,9% y-p
NaCl three great drops
of blood
tube 3 ml of 4% solution
NaCl three great drops of
blood
The tubes are left in the stand for 15 minutes. (Do not mix!). Record the results of the
experiment, explain the phenomena that you observe.
Conclusion: ___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
0,2%
0,9%
4%
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
57
Topic 14: Equilibrium in solutions of weak electrolytes. Solubility product .
1. Actuality of the topic: Knowledge of the theory of electrolytic dissociation makes it
possible to predict the course of chemical reactions that underlie the production and use of drugs.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. Arrhenius theory of electrolytic dissociation and its development Kablukov.
2.2. Strong and weak electrolytes. Equilibrium in solutions of weak electrolytes. The degree
and the dissociation constant. Law Ostwald dilution.
2.3. The main tenets of the theory of strong electrolytes. Ion activity, the activity coefficient.
2.4. Equilibrium in solutions of soluble compounds. Solubility and solubility product. Terms
of precipitation and dissolution of the precipitate.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture material.
3.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 176-196.
3.3. N.L. Glinka, General Chemistry, 1983 with. 223-249.
3.4. Olenin S., Fadeev, G.N., Inorganic Chemistry, M.: 1979, p.126-138.
3.5. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, p. 173-203.
4. Standards of solving problems:
4.1. Dissociation constant bromnovatistoy acid (NBrO) equals 2, the I·10-9. Compute its
degree of dissociation in 0.01 M solution.
Solution: The law of Ostwald dilution:
=
KД
СM
; then =
2,1 * 10 9
= 4,58·10-4 ; =4,58·10-4, or =0,046% .
2
1 * 10
4.2. Solubility product of silver chromate Ag2CrO4 equal to 1,1·10-12. Calculate the solubility
of this salt in mol/l, g/l.
Solution: Write down the equation of the electrolytic dissociation of silver chromate:
Ag2CrО4 ↔ 2Ag+ + CrО42and expression of its solubility product:
PR[Ag2CrO4] =[ Ag+]2 · [CrО42-]
Denote by S the solubility Ag2CrO4 mol/l of chromate ions and 2S mol/l silver cations. These
values are the concentration of ions substituted in the expression of the solubility product
Ag2CrO4:
РR[Ag2CrO4] =(2S)2 · S=4S3
Calculate the solubility of salt in mol/l:
S= 3
ДР
=
4
3
1,1 * 10 12
=6,5·10-5 mol/l.
4
Since the equilibrium concentration of chromate ions in the solution is numerically equal to
the solubility of silver chromate, the solubility Ag2CrO4 equal to 6,5·10-5 mol/liter. Multiplying
the solubility of the salt on its molar mass, calculate the solubility of silver chromate in g/l:
(Ag2CrО4) = 6,5· 10-5· 331,8 = 2,2 ·10-2g/l.
58
5. Task to consolidate the material:
5.1. The solubility of silver chloride at 25° C equals 1,34·10-4mol/l. Calculate the solubility
product of this salt.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.2. The degree of dissociation of nitric acid in 0,01 M solution is 18%. Calculate the
dissociation constant.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.3. Write the molecular and ionic equation interaction solutions: hydration of ammonia and
acetic acid, copper sulfate (II) with sodium sulfide.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.4. Write to the expression of the solubility product of aluminum hydroxide. Specify the
conditions for the formation and dissolution of the precipitate Al (OH)3.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
59
Laboratory work.
Experiment 1. Ionic reaction.
1 tube
2 cr. Nа2СO3 (С = 0,5mol/l)
3 cr. НСl (С = 2mol/l)
2 tubes
2 cr. Nа2СO3 (C = 0,5 mol/l)
3 cr. СН3СООН (С = 2 mol/l)
Explain your observations. Write the molecular and ionic equation.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
Experiment 2. Terms of precipitation.
