Download Globalisation of East African_20050126 Diets

Globalisation of East African Diets
With special focus on
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda
Raschke Verena
Matrikelnummer:9831084
WS 2004/2005
Seminar: Ernährungsökonomie (Prof. Dr. Onyeji Chibo)
1
Introduction
Rapid changes in diets and lifestyles that have occurred with industrialization,
urbanization, economic development and market globalization have accelerated over
the past decade. This is having a significant impact on health, nutritional status and
food habits of populations, particularly in developing countries and in countries in
transition. Food and food products have become commodities produced and traded
in a market that has expanded from an essentially local base to an increasingly
global one. Changes in the world food economy are reflected in shifting dietary
patterns. (4)
Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya, as developing countries, are in a process of transition
between traditional and modern lifestyles. The population of the three countries is
dispersed by different ethnic, ecological and economical backgrounds. (2) It is
therefore rather difficult to make a general statement on the globalisation of East
African diets as a whole. The present paper looks at the impact of the driving forces
of diet change and the importance of food habits in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
General information
The annual population growth rate has been around 3% between the year 1990
and 2000 in all the three countries of East Africa, Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,
respectively. Furthermore, 75% to 80% are the economically active proportions of
the total population in all the three countries. Although Uganda has the smallest land
area of the three countries with 197.100 sqkm, it has the highest percentage of
agricultural land as proportion of total land with 62.3%, followed by Tanzania and
Kenya, both with approximately 45%. The differences in the staple food patterns and
the differences in agricultural land allocation are presented very clearly in Figure1
below. Looking at the proportion of total land Tanzania has 39.60% of land under
pasture; Kenya 37.40% and Uganda 25.9%, respectively (see Table 1).
Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya are low-income agricultural economies. Table 1
provides a picture on the population, land and socio-economic data of the
three countries. Tanzania’s livestock constitutes 15% to the GDP which is the highest
rate compared to the other two countries, Kenya and Uganda, where livestock
constitutes 13.8% and 8.1% to GDP, respectively. Furthermore, Tanzania had the
highest agricultural GDP with 45.10% as a proportion of total GDP but it showed only
ten part GDP per capita annual growth rate between the years 1999-2000. Of the
three countries, Kenya showed a decline in GDP per capita annual growth rate of 0.7% between these periods of time with the lowest value of agricultural GDP as
proportion of total GDP of 25.60%. (1)
2
Figure 1: Crop zones in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda (FAO 1997)
Main Crop
Zones
Driving forces of diet and nutrition change
Food habits in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have changed in the past few decades
without question However, in many cohorts within these countries, baseline empirical
data is lacking, especially for children. Knowledge in nutrition has increased
enormously in the last decades. Nevertheless, there is evidence of a lower incidence
of vitamin deficiency in the past and of less protein-calorie deficiency.
The dietary changes that characterize the “nutrition transition” include both
qualitative and quantitative changes in the diet. The adverse dietary changes include
shifts in the structure of the diet towards a higher energy density diet with a greater
role for fat and added sugars in foods, greater saturated fat intake, reduced intake of
complex carbohydrates and dietary fibres and reduced intake of fruits and
vegetables. These poor countries will also continue to face food shortages and
nutrient inadequacies during this transition. (4)
Population and land pressure
In East Africa, slow economic growth has been accompanied by rising urbanisation
and a growth in rural population between the 1980 and 2000 which is shown in
Table 2. By 2000, the degree of urbanisation was estimated with 3.3% in Uganda,
11.3% in Tanzania and 10.23% in Kenya, respectively. It is projected that by 2015
the figures could be as high as 8.17% for Uganda, 22.79% for Tanzania and 18.87%
for Kenya, respectively. Although Table 2 demonstrates an increase in population
3
during 1990-2000, the annual growth rate showed a smaller acclivity compared to
the time period of 1980-1990. Increasing urbanization will have consequences for the
dietary patterns and lifestyle of individuals, not all of which are positive.
The societies of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are in the middle of a societal
transition in which “traditional” and “modern” lifestyles co-exist. This transitory
period has influenced food habits, as recognized in empirical investigations. Food
habits based on traditional practices are changing due to the influence of societal
development. (2)
The process of diet transformation can be seen as involving two separate
stages:
(i) Income-induced diet diversification. As the start of the process of faster economic
growth, diets diversify but maintain predominantly traditional features;
(ii) Diet globalisation. As globalisation begins to exert its influences, we see the
adoption of markedly different diets that no longer conform to the traditional local
food habits.
During income induced diet diversification, economic prosperity enables consumers
to afford a more varied and balanced diet. In this stage, the demand for food would
still be largely directed towards traditional foods.
