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1. Weimar Republic
Emergence of the Democratic Republic and the impact of the Treaty of Versailles
November Revolution
 triggered by a mutiny in the navy  spread to Kiel where sailors were joined by soldiers  wanted
democracy
 9th November  announced the Kaiser had abdicated and a National Assembly was to be elected, to draw
up a democratic constitution
 the Chancellorship was handed to Ebert, head of the SPD  called for elections for the Assembly 19th Jan
1919
 the National Assembly was by the majority a moderate govt.  democracy and republic were popular
 The Weimar Republic’s democratic constitution 
 republic and parliamentary democracy
 federation of states rather than centralized government
 strong executive power with a president, acting as a balance against complete parliamentary rule
 proportional representation  later blamed for collapse of democracy  encouraged splinter
parties, difficult to form strong governments
 article 48  president’s power to disband the Reichstag and rule by decree
 Ebert-Groener Pact  In return for maintaining military order, Groener allowed the army to be at the
govt’s disposal
 short term  RW army leadership supported a moderate LW socialist govt
 long term  the G army maintained its influence to be a political force
 Stinnes-Legien Agreement, Nov 1918  agreement between Industrialists and trade unions 
maintained order and stability
 Friekorps  ex-soldiers to counter LW attacks
 Spartacist Uprising Jan 1919  Extreme LW wanted revolution like the Russians
 urged a counter revolution on the Ebert govt
 govt used Friekorps and army to ensure its survival
 caused a rift between SPD and communists  Comm. would never forgive Evert for using the
Friekorps
 divisions within LW  rise of RW in 1930s
Impact of the Treaty of Versailles
 the results of WWI came as a shock to most Germans
 harshness of the TOV upset the German peoples
 Gs thought it was unjust  hatred of democracy  decline of democratic parties in 1920 elections
 Gs thought it was a diktat or imposed peace  bitterness
 Weimar coalition never again received the majority of the vote  Weimar weakened as they were
associated with the Treaty
 Terms of the Treaty
 Military  G army reduced, conscription abolished, armaments forbidden; Rhineland
demilitarised
 territorial  Alsace-Lorraine returned, lost Posen, Anschluss with Austria forbidden, lost
territories
 reparations
 ‘War guilt clause’
 Effects of TOV
 bitterness and humiliation  republic and democracy blamed
 Extremists used this to attack Weimar
 weakening of faith in democratic system
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economic effects  instability  TOV weakened Gs ability to pay reparations
TOV failed to destroy G or make G the Allies partner
Political, economic and social issues in the Weimar Republic to 1929
Political
 Kapp Putsch 1920
 extreme RW attempted to overthrow govt
 govt expected army to protect them  army leader refused to intervene
 putsch failed  general strike  legal govt installed
 putsch highlighted the weakness of the govt without the army
 Rathenau and Erzberger assassinated  ‘November criminals’
 Role of the G army
 the army only tolerated the Weimar Republic as they feared disorder
 Kapp Putsch revealed the importance of army in politics
 1920s  von Seeckt’s reforms violated the TOV
 1923: Year of hardship
 govt faced political challenges from RW and LW
 end of passive resistance  nationalist anger in Bavaria
 LW challenges to the authority of govt
 Munich Beerhall Putsch  Hitler began putsch because of Bavaria’s wavering opposition to
Stresemann govt  failed as von Kahr was backed by army leniency of Hitler’s trial revealed
attitude of judiciary
 importance of the Putsch to Nazi movement  H learnt power had to be achieved through
legality; publicity  increased following; needed support of the army
 1924 – 1928: Relative economic and political Stability
 Locarno Treaty 1925  G and France to never fight a war again
 League of Nations 1926  acceptance of G into international community
 Evans  the apparent political stability was a mirage: “the political situation was looking
extremely fragile”
 btwn 1924 -28 six govts were replaced
 1925 elections  Hindenburg elected President  many G’s were impressed with RW
 the unemployed looked to extremes  LW or RW
 Stresemann’s foreign policy  aimed to reinstate G in world affairs  Treaty of Locarno and league of
Nations
 signs treaty of Berlin with USSR  good for G
Economic
 1923
 weak economy  falling behind in reparations  French occupation in Ruhr  Passive
resistance
 hyperinflation  collapse of G economy
 those most affected were the middle class
 Stresemann called off passive resistance & stabilised currency  focus now on inflation
 democratic govt lost credibility  workers more open to LW
 fall of Stresemann govt
 Economic recovery 1924-29
 ‘good years’
 calm and stability
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Stresemann
The Dawes Plan 1924
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 reduce reparations
 economic alliance with US  loan to pay reparations
 Stabilised economy  factories built, unemployment dropped, public transport est.