1 tube
2 cr. FeSO4 (С = 0,5mol/l)
4 cr. Н2S (С = 2mol/l)
2 tubes
2 cr. FeSO4 (C = 0,5mol/l)
4 cr. Na2S (С = 0,5mol/l)
Explain the formation of sediment in one case and its absence in another. Write the
molecular and ionic equation.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
Experiment 3. Conditions of dissolution precipitation.
1 tube
2 cr. CuSO4 (С = 0,5 mol/l)
4 cr. Na2S (С = 0,5 mol/l)
4 cr. HCl (C = 2 mol/l)
2 tubes
2 cr. FeSO4 (C = 0,5 mol/l)
4 cr. Na2S (С = 0,5 mol/l)
4 cr. HCl (C = 2 mol/l)
Explain your observations. Write the molecular and ionic equation.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
60
Topic 15: The theory of strong electrolytes. Dissociation of water. Acidity.
1. Actuality of the topic: Assessing the acidity of the medium is of great importance for the
progress of most chemical and enzymatic processes for the state of biological fluids of the
human body.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. The main tenets of the theory of strong electrolytes. Activity, activity coefficient, ionic
strength solutions of strong electrolytes.
2.2 Dissociation of water. Application of the law of mass action the equilibrium dissociation
of water. Dissociation constant.
2.3. Ionic product of water. Evaluation of the acidity of the environment and its biological
significance.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture material.
3.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 189-196.
3.3. Grigorieva, V.V. and others General Chemistry, 1991
3.4. Glinka, N.L. General Chemistry, 1983
3.5. Levitin E.Y. etc. The Workshop of General and Inorganic Chemistry, 1998, p. 46-51.
4. Task to consolidate the material:
4.1. Determine the equilibrium concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in 0,1 M
solution of HNO3.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4.2. Calculate the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution of NaOH, when pH = 12.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4.3. Determine the concentration of hydroxide ions in 0,01 M solution of NH4OH (Kd
(NH4OH) = 2·10-5).
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
61
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4.4. Determine the concentration of hydroxide ions in the solution of 0,001 M HNO2 (Kd
(HNO2) = 4·10-4).
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4.5. Determine the pH of 0,001 M solution of Ba(OH)2.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4.6. Determine the equilibrium concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in the
0,01 N solution of H2SO4.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Laboratory work
Experiment 1. Determination of pH using universal indicator paper.
In one test tube pour 2 ml of HCl, the second - 2ml NaOH. In each dip tape of universal
indicator paper, then draw and compare with the color scale. Note the results.
62
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
[H +] mol
← increase the acidity increases alkalinity →
pH
reaction of solution
weakly weakly
strongly
acidic
alkaline
alkaline
Neutral
Experiment 2. Determination of pH using a solution of universal indicator.
To 3ml of test solution (1, 2, 3) add 2 drops of universal indicator. Compare the color with a
color scale to determine the pH.
№
solution
1.
strongly
acidic
Colour
2.
3.
pH
Conclusion:________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
63
Topic 16: The hydrogen of the exponent. pH
1. Actuality of the topic: Effects of varied biochemical catalysts, as well as specific
biochemical processes associated with a certain pH. Knowledge of the laws that determine the
pH of the medium, provide an opportunity to judge the nature of the processes that occur in the
body.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. The theory of acids and bases of the Arrhenius and its limitations.
2.2. Protolytic theory of acids and bases of Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis electron theory.
Quantitative characteristics of strength of acids and bases (pKa and pKb).
2.3. Hydrogen index (pH) of solutions of acids, bases and salts.
2.4. Calculation of pH for solutions of strong and weak acids and bases.
2.5. The biological significance of pH.
2.6. Indicators, their mechanism of action, the pK and the interval of the transition color
indicator.
2.7. Determination of pH: the method of adsorption photometry method visual comparing the
intensity of staining solution.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture notes.
3.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 191-196.
3.3. L.P. Gardening, V.G. Huhryansky, A.J. Tsyganenko, Biophysical Chemistry, 1985, p.
75-77.
