Download The counterpoint of phonology and morphology(音系学和形态学的

徐 州 工 程 学 院 教 案
年至
年
第
学期
第
周
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Morphology
课题名称（含教材章节）
：
教学目的和要求：本章介绍了形态学的研究范围、语素的定义、几组重要概念之间的关系或区
别（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀
之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）、直接成分
分析、以及构词法。通过本章的学习，了解并掌握形态学的研究范围、语素的定义、几组重要概
念之间的关系或区别（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈
折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子
之间）
、直接成分分析、以及构词法。
教学重点：语素的定义以及几组重要概念之间的关系或区别（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘
着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、
语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）
。
教学难点：直接成分分析方法以及构词法。
教
学
内
容
（ 要
点 ）
Definition of Morphology
Morpheme
Classification of Morpheme
Word formation
IC analysis
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徐 州 工 程 学 院 教 案 纸
What is word
Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by
native-speakers, whether spoken or written
Three senses of “word”:
•
A physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound
segments or letters between tow pauses or blanks. Phonological and
orthographic(书写上)
Problem: When liaison and contracted form occur
2) The common factor underlying a set of forms: boy, boys; check, checks,
checked, checking
Lexeme(词位): the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical
system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts
Write---write, writes, wrote, writing, written
Fat---fat, fatter, fattest
3) A grammatical unit: sentence—clause — word group/phrase —word
—morpheme
Problem: free morphemes or words: black, bird, air, craft, town, hall
Identification of words:
•
Stability: the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be
rearranged chairman﹡manchair
The chairman looked at the audience. / The audience looked at the
chairman.
2) Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a
word even when there are several parts in a word.
disappointment
dis + appoint + ment
Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.
3) A minimum free form: first suggested by Leonard Bloomfiled
Sentence---the maximum free form
Word---the minimum free form, the smallest unit that can constitute, by
itself, a complete utterance.
e.g. ----Is Jane coming this evening?
----Possibly.
Hi, Darling, Shit
Dispute: Not all word-like units would satisfy this criterion
a, the
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----What is missing in a sentence such as ‘Dog is barking’?
---- A.
Classification of words
•
Variable and invariable words
Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of
grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the
word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat,
mats
Invariable words: those
words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have
inflective endings.
2) Grammatical words and lexical words
Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions,
prepositions, articles, pronouns
Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance,
action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words)
and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a
sentence together(function words).
3) Closed-class words and open-class words:
Grammatical---lexical words / closed-class---open-class words
Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New
members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions,
articles, etc.
Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or
unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
Note: The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems. Prepositions:
regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of,
be means of
Auxiliary verbs
4) Word class: It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional
grammar.
Eight or nine word classes are established: noun, pronoun, adjective,
verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article.
Some new categories:
•
Particles(助词): the infinite marker(to), the negative marker(not), the
subordinate units in phrasal verbs(get by, do up, look back)
b. Auxiliaries(助动词): used to be regarded as verbs, linguists tend to
define them as a separate word class.
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The difference between a verb and an auxiliary, see examples on Page 82.
c. Pro-form(代词形式): refers to the closed sets of items which can be
used to substitute for a nominal group (名词词组)or a single noun.
Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.
Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.
Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.
Pro-locative(代处所词): Jame’s hiding there, behind the door.
d. Determiners(限定词): words which are used before the noun acting as
head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun
phrase has, e.g. the, a(n), some, all
Quirk, et al. (1985: 253): three subclasses of determiners:
Predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, one-third,
one-fifth
Central determiners: a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some,
any, no, either, neither, my, our, your, his, her, its, their
 Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals(基数词), ordinal numerals(序数
词), general ordinals(一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other,
additional and other quantifiers like many, a few, several, much, little, a
lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, a great number of
 When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they
follow the order of
predeterminers + central determiners + postdeterminers. ﹡their all
trouble , all their trouble
Within each subclass, the members are usually exclusive of each other. ﹡the this boy,
﹡all both girls. But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal
numerals, the first two days, another three weeks
The formation of word
 Morpheme(语素) and morphology(形态学)
Chairman: chair, man
Townhall: town, hall
Boys: boy, -s
Checking: check, -ing
Disappointment: dis-, appoint, -ment
The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves
cannot be further analyzed.
 Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship
between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into
further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the
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meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
 Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by
which words are formed.
Types of morphemes
 1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme
In terms of their capacity of occurring alone
Free morphemes: those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may
constitute words by themselves dog, nation, close
All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.