 reliance on US loans
 nationalists believed the govt had sold out  March 1924 elections  increased numbers
The Enabling Act 1933
 govt emergency powers with Article 48  currency reforms  Rentenmark
 balanced budget, new taxes, expenditure cut  ended hyperinflation and stabilised currency
Young Plan 1929
 reduced final reparations
 to be paid to 1988
Weaknesses of the economy
dependence on foreign loans
high unemployment
economic power in the hands of industrialists
agriculture depressed  support for Nazis
Social
 Welfare state
 SPD supported welfare  support from working class
 trade unions, pensions set up
 1927  ‘Unemployment Insurance Act’  funds exhausted quickly when Depression hit
 1929  Weimar Republic lost support when taxes rose to support welfare  turn to RW
 women were granted a new freedom  full equality, right to vote
 Berlin became the ‘New Paris’
 Johnson  outpouring of cultural expression was resultant from 19th century  political system and
class divisions which restrained culture
 new constitution  tolerant
 Kolb  Gs were unaccepting of cultural freedom and less accepting of democracy
Collapse of the Weimar Republic 1929 – 1933
Weaknesses of Weimar
 Revolutionary Origins
 Political not social revolution
 SPD feared Communism more than RW  Ebert-Groener Pact
 political violence a feature of republic
 Constitutional weaknesses
 highly democratic  lack of democratic tradition
 proportional rep  no majority, weaker coalitions, parties rep interest groups not national interest
 presidential power
 Article 48  in built authoritarian element
 used increasingly after 1929
 extent of powers in the states  central govt not clearly defined
 Republic connected with defeat and TOV
 democracy seen by many as imposed on by the allies
 republic responsible for signing TOV  November Criminals
 Structuralists  doomed to fail, problems in the constitution and weakness in economy
 intentionalists  weaknesses but not doomed
Economic instability
 democracy was weakened by economic challenges
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 reparations
 occupation of Ruhr
 Depression
 high interest rates
 German industry relied on foreign money
 start of depression  nationalists felt Weimar had betrayed them  1929 -1933 support for democracy
diminished
 the right wing of politics and the govt’s opponents did not support democracy, so when economic crisis
hit conservatives deserted democracy
 collapse of democracy not inevitable  if the depression hadn’t been so long and severe the Republic
may have survived
 conservative opponents  army, big business, Junkers, key state agencies eg civil service and education
system
 democracy imposed
 Weimar’s compliance with war guilt, and TOV
 Weimar didn’t bring them into order  RW military groups not controlled
Impact of depression
 economic crisis led to political
 Bruning’s economic policy drove into deeper depression
 psychological disillusionment  extreme politics
 Hitler and Nazis were opportunists
 conservative elites manipulated to get Hitler into power
End of democracy
 1929 Stresemann died
 unemployment insurance scheme expensive
 Muller and SPD wanted to raise taxes  Hindenburg refused, Muller resigned
 Hindenburg was surrounded by trusted advisors
 General von Schleicher
 Oskar Hindenburg
 Otto Meissner
 Bruning as the next chancellor ruled using emergency powers  end of democracy
 democratic parliamentary government came to an end
September 1930 – Reichstag election
 Bruning had to rely on Article 48  Reichstag dissolved and elections called
 polarization
 rise in extremes
 fall in SPD’s popularity
 Reichstag more difficult
March 1932 – Presidential election
 Hindenburg’s presidency came to an end
 Hindenburg gained majority
 Bruning moved against Nazi gangs, banning SA
Fall of Bruning
 seen as a failure in dealing with severity of depression
 failed to end reparations
 Franz von Papen appointed new chancellor
Death of the Republic
 ended ban on SA
 dismissed socialist govt in Prussia  Nazi approval
 1932 elections  Nazis had not enough numbers to form a government
 July elections  failure to gain chancellorship  left-wing of his party gained greater influence 
alienation of voters
 popularity was lessening
 Schleicher moves to have Papen removed  failed to end depression
 Schleicher appointed German Chancellor in December 1932
 von Papen created a deal with Hitler
 Schleicher tried to nationalize East Prussian estates like Bruning  removed from power
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 advisors around convinced Hindenburg to put Hitler as Chancellor
Reasons for the Republic’s demise
 Weimar finished before Hitler’s electoral victory
 result of the military and economically powerful right which wanted an authoritarian state
 Oppositions from within  antidemocratic forces
 disillusionment with democracy
 great depression
 appeal of Nazism
o Junkers supported Hitler  despised democracy
o industrialists offered financial support  Nazis would resist LW