3.4. M.I. Ravitch-Scherbo, Vladimir Novikov, Physical and Colloid Chemistry, 1975, p.7788.
3.5. Vladimir Grigoryev and others General Chemistry, 1991, p. 189-192.
4. Standard test solution control.
4.1. Calculate of pH of the solutions.
Task. Calculate the pH of the solution with the concentration of hydrogen ions 4,2·10-5mol/
liter.
Decision: [H+] = 4,2 ·10-5; рн = -lg[H+] = -lg4,2·10-5 = 5-lg4,2 = 4,38
4.2. Calculation the pH of solutions of strong and weak electrolytes.
Task. Calculate the pH of the hydrochloric acid solution with C=0,15 mol/l sodium
hydroxide solution with C = 0,2 mol/l, α = 1.
Decision:
1) рН = -lg[H+]; [H+] = ·Сacid = 1 ·0,15 = 0,15mol/l; рн = -lg1,5·10-1 = 1-lg1,5 = 0,824
2) рН + рОН = 14; рН = 14 - рОН; [OH-] = ·Cbase. = 1· 0,2 = 0,2 mol/l; рОН = -lg[ОH-] =
-lg0,2 = 0,7; рН = 14-0,7 = 13,3.
4.3. Calculation of pH of the solutions of weak electrolytes.
Task. Calculate the pH of formic acid С = 0,1 mol/l, Кg = 1,8·10-4.
K
K
Decision: рН = -lg[H+]; [H+] = · C; К = 2·C; =
; [H+] =
· C = K *C ;
C
C
pН = -lg
K * C = lg 1,8 * 10 4 * 0,1 = -lg4,24·10-3 = 2,37.
64
4.4. Calculate the pH of solutions after dilution with water.
Task. What will be the pH of the water, when it topped up to 80 ml 20 ml sodium hydroxide
solution С = 0,1 mol/l,  = 1.
Decision: рН(water) = 7. After divorced V2 = 80 + 20 = 100ml
V
20 * 0,1
V1 C1 = V2 C2; C2 = 1 ·С1 =
= 0,02; pOH = -lg[OH-];
100
V2
[OH ] =·C = 1·0,02 = 2·10-2, pOH = -lg2·10-2 = 1,7;
pН = 14-1,7 = 12,3; pН = 12,3-7 = 5,30.
4.5. Calculation of equilibrium concentration of hydrogen ions, if known pH.
Task. Calculate [H+] of blood, if the pH = 7,36.
Solution: Find the antilog of 7,36, [H+] = 4.4 ·10-8mol / liter
5. Task to consolidate the material:
Task 1. Calculate the pH of the solution with mass fraction of 1% hydrochloric acid.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Task 2. Calculate the pH of the solution of ammonium hydroxide С = 0,5 mol/l ( = 0,01).
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Task 3. How to change the pH of the solution, if a 10ml of nitric acid with C = 0,1 mol/l ( =
0,86), pour 50ml of water?
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
65
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Task 4. Calculate the pH of the solution obtained after mixing equal volumes of sulfuric acid
with CH = 0,20 mol/l sodium hydroxide solution with CH = 0,50 mol/liter.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Laboratory work.
Experiment 1. Determination of pH using universal indicator.
In one test tube pour 2 ml of HCl, the second - 2ml NaOH. In each tube, immerse the strip
universal indicator paper, and then compare to color chart. Record the results of the
determination.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
Experiment 2. Determination of pH using pH meter.
(Must be under the guidance of a teacher.) Write the results of determination.
pH meter –
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
66
Topic 17: The buffer system.
1. Actuality of the topic: Buffer systems support the constancy of the reaction environment
of biological fluids in living organisms. Buffer systems are widely used for the practical creation
of an environment with a certain pH.
