Download REVIEW GUIDE 2016

AP Review Material 2016
PROLOGUEPrescientific period- Socrates, Aristotle, Plato debated nature v. nurture, where the mind was and the relationship between thought and behavior
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John Locke / Tabula Rasa – at birth mind is a blank slate…Watson “give me a dozen healthy babies and I can make them into anything (doctor, beggar)
Meta-analysis- combining results from several independent studies.
Evolutionary Psychology (aka sociobiology) Darwin, natural selection, behavior traits that help us survive get passed down.
History (1-3%)
(Wave one)
James- wrote Psychology’s first textbook - functionalism
Wundt- set up the first psychology laboratory trained subjects in introspection (Germany) - structuralism
Mnemonic Device- J before W and F before S.
(Wave two)
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Gestalt – (Wertheimer) criticized James and Wundt for not considering the “whole” self
Next set of waves of psychological thought were (Wave three) psychoanalysis (Freud) then (Wave four) Behaviorism (Skinner).
Today it is the (Wave five) eclectic approach (multiple perspectives).
Research Methods (8-10%)
Hindsight Bias – “I knew it all along,” upon hearing research findings, people have the tendency to believe that they could have predicted the findings. Goal of
scientific research is to predict what will happen.
Applied research-(Ex.- sports, consumer psychology
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industrial/organizational psychology- how to boost workers productivity, morale
Human Factors Psychology – psychologists keep human factors in mind when designing machines / technology. Ex. gas pedals are located a few feet away
from the car seat so that a human can reach it.
Basic research- Ex. social or developmental psychology.
RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
Hypothesis- (Ex.-If given 6 alcoholic drinks a person’s driving skill score will decrease)
Theory- (Ex-Alcohol consumption is correlated with driving skills)
Operationalized definition- explaining how you will measure a variable. (Ex. - abusive husband will be defined as a husband that physically hits his wife at least 2
times per year.) We operationally define variables so that we can replicate.
Sampling- process by which subjects (participants) are selected
Random selection- guarantees every member of a population has an equal chance of being picked. Ex-.Picking out of a hat OR Computer generated sample of 100
Butler students for survey. (Only use one of these examples). This increases likelihood of sample being representative
Representative Sample- goal of sampling, select a sample representative of a larger population. (Example- a representative sample at Butler would have roughly 15%
Latino-Americans).
Stratified Sample – allows researchers to ensure that a sample is directly representative of the population on some criteria. For example: Representative by race. If a
population of 1000 has 500 white, 300 black, 200 latino then one would choose 50 white, 30 black, and 20 latino individuals for a sample of 100 total participants.
EXPERIMENT
Experimental method- this is the preferred method because it expresses a cause and effect relationship. You can do this by manipulating a variable. The
disadvantage is that sometimes you cannot generalize what happens in a controlled laboratory environment to the real world.
Experiemntal/Control condtions- experiments requires these 2 groups. The experimental group
receives the independent variable to see if had any effect.
Independent variable- manipulated variable. (Ex.-the pill if you’re testing a pill to see if it relieves hyperactivity or
depression.). This is given to the experimental group only.
Dependent variable- (measured variable) change in this is dependent on change in independent variable. This is the outcome
and is often a score or number.
Confounding variable- any difference between the experimental and control conditions that might affect the dependent
variable (rule out anything that might affect validity of experiment) (example: the time of day or the room temperature in
which two experiment were conducted. This is called situation relevant confounding variable)
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Random assignment- participants are randomly assigned to either the control (group not receiving the treatment) or experimental group. (group receiving
treatment) . This controls for any preexisting differences in the groups (bias). Differences in the participants is called participant relevant confounding
variable.
Experimental bias- unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control group differently
because he/she knows what the experiment is about
Double-blind procedure- neither the subjects nor researchers are aware of control/experiment (or those receiving placebo). This eliminates experimenter or
subject bias. A single blind controls foe subject bias (he/she does not know about the experiment)
Hawthorne Effect- study in which workers were monitored to see if the amount of light in a room would affect worker productivity. Under both conditions,
performance increased because they were being watched. This cause need for control group.
Placebo/ Placebo Effect- (example is a sugar pill) this controls for possible subject bias where the subjects knowledge of the treatment may cause them to
think they are having the effects.
CORRELATION
Correlation- expresses a relationship between 2 variables. Correlations may be positive or negative, strong or weak. A Positive correlation is when both
variables increase or both variables decrease at the same time. (Hint: when multiplying integers in math a negative times a negative equals a positive.)
Negative correlation is when one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Sometimes a survey is used
Correlation does not mean causation- there are usually several different causes of something.
Naturalistic observation- . Research conducted in natural habitat (animals or humans). No interaction with subjects.
Case study- Positive: in-depth detailed study of individual or small groups. Criticism is that findings cannot be generalized to larger population.
STATISTICS
Measures of central tendency- mean (avg.), median (middle score), mode (most frequently occurring score)
Outliers – Extreme scores - these can distort the mean (Ex. Bill Gates moves into a poor town and the average net worth rises to one million, If a student
scores a zero on a test this brings down the class average)
Skewed Distributions – Positively skewed – contains more low scores than high scores (Bill Gates example) Negatively skewed – contains more high
scores. (Student with zero on test)
Measures of variability- range, variance, standard deviation, percentiles
Standard Deviation and variance -relates to the average distance of any score in a distribution from the mean. EX. If the mean on a standardized test is 78
and 1 SD (1z) = 7. Then 68% of test takers score between 71 and an 85. Then 2SD (2z) = 14. Then 95% of test takers score between 64 and 92. Then 3SD
(3z) = 21, Then 99.9% of test takers score between 57 and 99.
Variance – Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. Ex. If Variance is 25 then standard deviation is 5
Z-score – measures the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation (1 z score = 1 Standard Deviation) If the score is below the mean,
the z score is negative, above the mean then the z-score is positive.
Normal Curve – theoretical bell-shaped curve. In a normal distribution, 68% fall within one Standard Deviation from the mean. 95% fall within 2SD and
99% fall within 3 SD
Correlational Coefficient- a number given showing the strength of the correlation. This ranges from positive 1 to negative 1. The farther away from 0
(either pos. or neg.) the stronger the correlation.
Scatter plots- used to show positive/negative correlations. If line goes up it’s positive.
Inferential Statistics – statistical methods that determine if findings can be applied to a larger population. (ex. T-tests, ANOVAs and MANOVAs)
Statistical Significance and P Value – Inferential statistics tests yield a p-value. If a p-value is equal to or less than .05 then the test is statistically
significant. This means that there is a 5% chance exists that the results occurred by chance. A p-value will never be 0 because we can never be 100% certain
the results are not due to chance.
All research must first be proposed to the Institutional Review Board and meet the following APA Ethical Guidelines
Animal Research- Clear, scientific purpose
- Humane treatment
- Acquire subjects legally
- Use procedures’ employing least amount of suffering feasible
Human Research- Informed consent (explain research and receive a signature).
- No coercion (cannot force to do)
- Debriefing (explain to subject the purpose (even if deceived a little) and results.
- No mental/physical risk/harm
-anonymity/confidentiality must be guaranteed.
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Social Psychology (8-10%)
Mere exposure effect - the more you see something or someone familiarity occurs, which breeds acceptance. EX.- buying advertised namebrands, ad jingles often use
popular songs, jingles. EX. once politicians win one term in office they are much more likely to win again
Central Route to Persuasion – using facts and logic to persuade someone, message would be deeply processed
Peripheral Route to Persuasion – using emotional appeal to persuade someone, message would be shallowly processed
. Ex. Car companies using beautiful women to sell cars OR polticians putting fear into voters minds.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: if behaviors and attitudes/beliefs do not match then tension arises. Attitudes or behaviors must become consistent to relieve tension.