As growth consolidates and the economy opens up to globalisation, households
starts to adopt food consumption patterns that differ from the traditional diet. The
new dietary habits reflect global patterns, and could significantly differ from the
habits that have developed locally over many generations, as demonstrated in
several studies on income induced diet diversification in China and India. For
example, in East Africa consumers especially exhibit strong preferences for sodas and
juices and other highly processed convenient drinks all of which are readily available
in the emerging supermarkets.1 (3) This trend could be one of the reasons why the
consumption of sugar and sweeteners increased from the 1990s. A critical implication
for globalisation is the severing of the link between diets and the local availability of
resources and local habits. In the stage of diet globalisation in particular, consumers
have access to varieties of food that were not previously available to them. (3)
The process of diet globalisation has been clearly assisted by the global media.
Increasing numbers of people have regular access to print and electronic media, thus
reducing the impact of public service messages delivered via these channels of
communication. Mc Donald’s, Coca Cola and Pepsi have been able to broaden their
products to specific films or personalities. These multinational corporations also often
sponsor sporting events that have global coverage creating appeal for their products,
particularly among younger consumers. The internet, in particular, has broadened
the advertising possibilities for these companies. (3)
1
The adoption of a globalised diet should be seen as a dynamic process: once the national diet opens
up to the world influence, it will always be subject to ongoing changes. Thus, over a longer time
horizon, we may continue to see a sequence/series of discontinuous structural breaks. Future
generations may start to consider the energy dense diet as their traditional diet and move away from
this to one that is healthier with increased income. (See Popkin 1993)
4
We also have to take into account that as more women enter the labor force, the
traditional role of the East African house wife to be in charge of food preparation is
eroding. Although women may still have prime responsibility for providing the daily
meals, the nature of these meals has changed. Foods requiring reduced preparatory
time as compared to traditional dishes are more likely to be consumed by families in
which females are responsible for earning a living.
It has to be considered that food preferences of older age groups tend to be
relatively static over time and there may be increased expenditure on superior foods
which tend to be prepared according to long-standing customs and practices.
Younger generations are more readily influenced by new foods, particularly when
these are introduced through advertising campaigns that target these younger
cohorts specifically. This divergence between the dietary habits of the young and old
tends to persist for a long period of time, if not indefinitely. Generally, lifetime eating
habits formed at a young age are difficult to reverse as one grows older. (3)
Furthermore, there is always a fluctuation in prices of food because of seasonal
changes and availability. With price increases, there is a greater demand for the
cheaper foods and a falling off in nutritional value. Higher prices obtained from cash
crops encourage the farmer to plant more of such crops while his family and the
surrounding community are forced to eat less nutritious foods.
Environmental Emergencies such as seasonal shortages, famines, epidemics,
expulsion and resettlement, and wars may result in alterations in dietary customs.
Such practices are sometimes permanently adopted.
The disparities of different food habits in countries like Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania are huge. For example in Kenya the urban population can still be further
classified into at least three categories: the wealthy class who are the minority; the
middle class who are mainly professionals, and the poor urban who mostly engage in
unskilled and often manual work. The rural community may be divided into three
distinct classes: the middle class who are again professionals, farmers on their own
land who have a steady income from some business, and the rural poor who engage
in manual tasks for their living. Such a distinction in different groups can readily be
observed within different communities and regions of these countries. Food habits
among these various socioeconomic categories differ markedly, although empirical
data are difficult to obtain at present. (2)
Furthermore, Kenya, with its multiple ethnic groups, has varying traditional drinks
and dishes, prepared in many different ways with the ultimate intention of providing
a balanced diet. There are also food taboos that either have or may not have a
nutritional effect on the people concerned. For example, among the Mbeere, children
were not allowed to eat offal as it was believed that this would interfere their growth.
Among traditional Maasai, pregnant woman are advised to avoid fatty foods, and
instead drink cow’s blood, sour milk and lots of water. These practices force women
to vomit following a heavy meal with intent to keep the baby small at birth and thus
ensure a safe delivery. Some of these taboos have a scientific basis while a number
cannot be justified.
5
Mutton is preferred to leaner goat meat in Nyanza, while fish, which is a staple food
in the Lake Basin and the coast, is still viewed with considerable suspicion in central
and eastern Kenya. (2) These illustrations of the manifold of different food practices
and benefits also exist in Tanzania and Uganda in different ways. Therefore,
sociocultural/economic barriers make it difficult to get information on food habits.
Under such conditions studying food habits becomes a lengthy, costly and tedious
task and it would be very efficient to have electronically available data and
information on food habits. (2)
Apart from socio-economic problems, the lifestyles of certain ethnic groups also
make it difficult to obtain information on food habits. This is especially true of
Nomadic groups such as the Maasai and Pokot. Their food habits are dictated by the
type of environment they settle in at any given time. Thus, a true picture with regard
to such communities cannot be summarized through a traditional survey method of
data collection. (2)
Trends in diet diversification in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda
Food patterns and food consumption
When we talk about globalisation of East African diets and food habits it is very
important to have information on staple food patterns and to know the nutrient
intake of each country. For this reason some of the most important food
consumption developments will be described in the following section.