2. Key questions of the theme:
2.1. Determination of buffer system.
2.2. The main types of buffer system.
2.3. Basic equations of the buffer systems. Formula Henderson-Hasselbalha.
2.4. The mechanism of action of buffer system.
2.5. Buffer capacity. Factors on which it depends.
2.6. Buffer systems of the body human.
2.7. The biological significance of buffer systems.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture material.
3.2. L.P. Gardening, V.G. Huhryansky, A.Y. Tsyganenko, Biophysical Chemistry, 1985, p.
70-90.
3.3. M.I. Ravitch-Scherbo, Vladimir Novikov, Physical and Colloid Chemistry, 1975, p.9097.
3.4. Vladimir Grigoryev and others General Chemistry, 1991, p.190-191.
4. Standard test solution control.
4.1. Calculating pH of buffer system.
Task. Calculate the pH of buffer system, which consists of 100 ml of dilute acetic acid, C =
0,1 mol/l and 200 ml of sodium acetate C = 0,2 mol/l, Kd (acid) = 1,75·10-5.
Cн ( сол и) * V( сол и)
V ( сол и)
Solution: рН = -lg Кd + lg
= -lg1,75 ·10-5+lg
= 5,36.
Сн ( к  ты) * V( к  ты)
V ( к  ты)
4.2. Quantification of components for the preparation of buffer systems with a certain pH.
Task. Calculate the volume of sodium acetate C = 0,1 mol/l and the amount of acetic acid
with C = 0,1 mol/l, which must be mixed to make 3l of acetate buffer рн = 5,24 (Кd (acid) =
=1,75·10-5).
Cн ( сол и) * V( сол и)
V ( сол и)
Solution: рН= -lg Кд+lg
= lg1,75·10-5+lg
;
Сн ( к  ты) * V( к  ты)
V ( к  ты)
lg
V ( сол и)
V ( к  ты)
= 5,24-4,76 = 0,48.
Antilog of 0,48 is equal to 3. [V (salt)] / [V (acid)] = 3/1. So you need 3 parts of salt solution
and one part acid solution for the preparation of buffer systems with pH = 5,24. The volume of
salt is: 3000 · 3/4 = 2250ml, and acid 3000 · 1/4 = 750ml.
5. Task to consolidate the material:
Task 1. Calculate the pH of buffer solution that contains 3,6 ml of ammonium chloride solution C
= 0,2 mol/l and 2,6 ml of ammonium hydroxide solution С = 0,1 mol/l (Кd(NH4OH)=1,8·10-5).
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
67
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Task 2. Calculate the volume of acetic acid with C = 0,1 mol/l sodium acetate C = 0,1 mol/l,
which must be mixed to obtain 150 ml solution рН = 4,94. (Кд (СН3СООН) = 1,75·10-5).
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Laboratory work.
Experiment 1. Preparation of buffer systems and the calculation of pH.
№ Composition of buffer systems (ml)
Colour
Approximate pH
Estimated pH
СН3СООН : СН3СООNa
1
9,0
: 1,0
2
1,0
: 9,0
To 1ml of solution obtained by adding a drop of universal indicator. Determine the
approximate pH of a color table and calculate the pH of the formula:
Cн ( сол и) * V( сол и)
рН(solution№1) = -lg Кд+lg
= -lg1,75 ·10-5+lg ___ =
Сн ( к  ты) * V( к  ты)
рН(solution №2) = -lg Кд+lg
Cн ( сол и) * V( сол и)
Сн ( к  ты) * V( к  ты)
= -lg1,75 ·10-5+lg ___ =
Experiment 2. Effect of acid and alkali on the pH of the buffer solution.
9 ml of solution number 1 obtained in experiment number 1 pour equally into three tubes: in
the first tube was added 3 drops of hydrochloric acid with C = 0,1 mol/l, the second - 3 drops of
sodium hydroxide with C =0,1 mol/l. In each tube to 2 drops of methyl red indicator.Compare
the color of the solution and draw conclusions.
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
68
Experiment 3. Effect of dilution on the pH of the buffer solution.