EX. You think speeding is wrong and yet, you speed. You either stop speeding or say speeding is ok.
Festinger and Carlsmith Study – participants complete a boring task. Some were paid $1 to lie to incoming participants and say the task was enjoyable. Others were
paid $20 to lie. The subjects who were only paid $1 were more likely to feel dissonance because they receive insufficient justification for lying. As a response to the
dissonance those paid $1 changed their mind and said the task was actually enjoyable, to remove the dissonance. Those paid $20 believed their lies were justified and
did not feel dissonance and maintained that the task was boring.
Compliance Strategies
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: tendency for people who first agree with small request to larger one. EX.- Get someone to lend you 5$ he/she is more likely
to lend you 15$ later.
Door-in-the face Ex. Ask someone for $100, he says “No” – easier to get $20.
Norms of Reciprocity- after giving something to somebody it is easier to receive something back because they feel as if they owe you. EX- Companies send
something free in the mail.
Attribution Theory: tendency to give causal explanation of behavior to persons’ situation (external) or disposition (biological trait).
Ex. Johnny is a bad kid. Situation attribution – Johnny feeds off of other bad kids in the class. Disposition attribution – Johnny is bad in all situations
Self-fulfilling prophecy- ones beliefs/expectations about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief. (EX. - teacher is told
specific students are on the verge of significant academic growth. By the end of the year these students IQ’s grew more than the others. This was attributed to how the
teacher treated them and was called the Pygmalion in the classroom experiment.
Fundamental Attribution error: tendency to overestimate impact of personal disposition
False Consensus Effect – tendency for people to overestimate the number of people that agree with them
Self-serving bias: to take more credit for good outcomes than deserve. ( EX. coach emphasizes his/her role in win, blames players, referees when lose)
Just world phenomenon tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve. (EX- poor are poor because they’re lazy)
Outgroup homogeneity – tendency to see members of your own group as more diverse than members of other groups
In-group bias– preference for members of own group (most similar to you in gender, race, class, age, proximity (EX- belief that Butler students are better than
Providence students (even though this is a fact).
Prejudice and Contact Theory – Contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity if the two groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal.
Sherifs’ study– combative boys’ at summer camp began getting along after working cooperatively toward a shared superordinate goal. This led to the use of
cooperative learning groups to help alleviate prejudice. This also caused an increased use of cooperative learning (groupwork- with one grade) in schools during
integration.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis- frustration creates anger
Bystander effect (aka bystander intervention) tendency for bystanders to be less likely to give aid the larger the amount of bystanders that are present. This is known
as a diffusion of responsibility- EX. Kitty Genovese raped in NY.. Pluralistic Ignorance is the tendency for people to look to others to decide what is right in a
situation. Ex:seeing smoke in a room while taking a test. Also people will judge the seriousness of situation before intervening.
Altruism – unselfish giving
Attraction Studies -we are attracted to people based on similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking. Thus, opposites do not usually attract, absence does not usually
make the heart grow fonder. Also, better looking people are perceived as being more intelligent and confident.
Social facilitation tendency to perform better (on easier tasks) with an audience
Social Impairment (aka social inhibition): tendency to perform worse (on difficult tasks) with an audience
Conformity- changing one’s attitudes/behaviors to match a group norm.
Asch’s study of Conformity –Q. Which line matches the standard line? Group pressure caused participants to change opinions (even when answer is obvious) about a
third of the time. Conformity did not increase after 3 members were in group.
Individualism- behaviors/decisions relatively uninfluenced from that of the majority groups.
Milgram’s study of Obedience: Subjects were deceived into thinking that they were shocking someone. Participants continued shocking other participants while they
were screaming to Stop! Obedience increased when: 1) authority close at hand 2) authority by prestigious institution 3) victim depersonalized (in another room) 4) no
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role models for defiance. This experiment has been criticized on ethical grounds. 63% went to XXX. It showed how ordinary people can be influenced by authority
figures to do immoral things.
Norms- rules about how group members should act
Social loafing: individual tendency for effort to decrease when working in groups
Group polarization- enhancement of group’s attitudes more toward the extreme through discussion in a group .EX. after spending 3 hours on a hate group chat line
one feels even more hatred toward that group.
Deindividuation –loss of self-restraint in-group situations where one becomes anonymous. “If you could be invisible for 24 hours what would you do.
Group Think- mode of thinking when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. EX- Pres. Kennedy’s advisors
decided to invade Cuba or the decision to launch the spaceship challenger or Iraq invasion.
Prejudice- usually negative, unjustifiable attitude toward a group.
Discrimination: negative action taken against prejudice group
Principles shown in Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment – Deindividuation (prisoner and guards lost their own identity and began to do things they would not do if they
were identifiable) and Role Playing (Prisoners and Guards began to take their roles too seriously.
Biological Basis of Behavior (Neuroscience) (8-10%)
Neuroanatomy- anatomy of nerve cell (neuron)
Dendrites- root like, makes synaptic connections with other neurons. Receives the neurotransmitter on receptor sites
Cell body- (aka soma) contains nucleus.
Axon - longest part of neuron.
Myelin sheath- covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses.. Breakdown of Mylin Sheath (MS) is related to Multiple Sclerosis (MS).
Terminal Buttons of axon (aka end buttons, terminal branches, synaptic knobs))- branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters
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synaptic vesicles (holds neurostransmitter until release)
Neurotransmitters – chemicals that enable neurons to communicate
Synapse- space between neurons.
Neuron in a resting state – negative ions within the cell and mostly positive ions on the outside
Action potential electrical message firing
Threshold- neurons are pushed past this to begin the firing. (Toilet flushing)
Neuron firing- “all or nothing” either fires or doesn’t (like a toilet flushing)
Refractory period – brief time when a neuron must recharge and cannot fire (toilet)
Sodium and Potassium Ions
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Neuron has a negative charge at rest (analogy was dirty urine(negative) water in toilet
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Slightly positive charge sodium ions on the outside (analogy was clean water waiting to rush in when flushed)
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During the firing, sodium ions rush in the axon causing depolarization
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Potassium ions rush out of the axon causing it to return to its resting state (negative charge)
Inhibitory neurotransmitters – chemicals that inhibit (slow down) the next cell from firing (Antagonist)
Excitatory neurotransmitters – chemicals that excite (speed up) the next cell firing (Agonist)
Reuptake – The re-absorption of neurotransmitters from the sending neuron
Neurotransmitter_______ Function
a.) Acetylcholine (Ach)
motor movement
b.) Dopamine
motor movement
c.) Serotonin
mood
d.) Endorphins (substance p) pain
e.) Norepenephrine
mood
Problem associated with it
Alzheimer’s (lack of Ach)
Parkinson’s and Schizophrenia (excess)
Depression
Addictions
Depression
Afferent/Efferent neurons- acronym is SAME. Sensory Afferent / Motor Efferent. Sensory neurons (Afferent) go from body to brain such as when you sense pain
from hitting your knee. Motor neurons go from brain to body such as when your brain and tells you to raise your hand to catch a ball.
Interneurons- take messages from the sensory neurons to motor neurons
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Reflexes are processed by the spine.
CNS (Central Nervous System) - brain and spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) – all other nerves in your body
Autonomic – controls automatic functions of the body – such as heart, lungs
Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses body systems, decreases digestion, dilates pupil
Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms body systems, increases digestion, contracts pupil etc. (Mnemonic: once your parachute opens you
calm, the paramedics come to calm you down)
Somatic – controls voluntary muscle movements
Reflexes – spine sends message to body
STUDYING THE BRAIN
Accidents – Phineas Gage – thought, planning emotion are located in front of brain
Lesion- removal or destruction of part of the brain.