During the 1970s plantains were most common in Uganda and around Lake Victoria
and in the west and the Kilimanjaro regions of Tanzania. Millet was common in the
eastern and northern parts of Uganda, in the Nyanza region of Kenya, and in
Tanzania from south of Lake Victoria up to the Central-Region. The remaining
regions had maize as the staple food the West Nile region in Uganda, Rift Valley,
Central Region, and in large sections of the Eastern Region in Kenya and in a belt
which stretches from Pare and Usambara mountains in the north, taking in the
central parts of Tanzania. Rice areas were along the coast, islands and in some
riverine areas like Tana in Kenya and Rufiji in Tanzania. Cassava played an important
role in many parts, mostly as a reserve food. Meat and milk were only significant
among pastoral people like the Masai, Samburu and Turkana who live on the dry
steppes.
The general custom is to have two meals a day. Often breakfast is omitted and
during planting and harvest time there is only time for one main meal. The women
are responsible for both house-work and field-work and the fields are scattered. The
main dishes are cereal porridge or stew plantain, a diet which contains rather little
fat. Spices are added, and rarely milk. Legumes, green leaves and some other
vegetables and, more rarely, fish or meat are supplementary items of the diet. Fruit
is not commonly eaten; it is more used as snacks for children. The diet is more or
less monotonous, especially among pastoral people. In times of food shortage only
the staple foods are available.
6
Such a diet of cereals, lacking in fat, is insufficient for an adult. The monotony of the
diet is harmful as it lacks balance and results in malnutrition.
The share of food consumption patterns is very different throughout Kenya, Uganda
and Tanzania which should be taken into consideration by interpreting the FAOSTAT
figures presented in Table 5 to Table 7. Whereas cereals and sugars accounted for
51% and 12% between 1990 and 1994 in Kenya, cereals and roots and tubers had a
proportion of 49% and 21% of daily calorie intake in Tanzania as shown in Graph 1
and 2. Interestingly, Uganda listed root and tubers with 30%, vegetable and fruits
with 27% and cereals with 21% as proportion of major foods in calorie consumption
(see graph 3).
Graph 1-3: Major foods in daily calorie intake of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Source. FAO)
Diets evolve over time, being influenced by many factors and complex interactions.
Income, prices, individual preferences and beliefs, cultural traditions, as well as
geographical, environmental, social and economic factors all interact in a complex
manner to shape dietary consumption patterns. Data on the national availability of
the main food commodities provide a valuable insight into diets and their evolution
over time. FAOSTAT figures presented in Table 5 to Table 7 below give some
impressions of the food availability in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Food Balance
sheets give a complete picture of supply (including production, imports, stock
changes and exports) and utilization (including final demand in the form of food use
and industrial non-food use, intermediate demand such as animal feed and seed use,
and waste) by commodity. Although such average per capita supplies are derived
from national data, they may not correspond to actual per capita availability, which is
determined by many other factors such as inequality in access to food. Likewise,
7
these data refer to “average food available for consumption”, which, for a number of
reasons (for example waste at the household level), is not equal to average food
intake or average food consumption. In the following section of this paper, therefore,
the terms “food consumption” or “food intake” should be read as “food available for
consumption”. (4)
The average caloric intake per capita per day in East Africa was approximately 22002300 kcal in the 1960s and approximately 2350 kCal in 2002. Interestingly, Tanzania
showed the lowest calorie intake in 2002 (1975 kCal), whereas Kenya displayed the
highest calorie intake (2677 kCal), followed by Uganda (2410 kCal). The calorie
intake is often below the recommended daily intake (RDI) but in several areas, it is
quite sufficient. The variance in day to day consumption is quite narrow when
compared with dietary surveys in Europe, perhaps due to the simpler food pattern
and lack of variety. The lower calorie intake should as well be considered in relation
to the general weight level of the African population; calorie intake is closely related
to weight.
In general, cereal consumption increased from the 1960s to the 1970s throughout
East Africa, reaching its highest values in 1970 in Kenya and Uganda (1261
cal/cap/day and 591 cal/cap/day). Interestingly, cereal consumption decreased from
the 1970s to the 1980s, and onward to the 1990s, when it began to increase slightly.
Among the cereal products, there was a large increase in wheat consumption,
whereas the consumption of millet decreased markedly in all three countries between
the 1960s and 2002 (Table 5 to 7).
Tanzania
In Tanzania, as presented in Table 5, there was an increased consumption of all
main food groups during the 1970’s. Consumption of cereals and vegetables
increased substantially. The largest proportional increase was in the consumption of
wheat, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, pulses and vegetable oils. Animal product
consumption increased until the 1970s, including substantial increases in milk and
fish consumption (Table 5). The consumption of alcoholic beverages demonstrated a
large increase, while the use of sugar and sweeteners declined from the 1970s on.