 Compounds: polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free
morphemes, paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower
Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur alone
temper, -ed
distempered: dis-,
2) Root, affix and stem(词根、词缀和词干)
Poly-morphemic words may be divided into roots and affixes.
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without
total loss of identity. Internationalism
All words contain a root morpheme.
An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used
only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).
Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified
into three subtypes, prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), and infix(中缀).
 Prefix: para-, mini- un Suffix: -ise, -tion
 Infix: foot/ feet, goose/geese
A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound.
Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the
base forms of words, e.g.
 black(black, blackbird,
blackboard, blacksmith)
Free root morphemes are potentially unlimited in number in a language.
There are relatively few bound root morphemes in English, e.g. –ceive
( receive, perceive, conceive); -mit (remit, permit, commit, submit)
 A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. Sleep and
child
slept and children
 A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an
inflectional affix(屈折词缀) can be added. Friend-in friends, and
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friendship in friendships
3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)
Inflectional affixes add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the
stem, toys, walks, John’s. They serve to produce different forms of a
single word.
In contrast derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning, e.g. cite,
citation; generate, generation
Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach
to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might
not, such as small-smallness, brother-brotherhood.
 Inflectional affixes are conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors
outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence, e.g.
The boy likes to navigate on the internet. Derivational affixes are more
often based on simple meaning distinctions. Clever, cleverness
 Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final
(drums, walks,
Mary’s ).
But derivational affixes can be prefixes (depart, online) or suffixes
(teacher, workable)
Inflection and word formation(屈折变化和词的形成)
 Two fields morphology (形态学) concerns: the study of inflections;
the study of word formation
 1) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through
the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,
finiteness(有定性), aspect(体)and case（格),
 which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they
are attached.
 2) Word formation: the process of word variations signalling lexical
relationships
 A. Compound: those words that consist of more than one lexical
morpheme, the way to join two separate words to produce a single form
 Noun compounds, verb compounds, adjective compounds, preposition
compounds
 The endocentric compound (向心复合词)and the exocentric
compound(离心复合词)
 The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal,
that is it is derived from a verb. The first member is a participant of the
process verb. See examples on Page 90.
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 The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and
V+P, exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. See examples on
Page 90.
 Difference between endocentric and exocentric compounds:
 Endocentric:Bloomfoled’s term for a construction in which at least
one
 element is of the same syntactic class as the whole. E.g. that of raw meat, whose role
in larger constructions is like that of its second element meat; also that of meat and
fish, whose role could be filled by either meat or fish. Also used of compounds: e.g.
blackbird is endocentric since it is a hyponym of bird, while blackcap(another species
of songbird) is not, since it is not a hyponym of cap.
 Exocentric:Bloomfield’s term for a construction in which no element
is of the same syntactic class as the whole: e.g. those of in Washington
or wrote books. Also used of compounds: e.g. pickpocket and hardback
are exocentric compounds since they are not hyponyms of either pick or
pocket, or either hard or back.
 Ways of writing a compound: Compounds can be written as a single
word: wardrobe, bodyguard, seashore. They can also be joined with a
hyphen: wedding-ring, traffic-light, simple-minded. Some can be
written with ordinary spaces between the two parts: washing machine, traffic
island, counter revolutionary.
 B. Derivation: Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.
See examples on Page 91.
 Derivations can make the word class of the original either changed or
unchanged.
 Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open.
See examples on Page 92.
 In English there is usually one productive inflectional affix per word,
but multiple derivational affixes are allowed. See examples on Page 92.
Some words can carry both prefixes and suffixes. See examples on
Page 93.
The counterpoint of phonology and morphology(音系学和
形态学的对立)
 1) Morpheme
and phoneme: A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound
and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. Morphophonology(形
态音系学) or morphophonemics(形态音位学)
 A single phoneme may represent a single morphems, but they are not
identical. See examples on Page 93.
 2) Morphemic structure and phonological structure: Morphemes
may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single
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phoneme.
 3) Allomorph(语素变体): some morphemes have a single form in all
contexts. But a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
E.g. the morpheme that express plurality in English. See examples on
Page 94.
 Like phoneme, morpheme is an abstract unit. Morphemes are put
between braces like
 ｛｝. Take the plural morpheme for example. Page 94.
 Some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes and thus have
different meanings. Examples on Page 95.