EEG- detects electrical activity of brain waves. Uses electrodes
CAT (aka CT Scan) - x-ray of brain structure only
MRI- locates brain material. Most detailed picture
PET- activity of brain in pictures. Use of radioactive glucose to locate activity
FMRI– A combination of the PET scan and MRI, shows brain activity using an MRI
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Medulla- heartbeat, breathing
Pons- controls facial expressions.
Cerebellum- balance, motor movement (Mnemonic: Sara on a balance beam)
Thalamus- contains sensory (senses) cortex (except smell)
Hypothalamus – body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst
Amygdala- emotions (Mnemonic: Picture a friend named Amy that is very emotional)
Hippocampus- formation of new memories (Mnemonic: If you saw a hippo on campus you wouldn’t forget it)
Reticular Formation – responsible for body arousal (Mnemonic: tic toc an alarm clock wakes you up)
HEMISPHERES
Contra lateral control- the left hemisphere controls the motor movement of the right hand.
Hemispheric Specialization (aka brain lateralization)- outdated theory suggesting that each hemisphere controls all specific functions. It’s factual
however that the left is where most language takes place. Right is spatial. (map reading etc.)
Split brain patients can write a word they see in the right visual field but cannot say it because the left hemisphere controls language
Corpus collosum- connects the 2 hemispheres and transmits messages to each other. People who get epileptic seizures have this surgically cut and become
split brain patients.
AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Broca’s Area- speech production (broken CD player does not make sound)
Wernicke’s Area- language comprehension.
Frontal Lobe (aka prefrontal cortex)- thought, planning, judgement
Parietal Lobe- sensory cortex, sense of touch.
Occipital Lobe- vision. (Optometrist and Optical illusion starts with an O)
Temporal Lobe- auditory, sound.
Motor Cortex – sends signals to the muscles, controlling voluntary movement. Located at the back of the frontal lobe
Sensory Cortex – receives incoming touch sensations from the body. Located at the front of the parietal lobe.
Brain Plasticity- specific parts of brain can adapt to perform tasks of other parts of brain. This helps explain phantom limb sensations. (Video with armless man)
Endocrine System- system of glands that secrete hormones including adrenal (adrenaline), testes (testosterone), ovaries (estrogen)
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Endocrine System Glands:
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Pituitary – controls other glands
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Thyroid – controls metabolism
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Pineal – sleep/wake cycle
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Pancreas – digestion / secrets insulin
CH 3 – Nature v Nurture
Evolutionary psychology (aka sociobiology) / Natural selection / Darwin/ human behavior involves those traits that have helped us survive and get passed down.
Gender Typing- - the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
Gender Roles – a set of expectations for males and females.
Gender constancy- knowledge that Gender is constant (permanent).
GENETICS
Down’s Syndrome- babies with extra chromosome (form of mental retardation)
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Twin Studies- Bouchard found 100 sets of twins separated at birth and raised in different environments.
Developmental Psychology (7-9 %)
RESEARCH METHODS
Cross-sectional – studies participants of different ages.
Longitudinal – studies same participants over long period of time. Positive is same participants neg. time consuming
Maturation- development that is relatively uninfluenced by experience. Ex. Cannot teach a 6 month old to walk
Teratogens- chemicals or agents that if ingested by mother can cause harm (ex. Fetal alcohol syndrome).
REFLEXES
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Rooting- baby touched on cheek turns head in search of nipple
Moro- when startled baby flings arm out
Babinski- curls toes when touched on bottom of foot
Newborns Senses- can hear before birth, can only see 8-12 inches, same taste/smell preferences as adult humans.
Self-Recognition (Rogue Test) – occurs in the Sensorimotor stage (btw ages 1-2) Small children with rouge on their forehead recognize themselves and notice
something different about their appearance
Critical Period – the vital time in which some development must occur
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Ex. Lorenz and Imprinting
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Ex. Language development
Habituation – decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus. Eventually a baby will become disinterested with the ball.
Theory of Mind – the belief that others think, feel and perceive – develops in the preoperational stage
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Ex. Autistic individuals lack theory of mind (also lack verbal communication skills)
PARENTING
Attachment Theories (bond between child and parent)
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Lorenz imprinting of Geese- animals form attachments to first object they see shortly after birth
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Harlow’s monkeys. Baby monkeys preferred wire mother with fur over wire mother with bottle. This proved that babies do not form attachment to mothers
just because of nourishment but rather contact comfort. Also showed monkeys becoming stressed/frightened when placed in new situation
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Mary Ainsworth studied how human babies reacted when placed in strange situations away from mother. This suggested whether they had formed secure
or resistant/ambivalent attachments which effected then throughout their life. Secure babies explore environment, stressed when mom leaves and come to
parents upon return
Parenting Styles
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authoritative (most well adjusted individuals- consistent rules with an explanation, sometimes rules are arrived at democratically)
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authoritarian (rhymes with librarian or totalitarian). Q. Why can’t I stay out later? A. Because I said so.
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permissive (few rules or consequences)
STAGE THEORISTS
Continuity v. discontinuity Q. Do we develop in stages or continuously?
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE THEORY (in chronological order) - experiences with others are important. Humans hope to end each stage closer to the first
concept.
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Trust v. mistrust- (Birth to 1) - establishes a sense of basic trust in world
Autonomy v. shame/doubt (favorite word is “No”- shows independence, toilet training)
Initiative v. guilt (favorite word is Q. Why?)
Industry (or competence) v. inferiority (elementary years) - may develop inferiority complex if not successful at elementary tasks.
Identity v. role confusion (adolescence= teens) test out different roles
Intimacy v. isolation (20’s-30’s)
Generativity v. stagnation (middle age)- psychological need to give to the next generation
Integrity v. despair. (Late adulthood) – look back and decide if a.)We are satisfied with accomplishments b.)life was meaningful
PIAGET”S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema aka schemata- conceptual framework (interpretation) of the world based on experiences, stereotypes etc.
Assimilation- attempting to incorporate new information into existing schema. (Ex. Boy say doggy for all 4 legged animals)
Accommodation- changing our schema to fit new information. (EX- Some 4 legged animals are horses, some are cows)
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Sensorimotor (0-2) Object Permanence. Child learns that if a ball leaves the room it still exists.
Preoperational (2-7) egocentrism (child is center of the universe), language development, Artificialism (belief that humans make everything), establishes a
theory of mind
Concrete operational (7-11) conservation-child learns that volume of liquid remains the same even when the shape of glass changes. (Tall glass, short fat
glass) Another example is cutting a sandwich in half seems like more. Logical thinking also develops.
Formal operational (11-adult) ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and morally reason
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Criticism of Piaget’s cognitive development - Piaget underestimated children (Children begin stages earlier than expected and pass through stages faster than
expected.), Development may be more continuous than occur in discrete stages.
KOHLBERG”S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT- gave people of varying ages the Heinz Dilemma (Q. Should he steal drug to save wife?)
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Preconventional- morality based on rewards and punishment.
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Conventional- morality based on social acceptance, approval. Ex. obeying laws.
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Postconventional-morality based on ethical principles (Ex- breaking a law that you think is unjust (civil disobedience)
Criticism of Kohlberg from Carol Gilligan - Boys/Girls come to moral conclusions differently.
Sensation and Perception- (6-8%) activation of our senses (eyes, ears, smell, taste, touch)
Transduction - sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses which travel to the thalamus (except smell)
Sensory Adaptation – Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation.
Selective Attention (cocktail party effect) - can only focus on one thing at a time. However, if sense carries meaning (such as hearing your name) then focuses changes.