The 1980s, by contrast, saw significant changes in the food consumption. There was
a marked decrease in the consumption of cereals and vegetable products, whereas
the consumption of animal products was modest. Cereal consumption saw a large
decline in millet and a modest decline in wheat, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes and
oil crops, whereas the starchy roots, pulses and cassava consumption increased.
With respect to animal products, there was an increase during this period of time,
particularly for meat and fish and a modest increase in animal fats. Consumption of
sugar and sweeteners, and alcoholic beverages decreased to a large extent (Table
5).
During the 1990s, cereal consumption increased substantially, especially the
consumption of wheat, sorghum and sweet potatoes. Also sweeteners and sugars as
well as alcoholic beverages showed an increase during this period of time. Besides
that, there was a decline in maize, starchy roots, cassava, pulses and oil crops.
8
Looking at the animal and vegetable products we can recognize a modest decrease
in consumption. Among the vegetable products there was only a marked increase in
vegetable oils. In the animal products there was a decline across all food with
exception to milk which showed an increase in consumption.
Kenya
Food consumption patterns of Kenya (see Table 6) highlight that the largest
proportional increase among the vegetable products was in cereals until the 1970s.
Wheat, maize, sugar and sweeteners, vegetable oil and alcoholic beverages were the
only vegetable products in which an increase could be noted.
During the 1980s, consumption of vegetable products began to decline, whereas
cereals showed the highest decrease until the 1990s. There was a modest decrease
in the consumption of wheat, maize, millet, sorghum, starchy roots and cassava
sugar crops and oils crops with an interestingly high decrease of stimulants and
alcoholic beverages into the 1990s. Sweet potatoes, sugar and sweeteners, pulses as
well as vegetable oils showed a modest increase, whereas the consumption of fruit
changed immensely into the 1990s.
From the 1970s until the 1990s there was a large increase in animal products,
whereas the highest increase could be noticed in the consumption of meat, milk and
eggs in 2002.
Next to the animal products, vegetable produce demonstrated a significant change in
the food pattern consumption. The cereal consumption increased after the 1990s.
The consumption of starchy roots, sugar and sweeteners, vegetable oils, vegetables,
stimulants and alcoholic beverages had a modest increase. A large increase could be
seen in the wheat consumption. The highest decrease among the vegetable products
could be recognized in the maize, pulses and fruits. Overall, the consumption of
millet, sorghum and oil crops did not change markedly during that decade as shown
in Table 6.
When we take a closer look on the food intake and dietary patterns of Kenyan
households, we will recognise that their diets are mostly cereal based, with tubers
and a variety of vegetables and fruits available. White maize, sorghum and millet are
high in phytate and fiber, which inhibit the absorption of micronutrients such as zinc
and iron which has to be thought of.
Uganda
During the 1960s the consumption of vegetable and animal products increased in
Uganda (Table 7). Among the vegetable products, the largest proportional increase
was in the consumption of sweet potatoes. All the vegetable products showed a
modest increase during that decade except of sorghum, starchy roots, cassava and
fruits which declined in their consumption.
In the 1970s consumption in vegetable products began to fall until the 1980s.
Interestingly, the consumption of cereals and wheat declined during that decade,
reached the lowest point of consumption in the 1990s and increased again until 2002
whereas the wheat consumption was at the highest point in 2002 from the 1960s on.
During the 1980s the maize consumption continued to increase and reached its
highest value in 2002. The consumption of millet and sorghum declined in the 1980s
and reached the lowest values in 2002. Interestingly, the cassava consumption was
9
very high in the 1990s and declined until 2002. After the decrease in the
consumption of sweet potatoes, sugar, sweeteners and vegetable oils in 1970 a
modest decreased could be noted until 2002. The increase in sugar crop, pulses and
oil crop consumption in the 1980s was followed by an increase in their consumption
which started in the 1990s. The consumption of stimulants, including coffee, tea and
cocoa beans increased throughout the period of the 1960s to the 1990s.
Overall, the consumption of animal products modestly increased from 1963 until
1990, and slightly decreased toward 2002, whereas only the meat and fish
consumption had a modest increase during these decades and declined after 1990.
The consumption of animal fats reached its highest point in the 1990s after a lower
consumption during the 1960s and 1970s and has levelled off on a lower value by
2002. The high milk consumption throughout the 1950s saw a modest increase until
the 1980s and started to increase again very slightly in the 1990s.
It is important to note that although consumption of animal products increased
throughout these decades in all of these countries, annual growth rate of meat, milk
and eggs demonstrated a large decline between 1990 and 2000 (see table 4). Only
Tanzania showed a slight increase in the milk and egg consumption during that
period of time. The reduction of per-capita income due to poor economic
performance has brought about a decline in milk and meat consumption in Kenya.
Although the annual consumption of meat (total), milk and eggs increased since the
1980’s and will still increase by 2015 the annual growth rate from 1990-2000
displayed a large decrease compared to 1980-1990 (see table 4) because increased
food consumption and population growth stand next to each other. Although
households may own cattle, goats and poultry, commonly these are not consumed.