In the 2 tubes evenly pour the solution number 2, obtained in experiment number 1. In the
first tube to 2 ml of water. To each tube add 2 drops of methyl red indicator. Compare the color
and draw conclusions.
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Experience 4.
Prepare 10ml of acetate buffer with a calculated pH 5,24 and determine its approximate pH
(see reference 4.2.).
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
69
Topic 18: Hydrolysis.
1. Actuality of the topic: The ability to assess the pH in aqueous solutions of various salts
necessary for future pharmacists in the analysis, production and preservation of medicinal
products.
2. Issues that are examined:
2.1. Hydrolysis of the (ruling).
2.2. The mechanism of cation and anion hydrolysis.
2.3. Typical hydrolysis (ionic and molecular equation).
2.4. Hydrolysis of acid salts; joint hydrolysis of salts, of compounds with covalent bonds.
2.5. Features of the hydrolysis of salts of bismuth, antimony, tin.
2.6.Quantitative characterization of hydrolysis: the degree of hydrolysis constant, their
relationship and the influence of factors.
2.7. The role of hydrolysis during the metabolism of drugs in the analysis of medicinal
products, their production technology and conservation.
3. Literature:
3.1. Lecture notes.
3.2. Levitin E.Y. and other general and inorganic chemistry. Textbook. Vineyard: NEW
BOOK, 2003 .- with. 197-209.
3.3. Grigorieva, V.V. etc. Inorganic Chemistry, 1991., p. 195-199.
3.4. Glinka N.L. General chemistry.
4. Standard test solution control.
Calculations of pH in solutions of salts
- salt is formed by a strong acid and weak base (NH4Cl, Fe(NO3)3) Kb, Kd1, Kd2, Kd3. If a lot
of acid basis, to determine the average pH of salt should be considered the last Kd of a weak base
K H 2O * C M ( сол и)
С
pH=- lg
;
CМ= Н .
К Д ( основ ания)
z
- Salt formed a strong base and weak acid (K2CO3, Na3PO4) Ka Kd1, Kd2, Kd3. If a weak
polybasic acid is then to calculate the pOH of salt is necessary to consider its accompanying Kd
of a weak acid
K H 2O * C M ( соли)
pOH=- lg
К Д ( к  ты)
pН = 14 – pOH
Task.Calculate pH of 0,5 N sodium carbonate, if Kd1(H2CO3) = 4,5 · 10-7,Kd2 (H2CO3)= 4,7·1011
Decision: Sodium carbonate - a salt formed by a weak dibasic acid, therefore, the first stage of
hydrolysis is obtained acid salt and strong base. The further course of hydrolysis prevents the
accumulation in the solution of hydroxide ions.
CO32- + H2O ↔ HCO3- + OHNa2CO3 + H2O ↔ NaHCO3 + NaOH
pOH=- lg
K H 2O * C M ( соли)
К Д ( к  ты)
=- lg
Cм =
0,5
СН
=
= 0,25 mol/l
2
z
10 14 * 0,25
=2,14
4,7 * 10 11
70
рН = 14-2,14 = 11,86
Task. Write to the ion-molecule reaction equation K3PO4 hydrolysis (first stage), and define pH.
Decision: К3РО4 ↔ 3К++РО43РО43- +НОН ↔ НРО42- +ОНК3РО4+Н2О ↔ К2НРО4+КОН
рН > 7, alkaline condition
Task. Calculate the degree of hydrolysis of sodium bisulfite СN = 0,1mol/l (Кd1(H2SO3) = 1,6·10-2;
Кd2(H2SO3) = 6,3·10-8).
Decision: NaHSO3 ↔ Na++HSO3HSO3- +HOH ↔ H2SO3+OHNaHSO3+H2O ↔ H2SO3+NaOH
K H 2O
10 14
K
6,25 * 10 13
-13

h=
; Кh =
=
6,25·10
;
h=
=2,5·10-6
K Д 1 1,6 * 10  2
C
0,1
5. Task to consolidate the material:
5.1. Write to the ion-molecule reaction equation for hydrolysis of K2CO3, Bi(NO3)3.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.2. Calculate the pH of the solution, 50 ml contains 0,214 g of ammonium chloride.