o Militarists favored Hitler
o support of peasants
o young people supported Nazism
Impact of the Great Depression
Causes of the Great Depression
 prosperity of 1920s based on foreign loans
 welfare, low taxes, loans  slow production and rise in unemployment
 1929 unemployment 1.5 million – 3 million
 New York stock exchange fell in October 1929  US banks recalled short term loans  economic
collapse
Social impact of the Great Depression
 unemployment rose 1929-1933 to 6 million, 33% of workforce
 physical and mental health  malnutrition
 unemployment and deprivation  racial antagonism  blamed gypsies and Jews
 working class men faced women competition
 calls for women to return to traditional roles
 1932  govt passed a law to ban married women if their husbands were employed
 psychological disillusionment  rise of the Nazi party
Governmental response
 cut spending
 increased tax
 worsened  took money out of economy  decline in spending production unemployment
 1931  Bruning negotiated one year moratorium on reparations
 Bruning’s emergency rule  relied on right
 harsh measures worsened impact of depression
 wage and salary cuts
 lowering of prices
 cuts in spending and welfare payments
 tax increase
 measures to safeguard economy and public finances
 Keynesian theory  needed to lower taxes and increase expenditure
 banking crisis  take out all money, credit controls
Political effects
 depression led to political instability
 four elections 1928 – 1932
 rise in extremes
 DNVP, SPD fell
 KPD, NSDAP rose
Historian’s perspectives
 Shirer  depression did not cause the collapse of the republic
 it gave Hitler the opportunity to take advantage
 “when the masses were unemployed, hungry and desperate…[he would] transform…into
immediate political support for his own ambitions”
 Childs  sever economic effect of the depression on industry
 economic fears developed into political fears
 Evans  depression had a major impact on middle class
 unemployment levels increased
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Hitler gained the support of this group
2. The Rise of the Nazi Party
Rise of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) From 1923
The formation of the Nazi party
 Nazi party’s aims
 revise TOV
 Citizenship to only those of German blood and not to Jews
 destruction of Communism
 Mein Kampf 
 German people united and strengthening of Aryans as a master race
 annihilation of sub humans, Jews
 complete faith in leader through the leadership principle Fuhrer Prinzip  required mass
supporters
 surrender of individual to community
 German expansion  Lebensraum
 racially pure  Volksgemeinschaft
 support for National socialism
 unfocused ideology  benefit
 rural support  agrarian reforms
 unemployment  relief
 army  rearmament
 industrialists and business  Nazis opposed communism
 young people  a better Germany
 nationalists  Germany’s greatness would be restored
 middle class  Nazis promoted middle-class values stability, order, security
Hitler’s accession to power
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political instability  LW and RW refused to cooperate
only Stresemann prevented the DVP from mobbing to the right
conservative elites didn’t accept republicanism
 November revolution failed  anti democratic areas in judiciary and bureaucracy
 army never loyal to the republic
 Hindenburg was surrounded by anti-Democratic advisors
Economic crisis
 the economic crisis led to the appointment of Bruning in September 1930
 Bruning did not win a majority and so had to rely on Article 48
 A48 was used to enact a deflationary policy which actually worsened the depression
 1932  Hitler went into opposition with Hindenburg for the Presidency but failed
 May 1932  von Papen took over from Bruning who had failed
 July 1932  the Nazis gained 230 seats
 political polarization  Nazi’s popularity grew and KPD’s increased
 Hindenburg refused to make Hitler chancellor despite him having the largest party
 November 1932  Nazi vote fell and the KPD grew
 Papen was removed in December and replaced by Schleicher
 Schleicher wanted a RW coalition with the Nazis
 Hitler became Chancellor and von Papen vice-chancellor January 1933
 Hitler’s cabinet had only 3 Nazis + lack of majority in the cabinet
Reasons for Hitler’s success
 AJP Taylor  “the depression put the win in Hitler’s sails”
 economic suffering and unemployment
 democracy became discredited with the failure of the Weimar political system
 Nazis stayed in the legal system
 divisions in the left  didn’t see the danger of RW
 Broad appeal
 Junkers and landed gentry supported Hitler  autocracy was preferable
 Industrialists backed  anti-Communist
 militarists  promised strengthened army
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 peasants  redistributed land, end debt
 young people  exciting and radical  September 1930 elections 18-30 were highest %
 the Republic lacked a majority of popular support
 polarization of Weimar politics
 middle class  SOD blamed for TOV