Inattentional blindness- failing to see visible oblects when our attention is elsewhere (moonwalking bear OR texting while driving)
Change blindness- failing to notice changes in the environment
ENERGY SENSES (hearing, feeling, seeing)
Vision
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Step one - gathering light
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The color we see is determined by light intensity and light wavelength
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Intensity- brightness of objects
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Wavelength- determines hue (color) Wavelengths shorter than visible light = ultraviolet waves and x-rays
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Step 2 -Within Eye
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Cornea- light enters eye
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Pupil- like the shutter of a camera, the iris opens, closes based on how much light should enter it
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Iris – muscles that open and close the pupil to let more or less light in
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Lens- curvature is changed by a process called accommodation which helps with focus
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Retina- inverted image is projected
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Step 3 – Transduction – light is transformed into neural impulses
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Rods (night vision- black/white), cones (color). Hint: Co/Co (bipolar, ganglion cells)
Foveal vision (more cones, clarity aka visual acuity) vs. Peripheral vision . Rods are located at the periphery of the retina.
Stroop Effect- when reading words such as red, blue or yellow that are written in a color different from the word then the brain has a more difficult time
processing
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Step 4 In the Brain- Hubel and Weisel discovered feature detectors- specific parts of the brain that detect form, shape, horizontal lines, angles etc.- Ex.
Kittens that do not use these by a certain critical period may not have them.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
Trichromatic theory- 3 types of cones in retina blue, red, green = primary colors of light.
Opponent- Process theory- 3 pairs (6 colors) red/green, yellow/blue, black/white pairs Explains color blindness (usually a red/green deficiency) and
afterimages. (Stare at black, green, yellow flag)
HEARING
Sound waves have amplitude (height of wave-loudness) and frequency (length of wave- think of how frequent a wave comes by. This determines pitch)
Sound Localization – sound waves from the right arrive in the right ear before the left. This is how we can tell the direction of a sound. Sounds coming from directly in
front, above or behind us are more difficult to locate since the waves arrive at the same time
Order in which sound waves travel through the ear – ear canal, eardrum, hammer, anvil, stirrup (middle ear), cochlea
Cochlea- structure shaped like a snail’s shell filled with fluid, this is where transduction occurs.
Conductive v Nerve Deafness- Conductive is a mechanical problem, Nerve is damage by loud noise- concerts etc.
TOUCH
Gate-control theory- explains how we experience pain. Endorphins swing the gate open or shut and messages are sent to the brain. Pressure, Pain, warmth and cold= 4
sensations
CHEMICAL SENSES
Taste (Gustation) – taste buds located on papillae (bumps) The more densely packed, the stronger the taste. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
Smell (Olfactory) - what we taste is combination of both chemical systems
Vestibular Sense tells us about how our body is positioned. Tubes from semicircular canals in the ear fill with liquid as body moves. (Explains Roller coaster nausea,
dizziness.)
Kinesthetic Sense- knowledge of where our body parts are (touching one’s nose with fingers) - athletes
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Perception - process of understanding/interpreting our sensations
THRESHOLDS
Absolute threshold- smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time (EX. See a candle flame 30 miles away).
Subliminal- stimulation below threshold. Does NOT change unwanted behavior
Difference threshold- (JND- Just Noticeable difference) smallest amount of change in a stimulus that is detectable (EX. Detecting the difference in weight
between 2 and 3 donuts but not 4 and 5 donuts.
Weber’s Law- change needs to occur in proportion (EX. 10 pound weight gain by a 100 pound person is noticeable. You may need a 20 pound
weight gain on a 200 pound person)
Signal Detection Theory – when we have stimuli happening at the same time we tend to detect the one that is most important to us (EX. - mother hears baby crying in
another room while she is having a conversation with someone). Mistakes are in the form of false positives (thinking you perceive a stimuli that is not present) or false
negatives (not perceiving a stimuli that is present)
Top- down processing- Perception (higher level) we perceive things by filling in gaps often using background knowledge. EX- seeing faces in the rocks of textbook
picture.
Schemata – mental representation of how we perceive the world.
Perceptual set (expectancy set) – a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (Ex. Believing in the Loch Ness Monster makes
you expect to see it in the picture. Ex. Being told that a munchkin hung himself on the set of the Wizard of Oz causes one to see this.)
Bottom-up processing- Sensation - use only the features of objects to perceive.
Figure ground illusion- part of visual image is the figure and part is the background (EX. Vase and two faces)
Gestalt Rules- Perceptual grouping to make objects meaningful.
a. Proximity- objects closer perceived to be grouped
b. Similarity- objects similar in appearance are grouped. watching a basketball game and seeing 5 red players and 5 green players rather than 10 players.
c. Continuity- objects with continuous form
d. Closure- filling in gaps. (Ex.- seeing a connect the dots picture and saying, “that’s a dog”
e. Connectedness- seeing objects as connected if they meet
Constancy – our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in angle, light, distance, (shape, brightness, size)
Phi Phenomenon – A series of lights turned on and off at a particular rate will appear to be one moving light.
DEPTH CUES
Visual cliff- experiment by Eleanor Gibson used to measure when an infant develops depth perception. (Using glass table)
Monocular cues require only one eye for depth (EX- artists use these in paintings to show depth)
a. Linear perspective- railroad tracks being drawn as in the distance
b. Relative size- larger = closer
c. Relative Height – higher in field of vision = distant
d. Relative Clarity- more clear = closer
c. Interposition- objects blocking must be closer
e. Texture gradient- see details = closer

F.Relative motion (Motion Parallax) – when we are moving objects closer appear to move faster than objects far away. Explains the moon illusion as if
moon is following you.
Binocular Cues looking at 3 dimensional objects requires both eyes for depth
Retinal Disparity- each eye sees slightly different view of object
Convergence- as object gets closer to face, moves eyes towards one another
Muller-Lyer illusion-. Perceptual illusion dealing with which line is longer. Research found that humans not exposed to right angles/corners or do not see buildings in
their cultures are not fooled by the illusion.
States of Consciousness (2-4 %)
Consciousness- awareness of our environment and ourselves
Unconscious -psychoanalytic psychologists believe some events/feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into the unconscious mind.
SLEEP
Circadian Rhythm- 24-25 hour biological/thought progress patterns.
Sleep Cycle – 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM
90 minutes long.

Hallucinations right before falling asleep, Alpha waves present (during awake hours and stages 1 and 2)

(Stage 1) Light sleep, alpha waves

(Stage 2) EEG machine detects sleep spindles- random bursts of brain activity

(Stages 3, 4) deep sleep or slow wave sleep. Shortens as night progresses, delta waves.

REM sleep (most dreams), also called paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but brain, heartbeat still active. REM sleeps lengthens as sleep
progresses. REM or dream sleep occurs after returning to stage 1.
REM Rebound- if you receive very little REM sleep you will have longer REM sleep the following night.
Pineal Gland – secretes melatonin and is connected to our sleep patterns / circadian rhythm
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia- difficulty getting or staying asleep
Narcolepsy- sudden sleep attacks
Sleep apnea- difficulty breathing during sleep
Night terrors/sleepwalking- during stage 4 deep sleep. (not nightmares)
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Theories of DreamsFreud says they are meaningful. They may be used to uncover repressed memories/conflicts in the unconscious mind.
Manifest content- literal content of dream. (Freud)
Latent content- underlying meaning of dream (Freud). Our ego protects us by presenting these repressed desires in symbols.
Activation-synthesis theory – biological explanation of dreams (random bursts of neurons in which the brain processes and makes up a Story
Information-Processing Theory- in between previous 2 theories. The function of dreams is to process and give meaning to the days events/stresses. This is
why we have REM rebound and why babies have longer REM sleep
HYPNOSIS
Post-hypnotic suggestion- patient behaves in certain way after hypnosis.
(Example: smokers, dieters, alcoholics use this)
Those hypnotized report false memories at times
Theories explaining Hypnosis:
a.
Role Theory- It is not a separate state of consciousness but rather the person is merely fulfilling his role/job as hypnotized subject.
b. Dissociation Theory- a divided consciousness. Hilgard proved this with his hidden observer. Experiment had patients saying they felt no pain with arm in
ice water but they were lifting there finger indicating that they did feel pain.
c.