Kd(NH4OH) = 1,8·10-5.
Data:
Solution:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Answer:_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Laboratory work:
Experiment 1. Salts formed by strong acids and strong bases.
With the help of universal indicator paper determine pH of 0,1 N sodium chloride, potassium
sulfate and calcium nitrate.
Draw a conclusion about the ability of cations and anions of salts to hydrolysis.
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Experiment 2. Salts formed by strong bases and weak acids.
a) Use the universal indicator paper to determine pH of 0,1 N sodium acetate. Write to the
ion-molecule reaction equation for the hydrolysis and calculate Kh. Kd (CH3COOH) = 1,75·10-5.
Draw a conclusion about the ability of the anions of weak acid hydrolysis.
71
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
K H 2O
Кh =

K Д (к  ты)
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b) Pour in one tube 5-6 drops 0,5 N sodium carbonate solution, and the second tube the
same volume of 0,5 N solution of sodium sulphite. Add to each tube a drop of phenolphthalein
and compare the color of the solution. Write the equation of ion-molecule reactions of
hydrolysis.
Calculate the degree of hydrolysis constant, the concentration of hydroxide ions and pH of
salt solutions. The results obtained record in the table. ((H2CO3) = 4,7·10-11; (H2SO3) = 6,3·10-8)
Formula of
salt
Constanta of
hydrolysis,
Кh
The degree of
hydrolysis,
h
Concentration of
hydroxide ion, mol/l
рН
Na2CO3
Na2SO3
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
K Г ( Na2CO3 ) 
h
К Н 2О
КД

K Г ( Na2 SO3 ) 
K
=
C
h
[OH–] =
К Н 2О
КД

K
=
C
[OH–] =
pOH( Na CO )   lg
2
3
K H O  Cм ( солі)

К Д ( кти )
2
pOH( Na SO )   lg
2
3
K H O  Cм ( солі)

К Д ( к ти )
2
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________
72
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
c) In the two test tubes add: in the first 5-6 drops of 0,1 N solution of sodium bicarbonate and
a drop of phenolpthalein, the second - the same volume of 0,1 N sodium hydrogen sulfite
solution and a drop of phenolphthalein. Note the color of the solution. Write the equation of ionmolecule reactions of hydrolysis. Calculate the constants of hydrolysis of salts, and compare
them with values Kd2 corresponding acids. Calculate the pH of salt solutions. Fill in the table
(see benchmarks).
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Formula of
salt
Constanta of
hydrolysis,
Кh
The degree of
hydrolysis,
h
Concentration of
hydroxide ion, mol/l
рН
NaHCO3
NaHSO3
Experiment 3. Salts formed by weak bases and strong acids. With the help of universal
indicator paper, define the reaction medium in 0,1 N solution of ammonium chloride. Write the
ion-molecule reaction equation for the hydrolysis and calculate Kh. Cd (NH4OH) = 1,8·10-5.
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
К Н 2О
K Г ( NH 4Cl ) 

КД
Experience 4. Joint hydrolysis of salts.
a) Make the tube 5-6 drops of 0,1 N salt solution of chromium (III) and add drops of 0,1 N
sodium carbonate solution until a gray-green sediment. Similar experiments were performed
with a 0,1 N solution of aluminum salt, adding to it drops 0,1 N solution of sodium sulfide to
form aprecipitate Carr and gas evolution.
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
73
b) to 3-4 drops of 0,1 N solution of sulphate of copper (II) add drops of 0,1 N sodium
carbonate solution until a light green precipitate basic salts. Write the ion-molecule reaction
equation for hydrolysis. Draw a conclusion about the possible formation of basic salts in the
hydrolysis of multicharged cations of weak bases.