Reactions to the Nazi’s success
 Hitler’s appointment was met with great enthusiasm  torch-lit parade, demonstrations of support
 Nazi’s political opponents did nothing
 the LW were still divided by the Spartacist uprising
 the Police force were very co-operative
 University academics appealed for Germans to vote for the Nazis
 10 May  Uni students and Goebbels burnt un-German books like ‘All quiet on the Western Front’
 June 1  Catholic Bishops welcomed the new regime
 12 November  Catholic Bishops issued a statement approving the regime
 February 3 1933  Hitler had to win the support of the army  delivered an address
 remove Marxism
 enlarging the army
 called for General’s support for commitment
Initial consolidation of Nazi power 1933 -1934
Reichstag fire
 February 1933  Dutch anarchist burnt down the Reichstag building
 communists were blamed
 emergency decree  ‘Reichstag Fire Decree’ enforced
 gave govt the power to restrict liberty
 free expression
 freedom of press
 association
 letter openings
 Nazis had power to deal with political opposition
 remained in duration throughout Nazi rule
The Enabling Act 1933
 March
 The Act allowed new laws to bypass the Reichstag
 gave the governing coalition the authority to pass laws
 the Nazis appeared to be acting legally
 Nazism exploited democracy to destroy it
Outlawing political opposition
 June – July 1933  all political parties banned
 Hitler gave the ultimate leadership role
Gleichschaltung
 February – July 1933  German institutions conformed to Nazi principles
 closing down of independent organizations
 rush to join Nazi party
 radio  it was used to influence people
 March 1933 elections  Goebbels moved to ban all stations but Nazis
 banned SPD, communists, trade unions
 no effective opposition
 Jews were banned from the civil service
 legal appointments were controlled by Nazis
 November elections  Nazis were the only political party and so won
30 June 1934: Night of the Long Knives
 Hitler needed to gain the support of the army
 army leaders were concerned with Rohm’s organization to replace the army
 Himmler of the SS organized an attack on SA leadership
 the army believed that Hitler had dealt effectively with the radicals
 troops swore loyalty to Hitler on 2 August 1934
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Hitler could combine Presidency and chancellorship
the army got a firm political leadership and the opportunity to expand
Hitler gained the backing of the army  under his control
the violence with which he worked was approved of by the public  they saw it as firm and decisive
leadership
 Fuhrer’s decision to uphold law and order
Hitler revealed a strong determination
Hitler abandoned any commitment to the socialist aspects of Nazism
3. Nazism in Power
Hitler’s role in the Nazi state
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Mommsen  Hitler was indecisive
 influenced by his entourage
 weak dictator
 Rich  Hitler was the mastermind of the Third Reich
 Hitler wasn’t interested in the state
 delayed making decisions
 dislike paperwork
 lazy
 post 1938  cabinet ceased to meet effectively
 Hitler mistrusted the public service  nazification of bureaucracy through the SS
 1933  SS has administrative structures to replace the departments ‘incapable of political
tasks’
 Himmler still found it hard to exercise complete authority
Fuhrerprinzip
 authoritarian leadership  Hitler along would lead  end the democratic weaknesses
 absolute obedience to Hitler
 exclusion of non Germans who would pollute and undermine the German nation
 Hitler determined the ideology  Mein Kampf
 Fuhrer made the final decision
 Social Darwinist approach to administration  overlapping sectors meant people had to compete to
assert themselves
 German Labour Front overlapped with the Ministry of Labour
 ‘working towards the Führer’
 1933  Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda led by Goebbels  Hitler was more myth
than man
 Goebbels associated Hitler with Germany’s economic and national recovery  unemployment
fell, wages grew, agricultural prices improved, TOV ignored
 after Hitler became Chancellor he was seen as a saint
 1936  international statesman – remilitarization of the Rhineland
 Hitler unified the German peoples
 Kershaw  Hitler’s impact resultant from Goebbels propaganda
 Hitler was nationalistic, abhorred communism, anti-Semitic
Nazism as totalitarianism
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Totalitarianism is the government’s control of everything
the term came about in the 1940s-50s  those in the west argued that there were extreme similarities
between Hitler and Stalin
 if there were clear links between the two then this would be a propaganda victory for the west
 communists argued that Nazism was an extension of capitalism
 the USSR’s role in eradicating the evil of Nazism would be celebrated
Totalitarian criteria
 single party led by a charismatic dictator
 Hitler went unopposed in his leadership