State Theory – a person who is hypnotized is in an altered state of consciousness
DRUGS
Psychoactive Drugs induce altered state of consciousness.
Tolerance- varying level at which different people can feel the effects of a psychoactive drug
Withdrawal- physical and psychological effects after stopping the use of a drug.
Stimulants- (caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine (Dopamine causes this effect)) – speed up nervous system.
Depressants- (barbiturates, tranquilizers, alcohol) – slow down nervous system
Hallucinogens (psychedelics) - (LSD, marijuana)
Opiates- heroine, morphine, codeine- painkillers (take place of endorphins)
Learning (Behaviorism- observable responses to environmental stimuli) 7-9%
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING -(Pavlov, Watson) learning through associations. EX- the story of the women who was raped and she now gets anxieties when she is
alone with men. Stimulus (being alone with men) Involuntary Response (experiencing anxiety)
UCS-original stimulus eliciting a response (food)
UCR- natural response (salivation)
CS- conditioned or learned stimulus (bell)
CR-conditioned response (salivation). Associating food with bell elicits salivation.
Acquisition- acquired new associated behavior. (first learning to flinch to word can)
Delayed conditioning- the bell (CS) rings and while ringing the food is presented. This is the most effective order for conditioning.
Extinguish- losing behavior, no longer pairing food and bell. (no longer flinching to can)
Spontaneous recovery- after a conditioned response is extinguished; it will reappear quickly upon presence of conditioned stimulus. This is NOT
relearning.
Generalization- tendency to respond to similar CS’s (Ex. Dog salivating to doorbell).
Discrimination-ability to see difference between similar stimuli (Dog not salivating)
Watson/Raynor- conditioned Little Albert to cry when he saw a rat (he associated loud noises with rats)
Learned Taste Aversions (Garcia effect) – if you ingest food or drink and get nauseas then you are more likely to get nauseous just thinking about the
food.
OPERANT CONDITIONING – learning to associate behaviors (stimulus) with their consequences (Skinner, Thorndike)
Thorndike’s Law of Effect- behavior is more likely to continue if it has a positive consequence. Less likely with a negative consequence.
Skinner Box- pigeons, rats, a bar/key, pellets, shaping of behavior using reinforcers or punishers.
Reinforcers- behavior is more likely to happen.
Positive (hint: think of adding not good) reinforcer- adds something positive. EX. Good grades = money
Negative (hint: think of subtracting not bad) reinforcer- takes away something negative. Ex. Good grades = no chores
Punisher- decreases the likelihood of behavior occurring. Best when given soon after behavior.
Negative punishment- subtracting something pleasant EX. Bad grades = no car for the week
Positive punishment- add something negative (EX. Bad grades = Spanking.)
Shaping - Ex. teaching a dog to roll over
Chaining – Teaching a dog to roll over, then bark and play dead – reward is given after all three are complete
Primary reinforcers- biological - food, water, escaping electric shock
Secondary reinforcers- need to be learned – money, grades.
Token economy- any system (such as the experiment with schools) in which all behaviors are reinforced with tokens or demerits. The purpose is to shape
behaviors
Overjustification effect – external rewards decrease a person’s intrinsic interst in doing something that he/she liked to do.
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Reinforcement Schedules (continuous reinforcement (reinforced immediately after every behavior) is best schedule.
Fixed- constant
Variable- changing
Ratio- number of responses
Interval- passage of time.
Ex. Fixed Ratio (paid by how much work you do)
Fixed Interval (paid by hour)
Variable ratio (gambling, fishing)
Variable Interval (pop quiz)
(Fixed is usually acquired the fastest but also the fastest to become extinct.)
Instinctive drift – animals cannot be shaped to behaviors that go against natural inclinations (Ex. Rats will not walk backwards)
Rescorla’s Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning - A cognitive view of classical conditioning, Rocco and Sparky experiment. Rocco –bell then food are
always paired and presented. Sparky – bell then food, food with no bell, sometimes food and bell together. Sparky learns less because the UCS and CS in unclear. –
Sparky and Rocco’s expectations and thoughts influence their learning.
Observational Learning (aka social learning theory)- Bandura, Bo-Bo dolls Children imitate behavior of adults beating and kicking doll, monkey see monkey do
Mirror Neurons- the same neurons that fire when you do something fire when you see someone else do that thing
Latent Learning and cognitive maps – Tolman showed how rats can learn their way around a maze without reinforcement by making a mental representation
(cognitive map). When given reward learning is apparent.
Insight Learning- Kohler studied apes that used crates to get to bananas. Apes show cognitive insight.
Cognition (Memory, Thinking and Language) 7-9%
MODELS OF MEMORY
Three box/information processing model – information is sensed, then encoded to STM, then encoded to LTM. Information is retrieved from LTM to the STM
(Working memory) Sensory memory
Sensory Memory – a split second holding tank for incoming sensory information
Iconic Memory- split second photograph of a scene. Ex. flashing a series of letters
Echoic memory- split second memory of sounds. Ex. Parents ask you to recall what you just said when they think you aren’t listening.
Short-term (working) memory-limited to about 7 items.
Chunking- mnemonic device, divide items or numbers into chunks.
Mnemonic device- memory aids.
Long-term memory (LTM) –limitless
Explicit Memories – with conscious recall
a.Episodic memory- specific sequence of events
b.Semantic memory – memory of facts, meanings, words
Implicit Memories – without conscious recall
c.Procedural memory- remembering how to drive stick shift after not driving stick in awhile
Prospective Memory- memory of future events such (remembering to take medications) tends to decrease as we age.
Eidetic (photographic) memory- powerful memory of memory of visual images
Levels of processing Model - the more deeply processed (Elaborative Rehearsal) the more likely to recall it later
RETRIEVAL
Recall vs. recognition fill in the blank tests vs. multiple-choice tests
Priming- (Example- retrieval cues- by giving the class the category of the word to be retrieved.)
Primacy effect- tendency to recall the first item of a list.
Recency effect- tendency to recall the last item of a list.
Serial Position effect- recall is affected by the order of items on a list
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon- trying to remember a person’s name (already in LTM) by listing things about their appearance/personality or going
through the alphabet.
Flashbulb memory- split second memory of an emotionally significant event.
Mood-congruent memory- increases the likelihood of recall when you are in the same mood as memory.
State-dependent memory- increases the likelihood of recall when you are in the same state of consciousness (example: losing keys while intoxicated… will
not remember where they are until intoxicated again).
Mnemonics- memory aids such as acronyms and …
Method of Loci – picturing items or words at certain locations in a familiar place.
Peg word system – one bun, two shoe, three tree. .visualize things on a bun when memorizing a list of words
Smell- sense that is strongest/most associated with memory, olfactory nerves are connected to the hippocampus
Constructive Memory- ability of humans to report false details/recollections of events (not intentionally). Many witnesses recall can be distorted by adding events that
didn’t happen (misinformation effect)
Elizabeth Loftus – showed how leading questions can change people’s memories of events by describing car accident as smashed or hit.
Source Amnesia- attributing the wrong source to a memory. Ex. Thinking something happened in life but it happened in a movie.
FORGETTING
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve – At first we forget a lot of information rapidly but the amount remember levels off over time.
Proactive Interference- trying to recall new information (old interferes)
Retroactive Interference- trying to recall old information (new interferes)
TIP: Focus on what is trying to be recall (retroactive is older)
Retrograde amnesia- unable to recall old information
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Anterograde amnesia- unable to encode new information.
MEMORIES AND THE BRAIN
Hippocampus is responsible for storing new memories in the brain.
Long Term Potentiation (LTP) – neurons can strengthen connections between each other through repeated firing. This is associated with the formation of memories.
Language
Phonemes- smallest unit of sound language. Ex- sounding out C-A-T.