 4) Morphophonology or Morphophonemics: a branch of linguistics
referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors
that affect the appearance of morphemes, and, correspondingly, the
grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes.
 It studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.
 A. Phonologically conditioned(音位的限制): The form or shape of
morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.
 For example, the negative morpheme is realized as “in-” or “im-”.
Examples on Page 95. Assimilation occurs.
 Opposite to assimilation, there is Dissimilation(异化作用), which
refers to the influence exercised by one segment upon the articulation
of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. Examples
on Page 95.
 B. Morphologically conditioned(形态的限制): Morphemes can also
be conditioned by morphological factors. Three requirements should be
met:
 1) All the allomorphs should have common meaning, e.g. the plural
morpheme
 2) All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.
 3) Allomorphs that share the common meaning should occur in parallel
formation. Examples on Page 96.
Lexical Change
 1. Lexical change proper (特有的词汇变化)
 1) Invention(新创词语): Kodak, Coke, nylon, granola
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 2) Blending(混成法): a complex form of compounding, in which two
words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the
final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two
words Examples on Page 97-98
 Fusion(溶合法) : Blending on a higher cognitive level
Examples on Page 98
 3) Abbreviation (缩写词): Clipping(截断法)
 A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part,
and cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly. Examples on
page 98-99
 Used for English names: Bob—Robert, Liz—Elizabeth
 Popular in Educational domain: chem—chemistry, exam—examination,
gym—gymnasium, lab—laboratory, math—mathematics
 4) Acronym (缩写词): made up from the first letters of the name of an
organization
EEC, CIA, PLO, UNESCO, WTO, WB
 shortening extremely long word groups in science, technology and
other special fields Aids, EEG, Radar
 5) Back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word formation by
which a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a
longer form already in the language Examples Page 100
 6) Analogical creation (类推构词): It can account for the co-existence
of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English
verbs.
 7) Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages. Greek, Latin,
French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages
101-102
Examples on Page
 Types of borrowing:
 i. Loanwords(借词): Both form and meaning are borrowed with only a
slight adaptation
 ii. Loanblend (混合借词): Part of the form is native and part is
borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed
 iii. Loanshift (转移借词): The meaning is borrowed, but the form is
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native.
 iv. Loan translation (翻译借词): Each morpheme or word is translated
in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called
Calque (仿造词). It may be a word, a phrase, or even a short
sentence.
 2. Phonological change (音位变化): It is related to language variation
in the phonological system of language. It refers to changes in sound
leading to changes in form.
 Some factors that contribute to the formation of new pronunciation:
 1) Loss (脱落): the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in
the phonological system
Examples Page 103
 It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed
vowels. Examples Page 104
 2) Addition (添加): Sounds may also be added to the original sound
sequence.
 3) Metathesis (换位): It is a process involving an alternation in the
sequence of sounds. It had been originally a performance error, which
was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.
 4) Assimilation(同化): It refers to the change of a sound as a result of
the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called
“contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. It could be explained by the
“theory of least effort” (省力理论) Examples Page 105
 “non-contiguous” or “distant” assimilation: Sometimes assimilation
could also occur between two sounds that are not too far separated.
Examples Page 105
 3. Morpho-syntactical change(形态-句法变化)
 1) Morphological change: The words change their forms. Derivational/
inflectional
 the change of the forms of inflectional affixes: the present tense when
the subject is third person singular, the second person singular subject,
the plural forms of nouns, the forms of the second person, the
possessive case Examples on Page 105-106
 2) Syntactical change: double comparative, negation
Page 106
Examples on
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 Split infinitive(分裂不定式)
 Postponed prepositions (介词延后)
 Objective case of relative pronoun (相关代词的宾格)
 Fusion or blending is also involved in the generation of new phrasal
and sentential structures. Example Page 107
 4. Semantic change (语义变化)
 1) Broadening(词义扩大): A process to extend or elevate the meaning
from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one
holiday
 2) Narrowing (缩小): The original meaning of a word can be narrowed
or restricted to a specific sense. Examples on Page 108-109
 3) Meaning shift (词义转移): Its departure from its original domain as
a result of its metaphorical usage.
Bead
 4) Class shift(词性变化): shift the word class
派生）conversion (转换)
zero-derivation (零
engineer
 5) Folk etymology (俗词源): It refers to a change in form of a word or
phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or
meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms
mistakenly taken to be analogous.
5. Orthographic change (拼写变化): Changes at the graphic level
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