 this was due to a lack of opposition post the Night of the Long Knives
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Fuhrerprinzip  Goebbels propaganda campaign was to build up Hitler as something of a myth,
sacrificing his own well-being for the betterment of the country
 party ideology
 based upon the 25 points
 Mein Kampf
 eradication of the Treaty of Versailles
 volksgemeinschaft
 lebensraum
 Grossdeutschland
 supremacy of the Aryan race
 Nazi ideology was the basis of all considerations  seen in foreign policy
 Mein Kampf was found everywhere, in church pews
 Hitler was deified  propaganda campaigns, almost worshipped
 state terrorism employed to maintain control
 Gestapo answered only to Hitler
 SS and SA under Hitler’s control
 oath of allegiance by the army to Hitler
 Hitler uses these organizations to spread fear  the SA, SS, Gestapo
 people believed in Hitler  they accepted the night of the long knives  this made them
reluctant to rebel
 concentration camps instigated 1934
 party control of the media
 Goebbels was appointed Minister for Propaganda and Enlightenment  control over the radio,
newspapers, film etc
 education was brought under Nazi control
 Nazi control over institutions
 Gleichschaltung  elements of German life were to be brought under control
 HJ
 Reich Chamber of cultures
 party intrusion into everyday life
 Nuremberg laws  forbade Aryans to marry or have relations with Jews
 people forced into the Hitler youth in 1936
 pressures placed on women  Kinder, kirche, kuche, medals for women
 Nazism used persuasion and violence
 propaganda and terror were two elements of the Nazi state
 Goebbels  “a sharp sword must always stand behind propaganda for it to be truly effective”
 Overy  Hitler had totalitarian aspirations
 believes that the Nazi’s infiltration into everyday life meant that people were controlled
 excessive use of propaganda
 Burleigh  Hitler’s regime used propaganda, ideology and terror to control people
 “invasive character of this form of politics”
Countering totalitarianism
 the huge bureaucracy of Nazism meant that it as often chaotic and confused  Himmler, Goebbels and
Goring created individual institutions  ‘polyocracy’
 Hitler sometimes had to work with the bureaucracy and army  not fully under his control
 Nazis did not nationalize all industries
 evidence of other non-Nazi groups  swing youth, edelweiss pirates etc
 Confessional church established in 1936
 Hitler had a ‘hands off’ approach to leadership contrasting with Stalin  Nazi propaganda played up the
Hitler myth he was still seen as standing above Nazi policy
 the government was inefficient  factionalized, personal rivalries  limited the totalitarianism
 in the early years of the Third Reich the government was not totalitarianism  it contained elements and
later moved towards it
 Kershaw  totalitarianism limits the nature of the Nazi regime
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The role of propaganda, terror and repression; SA and SS; opposition to Nazism
Propaganda
 March 1933 Hitler set up the Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda led by Goebbels
 controlled newspapers, radio and film
 Reich Chamber of Culture  controlled music, theatre, writing, art, architecture and literature
 1936 Olympics provided Goebbels with the chance to stage a propaganda show
 Goebbels followed a number of rules:
1. stereotypes
2. creation of scapegoats
3. repetition
4. simple messages
5. ‘the bigger the lie, the better’
 Press 
 Editorial Law of Oct 1933  newspaper editors had to follow government policy
 all journalists had to be registered and become employees of the state
 independent news agencies abolished
 all news stories in Germany were issues through the German News Bureau
 displeasing newspapers were shut down
 Radio
 most important medium for propaganda
 the state provided Germans with radios
 Hitler’s speeches and rallies were broadcast on the radio
 communal listening was encouraged
 Cinema 
 Goebbels believed this to be a powerful influential vehicle
 the film industry was heavily monitored by Propaganda ministry
 Goebbels believed that the best way of subjecting German people to propaganda was to be
entertaining, but still have a message
 Hitler was promoted in films and newsreels  image as a man who sacrificed himself for the
nation
 films helped to perpetuate the Hitler myth
 Rallies 
 a large feature in Nazi Germany
 Hitler was able to understand the public’s feelings and thus manipulate them
 annual party rallies at Nuremburg  got up to 400 000 people attending
 Literature 
 restrictions on books
 Nazis established public libraries with books approved of by the regime
 censorship
 May 1933  burning of un-German books
 Art and architecture 
 Hitler had an interest in architecture
 return to classic Greek and Roman lines
 Reich Chancellery in Berlin established
 House of German Art in Munich
 complex at Nuremberg for rallies
 these buildings suggested strength
 modern art was frowned upon