Morpheme- smallest unit of language with meaning (Ex. Pre- is not a word but carries meaning)
Syntax- rules of grammar
ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE
Babbling Stage- googoogaagaa
Telegraphic Speech (about 2 years old) - (EX. - No book, movie). Like a telegraph they are missing several words to the sentence but you understand.
Chomsky- born with language acquisition device (nature) children learn some grammar without instruction from parents. A critical period for developing
this exists.
Overgeneralization (aka overregularization)- misapplication of grammar rules. EX “ I holded the ball”. Chomsky said this was proof that children don’t
simply model language
Skinner- language is learned, modeled (nurture) through reinforcement.
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis- language controls/limits our thinking. (EX. The Department of War was changed to the Dept. of Defense and
the approval rating of this dept. immediately improved.
Thinking
Metacognition – thinking about thinking
Prototype – best example of a category (ex. Rose in the category of flower)
PROBLEM SOLVING
Algorithm- logical step by step rule that guarantees solving a problem (Ex. Searching every aisle in the grocery store )
Heuristic- a rule of thumb strategy used to solve a problem or make a judgement, a mental shortcut. (Ex- anytime you do a search on the internet.)
Availability Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based similar situations that are available in the immediate memory or come to mind first (Ex.
Fear of flying after seeing a plane crash in the news.)
Representative Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based on stereotypes or prototypes (Ex. Truck drivers who read poetry or Ivy League
professors who like poetry.)
Belief Bias – make illogical conclusions to confirm preexisting beliefs. (EX. I believe blondes are dumb and I hear a blonde make a stupid statement so I say to myself,
“there’s the proof that blondes are dumb”
Belief Perseverance- tendency not to change our preexisting beliefs even in the face of contradicting evidence. (EX. I tell you that research says blondes are of equal
intelligence to brunettes yet you continue to believe blondes are dumber.
IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM SOLVING,
Ethnocentrism- tendency for people to believe that one’s culture is superior to others.
Mental Set (rigidity) – tendency for people to fall into established thought patterns or ways of solving problems. Using methods that worked in the past.
Older people may drive to the library and spend 45 mins. to look up information that could have been googled on the internet)
Functional Fixedness- inability to see a new use for an object. (EX- butter knife as screwdriver)
Confirmation Bias- tendency for people to seek out information that confirms their beliefs.
False Consensus Effect- tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who share their beliefs and values.
Framing- the way a problem is presented (EX. Meat that is 80% lean vs. 20% fat)
Divergent Thinking- thinking that searches for multiple answers.
Testing and Intelligence (5-7%)
Standardization: test items have been given to similar populations to establish norms (EX. - taking the section of SAT that doesn’t count set standards for future
exams (field ?’s)
Reliability: consistency of test (EX. If take SAT and score 900 then 1300 it’s not reliable. Research is considered reliable when it is repeated with similar results.
Equivalent Form Reliability – the correlation between performances on different forms of a test
Test-retest Reliability – correlation between a person’s score a various administrations of a test
Split-half reliability- randomly divide a test in half and scores are consistent
Validity: measures what it’s supposed to measure. Is it accurate?
Predictive Validity- does the test measure future performance
Content Validity – how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it is supposed to be testing.
Aptitude test: measures ability, potential
Achievement test: measure what one has learned
Fluid Intelligence (speed of processing abstract problems) vs. Crystallized Intelligence (accumulated knowledge). As we age fluid decreases while crystallized stays
the same.
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Spearman g factor- we have a general intelligence a single factor that underlies all specific abilities (s factor). Factor Analysis was used to group related items (scores)
on a test and prove this theory. Ex scores on verbal and math portions of SAT.
Gardner’s’ Theory of Multiple Intelligences: says we have several different types of intelligences. He and other contemporaries deemphasized the math/verbal
definitions. linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial (reading maps, playing checkers), musical, bodily kinesthetic (athletes), intrapersonal (knowing oneself), and
interpersonal (relating to others)
Savant Syndrome- combination of genius for one skill with mental retardation (IQ below 70)
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence: E.Q. – measurement of mostly intra/interpersonal. Argues that to be successful you need both EQ and IQ.
Sternberg’s triarchic theory: divided 7 intelligences into 3 analytical, creative, practical .
Binet- came up with concept of mental age as measuring intelligence (Ex. average 10 yr. old has mental age of 10
Stanford- Binet test: Terman created first IQ test where the formula was mental age over chronological x 100.
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): The normal distribution of scores on a standardized test = Bell Curve 50% of scores fall below mean of 100. 68% of
population scores between 85 and 115. 95 % between 70 and 130. 15 pts equals one standard deviation on the normal curve. Standard Deviation- how much scores vary
from the mean.
Testing Bias: some claim that advantages on these test come from the cultural experiences some groups have (i.e. exposure to the vocabulary on SAT tests) or the fact
that the more similar you are to the majority culture that creates the test then the more likely you are to do well.
Heritability- measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
Evidence supporting that nature (genetics) plays a role in intelligence
-Identical Twin studies score closer in intelligence than fraternal.
-Identical raised apart also score close.
Evidence supporting that nurture (environment) plays a role in intelligence
Twins raised apart don’t score as close as those raised together
Flynn Effect- standardized test scores have continually increased because of better schooling, nutrition.
Within group differences in intelligence are larger than between group differences. Ex. The range (difference) between smart Asians and dumb Asians is much greater
than the range (difference) between average Asians and average Caucasians.
Motivation and Emotion (6-8%)
Motivation – feelings or ideas that cause to act toward a goal.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Drive Reduction Theory- behavior motivated by biological needs. Need= food, water. Drive= hunger, thirst. Drive reducing behavior = eating, drinking. (Ex. Addict
injects drug)
Homeostasis – our bodies seek a balanced internal state
Primary drives – biological needs like food
Secondary drives – learned drives like $
Arousal Theory- suggests humans are motivated to seek the optimum level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dodson Law- we perform better at easy tasks with a high level of arousal, we may perform worse on difficult tasks with a high level of arousal.
(similar to social facilitation)
Incentive Theory- behavior is not pushed by a need; it is pulled by a desire.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- Pyramid showing which needs must be met to go to the next level. Physiological needs (ex. food) at bottom, followed by safety needs,
belongingness, esteem and self-actualization (reaching one’s full potential) at top. The other needs must be met before one can self-actualize.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER (NATURE)
Washburn balloon experiment – Washburn swallowed a balloon and determined that stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger
The hypothalamus makes us feel hungry when we need to eat
Lateral hypothalamus – when electrically stimulated, the lateral hypothalamus causes an animal to begin to eat. Destruction of this area would
cause an animal to starve (because hunger disappears)
Ventromedial hypothalamus – when electrically stimulated, the ventromedial hypothalamus causes the animal to stop eating. Destruction of this
area would cause an animal to eat continuously and become overweight.
(EX. Fat Rat had Ventromedial removes- mnemonic is L comes before V. we eat then stop eating)
When are we hungry? Low glucose, high insulin
Set Point- theory says that the hypothalamus wants to maintain certain body weight.
Metabolic Rate – how our body uses energy. When we are below our optimum body weight, our metabolic rate drops.

Hunger Hormones
o
I’m Hungry = Orexin and Grehlin
o
I’m Not Hungry = Leptin and PYY
ENVIRONMENTAL BASIS OF HUNGER (NURTURE)
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Externals- external food cues. (Ex. glucose level decreases with sight, smell of a food)
Garcia effect- once nauseous on particular food then always nauseous- taste aversions
Culture- people learn to like certain foods.
EATING DISORDERS
Bulimia – Binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, exercising, laxatives)
Anorexia Nervosa – Starve body to below 85% normal body weight
Obesity – severely overweight (could be due to unhealthy eating habits or predisposition)
SEXUAL MOTIVATION
Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson) - initial excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
Sexual Motivation is very much driven by psychological factors. – Sexual desire prevails even when capacity to have sex is absent.