Adults and nomadic communities consume more meat than no pastoralists. Lakeside
and Oceanside communities do not consume adequate amounts of fish. Poor
households have a limited capacity to grow and purchase food; therefore they have
more nutrient deficiencies. Early weaning to cereal porridge deprives the infant of
protein and other nutrients from human milk. Other milk is only consumed in small
amounts in sweetened tea. Older children eat adult diets, which are extremely bulky
and hard to digest. In general Kenyan children have inadequate intakes of energy,
fat and micronutrients and an urgent need to increase the intake of animal source
foods. Today, per-capita calorie availability decreases as well and chronic undernutrition, which affects over 10% of children, is today primarily associated with
insufficient dietary intake rather than poor health. (1)
It is interesting to note that the use of wheat in the diet is changing as well with the
highest increase in wheat consumption noted in Kenya which could be explained by
the increase in wheat imports. This could mean that there is for example a move
away from the traditional eaten ugali, a boiled/steamed mash, prepared from maize
flour in Kenya. In some communities in Western Kenya, ugali is prepared from flour
of indigenous cereals, millet or sorghum. Furthermore, the high decreases in maize,
millet and sorghum consumption in Kenya throughout the 1990s could reflect the
change in cereal consumption with a tendency versus wheat. This statement can not
be generalized for East Africa because in Tanzania and Uganda an increase in maize
consumption could be noted and only Uganda showed the same decline in millet and
sorghum consumption as Kenya.
10
Overall, Kenya is the one out of the three countries in East Africa where the food
patterns changed most over the years. As the FAO food balance sheets demonstrate,
Kenya had the highest increase in sugar, sweeteners, pulses, vegetables, stimulants,
animal fats, eggs and milk until 2002 compared to Tanzania and Uganda which
reflects that Kenya has a higher consumption of energy dense foods. Kenyan people
are moving away from the traditionally consumed food that was much more
nutritious than what the majority of the people are consuming now.
Another reason for the change in food habits and increases in calorie intake in Kenya
could be that the local government has been implementing orthodox macroeconomic
policies and structural reforms since 1993, which culminated in the June 2003
Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation (ERSWEC). This
program seeks to address major macroeconomic vulnerabilities and lays the
groundwork for strong economic and employment growth and poverty reduction. In
particular, it intends to reduce the domestic debt to a sustainable level, to restructure
public spending in favour of poverty reduction outlays and investment, to reorganize
the public sector, and to place anticorruption strategies at the top of the policy
agenda. (1)
Kenya runs a deficit in trade balance. The main agricultural imports include wheat,
rice and fertilizers; agricultural exports include tea, coffee, horticultural and fishery
products. Kenya is a net, although modest, importer of meat and milk. The
government has recently formulated a comprehensive strategy that seeks to set up
an overall co-coordinating authority with the aim of increasing exports. (1)
About 45% of the total land area is agriculturally productive. The other parts, are
mainly used for pastoral farming, are semi-arid to arid, and characterized by low
unreliable and poorly distributed rainfall which all has an impact on food security. (1)
In the last two decades per-capita livestock production and productivity have been
stagnant. The Kenya Rural Development Strategy identifies a number of productions
and productivity constrains to be addressed:
1) poor governance in key agriculture institutions; 2) lack of capacity by the private
sector to take over functions previously performed by the state, incomplete markets
and weak marketing systems; 3) poor or insecure access to land and to farm credit,
high cost of farm inputs, and heavy taxation of farmers through local authority taxes,
4) high prevalence of HIV/AIDS affecting agricultural productivity; 5) low level of
public funding and inefficient use of public resources resulting in inadequate and
inefficient rural infrastructure; 6) inappropriate technology and inadequate funding
for research and extension services. (1)
This illustration reflects very clearly how many factors can have an impact on
nutrition security and that it is impossible to solve the problem by finding and using
“one true solution”. All of the facts mentioned above are linked together and have to
be seen as a whole when it comes to development strategies.
Uganda undertook structural reforms which could be one of the reasons for the
increase in calorie intake since the 1960s. This started when the government of
Uganda initiated an Economic recovery Programme in 1987 and since 1990 has
successfully undertaken structural reforms embracing liberalised markets for
agricultural inputs and outputs, trade and investment. In the early 1990s a civil
11
sector reform was implemented, and in 1997 the Local Government Act decentralized
substantial political, financial and planning responsibilities from the central to local
government units. However, as Table 3 suggests, annual growth rates in pastured
and cropped land had a lower increases in the years 1999-2000 as compared to
respective growth rates in the 1980s, during which time the total agricultural land
had an annual growth rate of 1.1%. The annual growth rate for cropped land was
1.9% from the year 1980-2000 which was the highest value in this period compared
to Kenya and Tanzania. (1)
Macroeconomic stability is a central objective of the government’s current economic
policies. The following targets have been set for medium-term macroeconomic
management: (i) achieving real annual GDP growth rates of 7%, (ii) maintaining a
competitive market-determined exchange rate, (iii) holding gross international
reserves at around 5 months of imports of goods and non-factor services, and (iv)
maintaining low inflation (not more than 5% per annum). (1)
Ugandan farmers fall into three typologies: subsistence, semi-commercial, and
commercial. Subsistence farming is practiced by three-quarters of households,
producing predominantly for home-consumption and using traditional technologies.