 paintings unacceptable to the regime were burnt
 art focused on expressing the National Socialist ideology and Volk
 Music 
 classical styles dominated  Wagner and Beethoven
 Jazz and Jewish music was banned
Terror and repression
 Nazis did not hide their use of terror
 it was accepted by the peoples
 Himmler gained control over police services by 1936 and created a centralized police system
 concentration camps were run brutally
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 gypsies, homosexuals, Jehovah’s witnesses placed in camps
 it was only from the 1930s that camps were for dealing with Jews
 by 1939 there were six camp complexes
 judicial system brought under Nazi control
 People believed they were constantly being monitored
 spot checks were used to keep the population guessing
 activities were publiscised  terror was more effective if it was seen
 Block wardens  reported neighbourhood activities
 Nazi justice 
 suspects under ‘protective arrest’  imprisoned without trial
 death penalties increased
 1934  People’s court established to try treason cases
 March 1933  Special courts to deal with ‘political crimes’  never a fair trial
 judges were appointed by the Nazi party
The SA and SS
 Before 1933  violence was used by SA
 the SA ran the concentration camps
 After the night o the long knives  only violence against political and racial enemies
 the SS gained independence in 1930 and increased their power after the Night of the Long Knives
 took over concentration camps in 1936
 by 1935 they had 200 000 members
 members had to have a racially pure background
 proved their loyalty by eliminating Rohm and the SA
 network of secret agents and informers  spied on colleagues, neighbours etc
 the SS was responsible only to Hitler  independently acted of the law
 Gestapo Geheimestaatspolizei  secret state police
 established by Goering in 1933
 removed any opposition
 people believed they were everywhere, and this kept them in line
Opposition to Nazism
 German resistance  Widerstand
 hiding Jewish people
 printing literature
 clandestine resistance by the LW
 Hoffmann  46 attempts on Hitler’s life
 faced little opposition after the consolidation of power in 1934
 German people accepted their rule as a betterment of Germany or openly supported
 Gestapo records  discontent
 there was little political dissent  Gleichschaltung
 left wing were ineffectual
 right wing supported the Nazis  pleased to see the destruction of communists
 Business owners and the army supported the Nazis
 Centre Party ended in July 1933
 Youth opposition was limited
Socialists and Communists
 post 1935  secret LW groups built cells over areas
 Eilbeck Comrades
 Rote Kapelle – Red Orchestra  part of a European communist spy network  Abwehr
uncovered it in 1942
SA
 Rohm believed the army should be subordinate to the SA
 ‘second revolution’ among SA leaders  people still wanted the ‘socialist’ aspect of Nazism to take place
 Himmler, Goebbels & Goring produced fictitious evidence of an SA plot to depose Hitler  Night of the
Long Knives
 Rohm murdered
 dissident SA leaders and rivals including von Schleicher and Kurt bon Bredow
Swing Youth 
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 middle class
 American jazz
 grew hair and copied English fashion
 non-political
White rose group 
 based at Munich University
 spread anti-Nazi propaganda
 caught and executed 1943
Edelweiss Pirates 
 attacked HJ
 in war became part of the anti-Nazi stance
Military
 small number of German senior officers plotted to remove Hitler
 of the Prussian officer class  concerned about the moral destruction of domestic policy and adventurous
foreign policy
 Czech crisis September 1938  General Halder would arrest Hitler if he invaded Czech.
 Generals Witzleben, Count Brockdorff-Ahlefeldt & Hoepner promised support
 they visited Britain but were ignored
Conservative and elite
 Hitler based his popularity on the masses not the elite
 conservatives politically threatened Hitler
 German resistance found in diplomatic service, the army and administration  civil servants, senior
military officers, international diplomats, jurists, intellectuals and ‘men of letters’
 Mommsen  believes that greed and the need for power as well as obedience and fear prevented a defeat
of Hitler
 Turner & Geary
 Industrialists approved of the destruction of the LW & trade unions
 businesses wanted to avert civil war & prevent communist revolution  they accepted Nazi
government
 army thought they could work in partnership with Hitler and the Nazis
 Kreisau Circle  Circle believed that National Socialism had culminated from a faulty line of
development in Western history
 formed by former mayor of Leipzig Goerdeler  in touch with former and current officials in
foreign ministry & army command
 Colonel von Stauffenberg was a member of the circle  masterminded the July 1944 bomb plot
to kill Hitler at the Wolf lair - Wolfschanze
 failed to order anti-Nazi activists into action
Why was opposition to Nazism ineffective?