Sexual Orientation- Evidence suggests that there is a genetic link. (EX- if one identical twin is gay the other is more likely. They also have similar brain
structures
SOCIAL MOTIVATION
Achievement Motivation- varies among individuals – we have a desire to master complex tasks and reach personal goals. Most high achievers prefer
moderate tasks that they can be successful on.
Extrinsic motivation- people motivated by $ and
Intrinsic motivation- motivated by esteem needs, satisfaction
Management Theory Theory X management style- people are motivated by external rewards and punishment. This style works for a short period of time.
Theory Y management style- people are motivated by job satisfaction, high morale. This management style is more effective.
Conflicting MotivesApproach-Approach- when one has two choices and both have positive outcomes (EX. Should I go to Daytona or Myrtle Beach for spring
break.)
Avoidance – Avoidance – must choose between unattractive outcomes. (Ex. Mom asks you to wash the dishes or clean the \bathroom)
Approach- Avoidance- when one has one choice that has both desirable and undesirable outcomes. (EX. I like Ice Cream but it’s very fattening)
Multiple Approach Avoidance – One must choose between two or more options, each having desirable and undesirable qualities. (Ex.
Choosing which college to attend)
WORK MOTIVATION
Flow- concept where one is so absorbed in one’s work or an activity that he/she loses sense of time and self (considered mentally healthy- EX. having so much fun with
friends that you can’t believe how fast the time has gone).
THEORIES OF EMOTION
James-Lange Theory (2 diff. people) – physiological response (heart pounds) first which causes emotion (feeling afraid) second.
Cannon-Bard Theory (2 diff. people) - physiological change and emotion happen simultaneously.
Shacter two-factor theory (sometimes called Lazarus or Singer) physiological arousal and cognitive label/mental interpretation (“I’m afraid”) occur simultaneously to
cause the emotion.
STRESS
Stressors- life events causing us to have stress.
SRRS (Social Readjustment Rating Scale) used to measure stress caused by different life changing events. This is measured in LCUs (life changing units) EX- going to
college, girlfriend/boyfriend breaks up with you, parents fighting.
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome- reaction to stress-occurs in 3 stages- (Mnemonic ARE)
alarm reaction – sympathetic nervous system is activated
resistance – cope with stress
exhaustion. (Vulnerable to sickness or disease in this stage)
Perceived control – perceived control over the situation lessens stress, perceived lack of control makes an event more stressful
Biofeedback- a technique that allows a person to control physiological responses that are normally involuntary such as blood pressure.
Personality (5-7%)
PSYCHOANALYTICAL (aka Psychodynamic – neo-Freudians)
Freudian Theory states that personality is shaped during childhood and adolescence.
Psychosexual Stages – sexual urges are an important aspect of personality development
Oral – sucking, biting
Anal – Bowel elimination
Phallic – Oedipus/Electra Complex, penis envy, identification (boy cannot beat father for mother’s attention he uses defense mechanism of attaching himself
to father.)
Latency – Sexual feelings are out of conscious awareness
Fixation – under or over gratification of a stage means stuck in it.(Oral fixation – chewing gum, smoke, over eat)
Personality consists of three parts:
Id- pleasure principle, instincts, unconscious sexual and aggressive drives.
Ego- reality principle, mediator between id and superego. Freud says it is important to develop this.
Superego- conscious, morality
Defense Mechanisms- Freud’s believed it’s the ego’s job to protect the conscious mind from threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious. They are:
Repression- pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness.
Denial- not accepting the truth. (Biff waits at the locker for Muffy)
Displacement- redirecting feelings toward another person/object. (Ex. Father yells at kids after a bad day at work).
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Projection- believing thoughts you have about yourself are held by other people. (Ex. pointing out that somebody is a bad friend when you may be a bad friend.)
Reaction Formation- expressing the opposite of how one truly feels (EX. Biff claims he loathes Muffy)
Regression- return to an earlier, comforting form of behavior.Rationalization- justifying or making excuses for an undesirable event or occurrence. (Ex. “I don’t treat
my girlfriend very well but my friends don’t treat theirs well, so it’s okay”).
Sublimation- channeling frustration toward a different goal. (Ex. working extra hours after getting a divorce).
Neo-Freudians (psychodynamic perspective) Criticism of Freud is that it’s difficult to prove theories (little empirical evidence), knowing the unconscious is
unobservable,
Horney’s criticism is that Freud’s theory has a male bias. Males have womb envy
Jung- neo-Freudian (believes in unconscious but conflicts are social not sexual) -personal unconscious and collective unconscious, archetypes.
Adler- neo- Freudian – motivation by fear of failure (inferiority) and desire to achieve (superiority). Importance of birth order.
TRAIT THEORIES- characteristics of people that go unchanged throughout life and in all different situations. (EX. honesty, laziness). Nature (biology) oriented
theories. The criticism is that they underestimate the situation.
Nomothetic approaches – a basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalities
Eysenck’s - introversion-extraversion, stability-instability scales can describe personalities. These are the main traits that underlie all others.
Big 5 Personality Traits- extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, stability. These 5 scales are what are needed to describe
personalities.
Cattell – 16 PF
Idiographic Approach all humans have unique personalities and cannot be described in generalizations. – Gordon Allport. He believed cardinal dispositions
are the traits that have the greatest influence.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES- personality determined by genes, chemistry. EX- temperament- emotional style of dealing with world/others such as getting angry easily.
Heritability- measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited.
Temperament – a personas emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world
Somatotype Theory (Sheldon) – three body types associated with personality traits (mesomorphs .etc)
BEHAVIORIST THEORY- personality determined by environment, reinforcers
SOCIAL – COGNITIVE THEORY- (Bandura) personality determined by the environment and patterns of thought (the way we interpret events)
Reciprocal determinism (aka triadic reciprocality) – interaction between traits, environment and person’s behavior. 3 factors influence one another in a
looplike fashion ]
Self-efficacy – if you are optimistic about your own ability to get things done, low self efficacy = powerless
Internal and External locus of control. The belief someone has as to how much control of their destiny they have. Internals believe if they work
hard they will succeed.
Learned Helplessness- the belief that some people get (because of bad uncontrollable events) that says they cannot help themselves to create or
get out of unpleasant circumstances.
HUMANISTIC THEORYPeople are innately good and have free will (people control own destiny).
Self- actualization Maslow (people are motivated to reach full potential and grow)
Unconditional positive regard by Rogers (accepting someone no matter what) creates an environment that allows someone to develop a self-concept.
Individualistic cultures (United States- where the focus is on the self, making own decisions) vs. Collectivist cultures (Japan- where the emphasis is on doing what
the community wants).
ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
Psychoanalytic Projective Tests- purpose is to reveal the unconscious
(TAT) Thematic Apperception Test- people given a picture and asked to say what is happening in the picture
Rorschach inkblot- people given a picture of an inkblot and asked to state everything they see in it.
Personality Inventories- MMPI- (self report inventory) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory- most widely used self-report.
Barnum effect- susceptibility of people to be deceived when reports show vague, general and usually positive assessments of individuals. Astrologers, psychics exploit
this.
Positive Psychology- Seligman’s idea that happy people need to be studied more because they have certain thought patterns, lifestyles that lead to happiness. EX.
Correlational studies showing how optimistic people live longer lives.
Psychological Disorders (7-9%)
DEFINING ABNORMALITY
Psychological Disorders: UMAD behavior that is Unjustifiable (irrational- does not make sense to most people) Maladaptive (harmful), Atypical (not shared by
many others, unusual), Disturbing (to others-EX pedophilias sexual attraction to children).