Only coffee and tea are grown in large modern estates. (1)
Smallholder farmers own about 90% of all cattle and almost 100% of goats, sheep
and poultry. About 40% of rural households keep chickens and other poultry, about
20% own cattle, and almost one third own goats. Since almost 42% of rural dwellers
are estimated to be poor, policies favouring the livestock sector could contribute to
poverty reduction. (1)
Livestock sector has increased over the last two decades, but increases have not
kept pace with population growth. Furthermore, output growth has been achieved by
increases in livestock numbers, while productivity (carcass wt/yield and offtake rate)
has been stagnant for most meat production, with only pigs and poultry sharing
minor improvements in offtake rates. (1)
Uganda runs a trade deficit of around 10% of GDP, which reflects the composition of
the import basket (manufactures, equipment and machinery) as compared to the
narrow export basket (for the most part coffee and other cash crops), despite a
number of recent efforts to diversify agriculture exports from traditional towards nontraditional crops, such as sesame seeds, maize, beans, horticulture and fish. The
European Union is Uganda’s main trading partner. As a result of regional integration,
trade with other sub-Saharan African countries has been increasing and today Kenya
is the largest single supplier, accounting for nearly one quarter of total merchandise
imports. (1)
Where to go?
Early European travellers reported that the African had a good diet. Livingstone was
surprised to see the variety of foods eaten by the Wagogo in Central Tanzania. (5)
Several eating habits were observed; plenty of green leaves were eaten with very
high vitamin A content. It would therefore be an excellent idea to use dark green
leafy vegetables with high contents in vitamin A as a food based approach to
12
improve the nutritional status of malnourished people. Also, millet was much more
common with the huge advantage that it can be plant in very dry regions.
Furthermore it contains a very high protein and fat content compared to maize and
sorghum. (6) But food shortages were already common in former times. Instead of
wild leaves more European vegetables are used. Also, traditional breakfast (for
example “uji”) is often replaced by tea, more foods are bought and food taboos are
disappearing. (7-9).
Outside influences have brought about these changes. Arabs and Europeans have
introduced new ideas, methods, crops, health services and work opportunities. The
ecological balance has been disturbed, death rates, epidemic diseases and population
growth increased dramatically.
To fight against malnutrition and micro nutrient deficiencies it is very important to
adapt a multidisciplinary approach which has a long-term effect. A high level of
education is necessary before the selection of foods is related to more nutritious
foods.
Supplementation can be used as a short term intervention to reach the regions with
the highest prevalence of malnutrition and food fortification is a very effective way
when larger populations groups want to be accommodated. It is very important to
know which foods to fortify because they should be locally accepted. Furthermore
they should be regional available, consumed on a regular basis and the bioavailability
of the foods should be high as well. Studying food habits and making them available
to scientists and the public is a very important future aspect. It can just be repeated
that we have to discover what, where, how and why people eat. The nutrition is a
key element in solving the major problems in the developing world. We can not help
developing countries by making them dependent on industrialized countries through
food aid or supplementation over years they have to cope with their problems by
themselves.
Financial stability, trade reform, civil conflicts, governance, water and sanitation are
just a few factors which have to be thought of when solving the problem of hunger.
It is important to learn from problems of the past and to elicit if it is in the interest of
all. For example a lot of developing countries profited from the green revolution
where an increase in yield was aimed but the higher the yield the lower the
nutritional value of the foods, a major aspect that has to be thought of.
Such schemes however, must run parallel with education before the adaptation to
change leads to better health.
13
Tables
Table1: Human population, land and socio-economics
General Information
Tanzania
Uganda
Annual population growth rate (1990-2000)
3,10%
3,0%
Population
80%
78,10%
as proportion of economically active
population
Agricultural land as proportion of total land
62,3%
45,20%
Land under pasture as proportion of total land
25,9%
39,60%
GDP annual growth rate (1990-2000)
GDP per capita annual growth rate (19902000)
Agriculture, GDP as proportion of total GDP
Livestock, GDP as proportion of total GDP
Kenya
2,70%
75,40%
45,40%
37,40%
6,4%
2,80%
1,80%
3,3%
40,3%
8,1%
0,10%
45,10%
15,00%
-0,70%
25,60%
13,80%
Tanzania
Kenya
Poverty incidence (2002-3)
Uganda
Total
37,7%
41,60%
42,00%
Urban
12,2%
24,40%
29,30%
Rural
41,7%
49,70%
46,40%
Source: (FAO) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Livestock information, sector
analysis and policy branch. 2004.