 Gleichschaltung eliminated political dissent and opposition
 effect of ‘Night of the Long Knives’  army on side, people understood terror
 effectiveness of Goebbels’ propaganda  Fuhrer myth
 Nazis were popular with their domestic policies
 effective use of terror and repression
Social and Cultural life in the Nazi state
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Volksgemeinschaft  united Aryan community for the good of the fatherland
 national unity
 racially pure Germans
 submission of all Germans to the will of the Nazi state
 all cultural expression were to be Nazi ideals
Role of the Hitler Youth
 political indoctrination into the Nazi regime
 under the control of the SA
 appeal of the HJ  Pinson points out a ‘Revolutionary Conservatism’
 youth’s search for attachment to community and leadership
 the Nazis realized the power that the youth could have if they were indoctrinated
 the Third Reich had to win the loyalty of the next generation
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1936  law passed that made the HJ compulsory for boys and girls 10-18
physical fitness emphasized  boys trained to be future soldiers
girls taught that they were to have many children
1937  90% of German youths in the HJ
HJ  belonging to the community + propaganda made young people think that by being part of HJ they
were helping the community
 HJ  discipline and conformity  uniforms and meant that there was no distinction between rich and
poor
 compulsory attendance  youth was controlled by the Nazis
 hatred of the Jews
 parental control was weakened
 education under Nazi control
 teachers encouraged to join Nazi party
 Jews driven out
 academia became Aryanised  emphasis on German physics
 history rewritten to glorify the past
Women
 women were excluded from political life  women only made 6% of party membership
 married women faced discrimination in the workforce  800 000 women left the workforce between
1933 and 1935
 women faced work restrictions  couldn’t practice law or go to uni
 “Kinder, Kirche, Kuche”  ‘children, church, kitchen’
 women couldn’t wear makeup, smoke and were encouraged to be plump
 Law for the Promotion of Marriages 1934  loans given if wife gave up their job
 ¼ of the loan was cancelled on the birth of a child
 incentives for large families  Gold mother’s cross
 population increase of 3 million 1930 – 1939
 family life began to break down as divorce became easier with racial incompatibility
Workplace
 trade unions abolished in 1933
 all workers had to join the German Labor Front  lower wages, increased hours, lost the right to strike
 labour directed with the 1938 Decree on the Duty of Service
 1939  labor shortage
 Nazis had to loyalty of workers  Bureau of the Beauty of Labor
 improved working conditions
 new canteens and facilities
 strength through joy movement  leisure for workers
 theatre and cheap holidays
Religion
 Hitler thought Christianity as weak and Jewish-inspired
Roman Catholic Church
 July 1933  Hitler signed a concordat with the Vatican to safeguard German Catholics if the Catholics
stayed out of politics
 however the Nazis violated the concordat and persecuted catholic organizations  dissolution of
the Catholic Centre Party
 1937  Pope Pius XI condemned the Nazi persecution of the Catholic church
The Protestant Church
 Hitler wanted to unify the Protestant churches into the Evangelical Reich Church  caused divisions
within the Protestants
 some formed break away churches in response to Hitler’s undermining of the Christian faith
 the Confessing Church was formed to fight Nazi influence  many were sent to concentration camps or
fled
Why Nazism was popular
 by 1937 the depression was over
 there were labour shortages
 success of foreign policy  pride in the German people
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Nazi racial policy; anti-Semitism: policy and practice to 1939
Racial Policy
 falling birth rate was of concern to the Nazis
 1933  Marriage Loan Scheme – money for furniture
 debt was cancelled on the birth of the 4th child
 families with large amounts of children – Kinderreich - received discounts
 Eugenics
 1933  Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Progeny
 300 000+ Germans sterilized
 Euthanasia
 September 1939  ‘mercy killing’ of those unworthy
 T4
 killed 140 000+
 use of gas for mass killings
 create a racially pure Volksgemeinschaft
Anti-Semitism
 Jews = volksfiend
 number of Jewish business reduced by 2/3 by 1938
 1933  boycott of Jewish businesses
 Jewish children removed from schools  ‘overcrowded’