DSM IV TR: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual – Identifies Psychological Disorders. The DSM does not suggest causes or treatments. Clients are assessed at various
AXIS levels, .Axis I is a clinical disorder, II is personality disorder, III is medical condition (physical related to mental) and IV psychosocial (stressful life events).
Causes of Psychological Disorders
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Perspective
Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Behavioral
Causes
Internal, Unconscious childhood conflicts and/or repressed thoughts/ memories
Failure to strive towards one potential (self-actualize), low self-esteem, lack of unconditional positive regard in
one’s environment
Behavior is learned through modeling or reinforcements of behavior, people are conditioned (through
association) into behavior, the environment affects behavior
Self-defeating, irrational and/or negative thinking, maladaptive thinking or interpretation of events.
Biochemical imbalances (neurotransmitters), genetic predisposition for illness
Cognitive
Biomedical / Biological
ANXIETY DISORDERS
Phobias: irrational fears of specific object or situation (EX agoraphobia- open spaces)
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): constant low-level anxieties
Obsessive-Compulsive disorder (OCD): unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause the need to engage in particular action or ritual (compulsions) to reduce the
anxiety.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): flashbacks, nightmares because of involvement in war or natural disaster.
Panic attacks: episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
Hypochondriasis: complains of physical illness to doctor but cannot find cause
Conversion disorder: people will complain of severe physical problem such as paralysis or blindness. They will be unable to move their arms or see but no
biological cause can be identified.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
Dissociative Fugue or amnesia (not biologically caused) causes someone to suddenly be in unfamiliar environment after
their brain dissociative from their real self.
Dissociative Identity disorder: (aka multiple personalities) dissociate themselves from their true identity. Do not remember dissociation occurring. Caused
by intense childhood physical/sexual abuse. Some claim the subject is role playing the disorder from the therapist’s questions’
MOOD OR AFFECTIVE DISORDERS
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) - experience depression when there is less sunlight. Treatment is light therapy
Major Depressive disorder (unipolar depression)- the common cold of psychology. DSM criteria is more than 2 weeks of hopelessness, worthlessness,
fatigue, and/or change of appetite, sleeping pattern. Women are 2 times more likely to get.
Dysthymic Disorder mild depression 2 years or more
Bipolar disorder (manic depressive): extreme highs (mania- characterized by high energy, confidence, creativity) and extreme lows (depression)
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Symptoms of schizophrenia: delusions (unrealistic beliefs) of persecution (people are out to get me), delusions of grandeur (belief that you have greater
power/influence than you do. EX “I am the President” Hallucinations- hearing voices, seeing things that aren’t present, disorganized thinking. Positive
symptoms – added unusual behaviors. Negative symptoms- absence of appropriate behavior.
- Paranoid (delusions of persecution), Disorganized (word salad, neologisms), Catatonic (strange body postures, motionless), Undifferentiated (no
particular category)
Causes of Schizophreniastrong genetic influences through twin studies and the fact that 1% of population in almost all cultures has it
excess of neurotransmitter dopamine. Parkinson’s Patients who take dopamine increasing meds often have hallucinations
Correlates to Schizophrenia
enlarged brain ventricles
prenatal viruses
PERSONALITY DISORDERS (PD’s) (least debilitating of all disorders but negatively affects people’s ability to function)
Most PD’s can be deuced about it’s symptoms from the name EXCEPT antisocial
Paranoid (mild persecution)
Obsessive-Compulsive- OCD but not debilitated
Dependent- need attention and help from others
Narcissistic: seeing oneself as the center of the universe, self-absorbed, self-love
Antisocial: little regard for other people’s feelings, no sense of guilt, often law breakers.
Histrionic: overly dramatic behavior
Other Psychological disorders include: philias (unusual sexual attractions to objects or persons), eating disorders, substance abuse, autism, ADHD
David-Rosenhan Study:
Faked a mental illness (said he heard voices) once labeled, every behavior within hospital was interpreted as a sign of schizophrenia. One of his confederates
remained hospitalized for 58 days. (even acting normal).
This showed the powerful influence of labeling someone with a disorder; it also questioned the care for the mentally ill.
Treatments of Psychological Disorders (5-7 %)
HISTORYTrephining - holes placed in peoples heads might let the evil spirits out
Dix, Pinel - movement to reform treatment of mentally ill, no longer caging/treating as criminals.
Medical model- looked at mental illness as curable like physical illnesses.
Deinstitutionalization (1950s) - emptying of institutions because of new attitudes and advent of drug therapy pros- save $, helped patients cons- led to
increase of homeless.
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Preventive Psychology – focuses on preventing people from getting a disorder (reduces suffering for client and costs for society)
Primary prevention – Reduce joblessness, homelessness, poverty, or prejudice
Secondary prevention – includes getting treatment for those at risk. EX. grief counseling – the govt. offers counseling to war veterans
Tertiary prevention – is stopping the manifested symptoms from becoming too severe.
TYPES OF THERAPY
Biological (Biomedical) Therapy
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Psycho Surgery- destruction of part of the brain to change behavior
o
Prefrontal lobotomy- cuts the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe. Rarely done because of risks
Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT) - Electric current passed through both hemispheres of the brain. This is often used for severe depression. Side effects include
memory loss.
Drug therapy
o
antianxiety- Ex. Xanax, Valium (Tranquilzers- barbiturates)
o
antidepressants- Ex. Prozac, Zoloft, MAO inhibitors, SSRI’s (increase activity of serotonin)
o
anti-psychotic- Ex. Thorazine, Haldol (block receptors sites for Dopamine). Excessive use of these can lead to Tardiv Dyskenesia- muscle
tremor associated with Parkinson’s
o
mood stabilizers- Ex. Lithium (Bi-Polar Disorder)
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Insight Therapies – revealing the repressed problems in the unconscious
Hypnosis- people are less likely to repress troubling thoughts
Free Association- to say whatever comes to mind without thinking (reveals clues and provides insight about what is really bothering us in our unconscious.
Dream Analysis- through symbols reveal the latent (underlying) content of dream. Dreams are a window into the unconscious
Resistance- patient disagrees with therapist’s analysis because painful thoughts are surfacing into the ego (denial is much easier), barrier to bringing out the
unconscious
Transference- patients sometimes transfer strong threatening feelings (of love or anger) they have toward parents or partners (or siblings) onto the therapist.
(Resembles displacement)
Behavioral Therapy
Counter Conditioning- Reversing the present conditioned response.
Systematic Desensitization- teaching client to gradually replace anxious feelings with relaxed ones. This is effective with phobias.(EX.- using anxiety
hierarchy such as seeing a spider from 25 ft. away then seeing a spider crawl up your leg until the fear is extinguished)
Exposure Therapy – exposure to what you normally avoid (virtual reality)
Flooding therapy- exposure to fear but start with most frieghtening fear first. EX. Throw boy in room with dog.
Aversive Conditioning- pairing unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus (Ex. a nauseous pill is given to an alcoholic in his/her drink.) Alcohol is
associated with sickness. Bed wetters can be shocked out of unwanted behavior.
Modeling- watch people behave in a calm manner.
Token economy- rewarded for every wanted behavior.
Cognitive Therapy
(Beck) Changing/Challenging thought patterns or beliefs about themselves or events. Emphasis on more positive thinking.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT. Ellis) replaces irrational beliefs with rational ones aka cognitive restructuring.
Humanistic Therapy (Rogers, Maslow, Perls - Gestalt)
Client or person- centered therapy (Rogers) in which the therapist accepts the client no matter what he says/does (unconditional positive regard), shows empathy,
uses active listening (EX. paraphrasing feelings/statements by client). Therapist helps client to self-actualize and grow as a person.
Gestalt Therapy (Perls) – get in touch with the “whole” self.
Existential Therapy – finding meaning within life
Group Therapy- family therapy or AA where one sees that they are not alone with problems.
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