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Experience 5. The degree of hydrolysis on the temperature.
To 5-6 drops 0,1 N sodium acetate add a drop of phenolpthalein. Note the color of the
solution. Place the tube into a beaker of hot water, check the color change. Cool the solution.
Does this change the color? Write to the ion-molecule reaction equation for the hydrolysis of salt
when heated. Make a conclusion about the effect of temperature on the degree of hydrolysis and
the displacement of the equilibrium hydrolysis reaction.
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Experiment 6. Special cases of hydrolysis.
In test tube make 3-4 drops of 0,1 N salt solution of antimony (III) or bismuth (III) and add
drops of water until a white precipitate oksosalt. To the precipitate add 1-2 drops of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and observe the dissolution of sediment. Write the ionic and molecular
equation for the reaction of hydrolysis of salts in the first and second stages. Make a conclusion
about the effect of dilution and acidification on the equilibrium hydrolysis reaction.
Equation of hydrolysis:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
"Pass / fail grading"
"____"_________________ 20__.
_____________ (Signature of the teacher)
74
The list of questions to control work of number 1 on the theme: "Solutions."
1. The doctrine of the solutions. The essence of the guidelines: a solution, solvent, soluble
substance. Solutions of gases, rare, solid substances. Solubility. Water is one of the most
common solvents in pharmaceutical practice. The role of aqueous solutions in the life of
organisms. Chemical interaction of components in the formation of liquid and solid solutions
(D.I. Mendeleyev, S. Kurnakov). Thermal effect of the solutes. Gibbs energy change in the
formation of solutions. Non-aqueous solutions. The solubility of gases in liquids and its
dependence on temperature, partial pressure (Dalton's law of Henry), the concentration of open
water in the electrolyte (the law Sechenov). The solubility of liquids and solids in the water. The
concept of saturated, unsaturated, jaded solutions. Methods of expressing concentration of
solutions: mass fraction of substance in solution, the molar equivalent to (normal) and molality
concentration. Titer of the solution.
2. Properties of solutions of nonelectrolytes. Electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. Osmosis and
osmotic pressure in dilute solutions of nonelectrolytes. The law of Van't Hoff. Raoult's law,
hypo-, hyper-and isotonic solutions. The role of osmosis and osmotic pressure in biological
systems.
3. Properties of electrolyte solutions. Dependence of osmotic pressure on the concentration
of the electrolyte solution. Isotonic coefficient. Arrhenius theory of electrolytic dissociation and
its development Kablukov I.A. The concept of strong and weak electrolytes. Solutions of weak
electrolytes. Dissociation of weak electrolytes as a result of the limiting polarization of the
electrons of a covalent bond under the influence of polar water molecules. Application of the law
of mass action to a state of equilibrium in solutions of weak electrolytes. Dissociation constant.
The degree of dissociation and its dependence on the concentration - dilution law Ostwald. The
stepped nature of dissociation. Displacement of equilibrium in solutions of weak electrolytes.
Dissociation of water. Application of the law of mass action the equilibrium dissociation of
water. Dissociation constant and ionic product of water. Hydrogen index (pH) of solutions of
acids, bases and salts. Equilibrium between the precipitate and the solution tyazhelorastvorimyh
electrolytes. Their solubility and solubility product. Conditions of deposition and dissolution of
sediment electrolyte. The main tenets of the theory of strong electrolytes. Activity, activity
coefficient, ionic strength solutions of strong electrolytes.The theory of acids and bases of the
Arrhenius and its limitations. Protolytic theory of acids and bases of Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis
electron theory. Quantitative characteristics of strength of acids and bases (pKa and pKb).
4. Calculation tasks on the topics:
-ways of expressing solution concentration;
-osmosis;
-pH solutions of strong and weak electrolytes;
-pH buffer solutions, pH of salt solutions, which are subject to hydrolysis by-product of the
solubility.
75