Table 2 Human population trends
Population segment
Annual growth
rate (%)
Uganda
Total
Rural
Urban
1980
12,47
11,37
1,10
1990
17,36
15,42
1,97
2000
23,49
20,16
3,33
2015
39,34
31,20
8,17
1980-1990
3,40
3,10
5,90
1990-2000
3,10
2,70
5,60
Tanzania
Total
Rural
Urban
1980
18,84
16,06
2,78
1990
26,04
20,39
5,65
2000
35,12
23,79
11,33
2015
49,34
26,56
22,79
1980-1990
3,30
2,40
7,40
1990-2000
3,00
1,60
7,20
2015
1980-1990
40,00
3,70
21,13
2,70
18,87
8,00
United Nations: Livestock
1990-2000
2,70
1,30
6,10
1990
2000
Kenya
1980
23,57
30,67
Total
16,37
17,91
20,44
Rural
13,74
5,66
10,23
Urban
2,63
Source: (FAO) Food and Agriculture Organization of the
information, sector analysis and policy branch. 2004.
14
Table 3: Trends in agricultural land
Land type
Uganda
Agricultural, total
Cropped1
Pastures
Annual growth rate (%)
1990-2000
1980-1990
0,3
1,1
0,4
1,9
0
0,2
Tanzania
Agricultural, total
Cropped1
Pastures
0,1
1
0
0,1
1,2
0
0,1
0,5
0
0
0
0
Kenya
Agricultural, total
Cropped1
Pastures
1
Arable and permanent crops
Source: (FAO) Food and Agriculture Organization
sector analysis and policy branch. 2004.
of the United Nations: Livestock information,
Table 4: Trends in annual consumption of meat, milk and eggs (1000 metric tonnes)
Uganda
Product
Meat, total
Beef
Sheep and goat
Pig
Poultry
Milk, total
Eggs, total
Tanzania
Product
Meat, total
Beef
Sheep and goat
Pig
Poultry
Milk, total
Eggs, total
Kenya
Product
Meat, total
Beef
Sheep and goat
Pig
Poultry
Milk, total
Eggs, total
Annual growth rate (%)
1980-1990
1990-2000
3,6
2,5
-0,6
1,7
2,9
3,2
21,2
3
3,9
4,1
2,2
1,5
3,7
2,8
1970*
113
1980
145,7
86,1
16,4
8,4
20,3
339,2
7,9
1990
207,5
81,5
21,8
57,6
29,6
420,6
11,4
2000
266,3
96,8
29,9
77,5
44,1
485,9
15
2015
376,9
162,7
39,9
96,8
77,5
852,3
27,1
1970*
139
1980
176,4
128,3
26
4,5
17,7
471,3
33,2
1990
261,4
194,9
31,3
9
26,2
605,3
38,7
2000
304,9
212,7
38,8
12,6
40,7
781,2
53,6
2015
503,3
345,4
54,4
14,8
88,8
1233,6
93,2
1980-1990
4
4,3
1,9
7,2
4
2,5
1,5
1990-2000
1,6
0,9
2,2
3,4
4,5
2,6
3,3
1970*
186
1980 1990 2000 2015
255,9
348
404,1 601,7
181,7
240
278,6 367,4
38,4
56
58,8
84,4
3,4
5,5
10
20
32,4
46,4
56,7
129,9
1043,3 2274,8 2313,6 3320,1
15,2
31,9
45,2
70,3
1980-1990
3,1
2,8
3,8
4,9
3,7
8,1
7,7
1990-2000
1,5
1,5
0,5
6,2
2
0,2
3,5
* Source: FA0STAT, FAO
Source: (FAO) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Livestock information,
sector analysis and policy branch. 2004.