 banned from working in public service
 banned from joining Reich Chamber of Culture
 1935  Reich Citizenship Law  only people of German blood would be citizens
 Nuremberg Laws  criminal offence the sexual relations between Jews and Germans
 The laws were carried out by the Gestapo who were outnumbered  reliance on the public
 All Jews dismissed form public service
 1938  retailers could not be operated by Jews
 Anschluss  Jews in Austria are subject to violence and discrimination
 June  1500 Jews in concentrations camps
 August  Jews forced to place Israel and Sarah to name
 Sept  Jewish doctors forbidden to treat non-Jewish
 9th – 10th Nov Kristallnacht  Nazi organized attacks on Jews
 1939 
 Jan  Hitler declares that if war comes it would involve Jewish destruction
 Sept  curfew
 invasion of Poland  Jews subject to discrimination
4. Nazi Foreign Policy
Nature of Nazi foreign policy: aims and strategies to September 1939
Nature
 At first Hitler proceeded with caution  needed to build u strength of his army without Allies becoming
suspicious
 1933-1935
 remilitarization  more aggressive
Aims
 get rid of the TOV
 unite all Germans  Grossdeutschland
 annexing Austria in Anschluss
 taking territory from Czechoslovakia and Poland
 lebensraum  living space
 eradicate untermenschen or sub-humans
 these would be achieved by rearmament
Strategies
 remilitarization 
 1934  Hitler doubled the army to 200 000
 1934 – signed a ten year non-aggression pact with Poland  Germany was supposedly peaceful
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 built battleships and trained pilots
 conscription in 1935  increased army to 550 000 men
1935 - Anglo-American navy treaty 
 violations of the Treaty was endorsed by the British in the treaty 1935
 Germany increased their navy to 35% of Britain’s
1936 - Occupation in the Rhineland
 March 1936 Hitler marched into the Rhineland
 TOV indicated that the area was to be demilitarized
 Hitler broke the treaty  sent 30 000 troops into the area
 GB and France didn’t want to go to war over the issue and the occupation was allowed
 Hitler was able to build a line of forts on the west wall  defense + strength of Hitler
1938 - Anschluss 
 1936  Germany made an agreement with Italy  ‘Rome-Berlin Axis’  Mussolini would not
interfere with Austria
 Feb 1938  Hitler pressured Austrian Chancellor von Schuschnigg into resigning
 replaced by leader of Austrian Nazi Party Seyss-Inquart
 Seyss-Inquart invited German troops to occupy the country
 15 March 1938  Hitler announced the formal union of Austria
 persecution of political opposition and Jews began
1938 - Sudetenland 
 area contained three million Germans
 1938  Hitler began convincing the German’s to rebel against the Czech authorities
 Nazi sympathizers stirred up trouble  Hitler used this as an excuse to invade
 September  Chamberlain intervened  he said that Sudetenland belonged to Germany
 policy of appeasement
 Munich conference  Chamberlain agreed to give Sudetenland to Germany
 March 1939  Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia  took non German territory
 Britain and France decided to abandon appeasement and guaranteed to defend Poland
1939 - Nazi-Soviet pact 
 Hitler turned his attention to Poland
 Germany needed to avoid fighting on two fronts and so needed to make a pact with USSR
 August 1939 pact with USSR  Hitler was free to invade the Polish corridor without worrying
about Russia
 Germany invaded Poland on September 1 1939
Impact of ideology
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Hitler’s ideas emanated from Mein Kampf
Lebensraum and Grossdeutschland 
 purpose of acquiring Sudetenland, Austria and eastern Europe was for the German people to
‘preserve their racial identity’
 To Hitler it was the German people’s destiny to take the rich lands of E Europe  Aryan
population to prosper
 German speaking areas Hitler annexed were to become part of Grossdeutschland
Herrenvolk and untermenschen
 Aryans had to be kept pure  expanding through Europe + overtaking inferior Slavs +
establishment of Germans as a master race
 foreign policy  lebensraum
TOV 
 Germans despised TOV
 Hitler sought to undo military restrictions  expanded army, reintroduced conscription and
signed Anglo-German Treaty
 recovery of territory lost in TOV was also important
 1933  withdrew from Disarmament conference and League of Nations
 remilitarization and rearmament  put an end to the TOV and the shame it brought upon the
nation
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