15
Table 5: Food consumption in Tanzania
Product
(Unit used in cal/cap/day)
1962
1970
1980
Grand Total
1733
1692
2197
Cereals, Excluding Beer
650
539
1071
Wheat
38
44
51
Maize
435
350
711
Millet
50
40
67
Sorghum
63
48
104
Starchy Roots
523
501
461
Cassava
471
450
371
Sweet Potatoes
49
44
73
Sugarcrops
0
0
0
Sugar and Sweetners
74
87
67
Pulses
76
92
116
Treenuts
2
2
2
Oilcrops
34
49
42
Total veg product
1598
1537
2065
Vegetable Oils
51
65
89
Vegetables
33
35
30
Fruits
89
109
90
Stimulants*
0
0
0
Alcoholic Beverages
62
54
93
Total animal product
135
154
132
Meat
48
51
47
Animal Fats
17
18
15
Milk, Excluding Butter
51
55
38
Eggs
3
4
5
22
Fish, Seafood
11
22
*Coffe, Tea, Cocoa Beans
Table 6: Food consumption in Kenya
Product
(Unit used in cal/cap/day)
1962
1970
1980
Grand Total
2168
2222
2188
Cereals, Excluding Beer
93
1261
1245
Wheat
76
79
151
Maize
934
1016
986
Millet
68
60
27
Sorghum
93
88
56
Starchy Roots
213
206
176
Cassava
136
126
108
Sweet Potatoes
41
49
52
Sugarcrops
7
7
12
Sugar and Sweetners
135
156
202
Pulses
190
174
61
Treenuts
0
0
1
Oilcrops
19
17
18
Total veg product
1934
2002
1961
Vegetable Oils
37
40
113
Vegetables
18
16
16
Fruits
76
63
16
Stimulants
1
1
61
Alcoholic Beverages
51
58
52
Total animal product
234
219
226
1990
2066
1008
44
689
29
69
484
432
38
0
42
105
2
32
1922
95
25
73
0
54
143
52
16
38
4
29
2002
1975
1016
91
657
35
90
372
296
65
0
78
91
1
27
1850
124
18
50
0
68
125
50
9
43
3
17
1990
1928
893
120
727
14
21
159
88
55
9
205
69
2
8
1651
155
17
97
1
35
277
2002
2677
1197
1056
5
4
5
178
0
235
1
1
5
1991
211
62
19
23
56
686
16
Meat
Animal Fats
Milk, Excluding Butter
Eggs
Fish, Seafood
86
9
123
3
4
81
10
112
3
6
86
12
111
3
6
Table 7: Food consumption in Uganda
Product
(Unit used in cal/cap/day)
1963
1970
1980
Grand Total
2300
2420
2061
Cereals, Excluding Beer
527
591
463
Wheat
13
26
14
Maize
122
168
173
Millet
286
298
188
Sorghum
98
89
69
Starchy Roots
523
498
541
Cassava
322
187
308
Sweet Potatoes
181
298
215
Sugarcrops
4
4
10
Sugar and Sweetners
118
129
24
Pulses
199
217
186
Treenuts
0
0
0
Oilcrops
182
215
66
Total veg product
2158
2275
1918
Vegetable Oils
45
53
18
Vegetables
14
13
13
Fruits
324
284
423
Stimulants
0
1
0
Alcoholic Beverages
218
266
170
Total animal product
142
145
143
Meat
57
58
59
Animal Fats
11
8
5
Milk, Excluding Butter
49
47
47
Eggs
2
2
2
26
Fish, Seafood
17
25
Source: FAOSTAT, FAO
74
7
170
5
14
239
25
371
27
8
1990
2322
448
7
194
173
57
624
389
218
8
29
233
0
132
448
28
14
471
0
169
164
76
14
42
2
26
2002
2410
514
43
260
120
47
568
307
232
5
85
227
0
170
2260
37
14
484
4
151
149
74
9
46
2
14
17
References
1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Livestock
information, sector analysis and policy branch. 2004.
2. Oniango RK: Food habits in Kenya: The effects of change and attendant
methodological problems. Appetite 1999; 32:93-96.
3. P. Pingali and Y. Khwaja: Globalisation of Indian diets and the
transformation of food supply systems. ESA (Agriculture and Development
Economics Division) Working paper 2004; No. 04-05.
4. Report of a joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation: Diet, nutrition and the
prevention of chronic diseases. WHO Technical Report Series, Geneva
2002; 916.
5. Schaffer, R.D and Finklestein F.: The food and growth of Gogo children.
Stencilled Paper 1963.
6. D. B. Jelliffe ea: Ecology of childhood disease in the Maramojong of
Uganda. Arch. Environmental Health 1964; 9:25.
7. Allen KW: The monotonous diet of the African. E.A. Med J 1995; 32:95.
8. Burgess HJL: Protein-calorie malnutrition in Uganda, II-Busoga District,
Bukedi District and Bugisu District. E.A. Med J 1962; 39:362.
9. Latham MC: Malnutrition in East Africa. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1964; 67:90.
10. Laurie W and H. Trant.: A health survey in Kwimba District, Tanganyika.
East African Medical Survey. Monograph, East African High Comission.
1954; No. 3.
Copyright:
Dieses Manuskript ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Es darf ohne Genehmigung der Autorin weder ganz
noch teilweise verwertet werden. Vor allem darf es nicht ohne Angabe der Autorinnen ganz oder
teilweise mündlich oder schriftlich zitiert, ohne Angabe der Autorin ganz oder teilweise in Auszügen
abgeschrieben, fotokopiert, in elektronische Systeme gespeichert oder in sonstiger Weise vervielfältigt
werden. Kopien oder Abschriften ohne Angabe der Autorin stellen nicht genehmigte Vervielfältigung,
Wiedergabe und Verwertung außerhalb der Bestimmung des Urheberrechts dar und werden
gerichtlich verfolgt.
18